36
7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 1/36

US Marines and Irregular Warfare

Embed Size (px)

Citation preview

Page 1: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 1/36

Page 2: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 2/36

C o v e r :T o p P h o t o : S a n d i n o s c o l o r s c a p t u r e d a t O c o t a l ,

N i c a r a g u a . ( U S M C O f f i c i a l P h o t o . )

B o t t o m P h o t o : M a r i n e s a n d I r a q i P o l i c e d i s t r i b u t es c h o o l s u p p l i e s a n d t o y s t o I r a q i c h i l d r e n o u t s i d et h e F a l l u j a h C i v i l - M i l i t a r y O p e r a t i o n s C e n t e r , 2 8

J u n e 2 0 0 5 . ( P h o t o b y L t C o l D a v i d A . B e n h o f f ,U S M C R . )

Page 3: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 3/36

Page 4: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 4/36

Page 5: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 5/36

U . S . M A R I N E S A N D

I R R E G U L A R W A R F A R E ,1 8 9 8 - 2 0 0 7 :

A N T H O L O G Y A N D

S E L E C T E D B I B L I O G R A P H Y

C o m p i l e d b y

C o l o n e l S t e p h e n S . E v a n s

U . S . M a r i n e C o r p s R e s e r v e

M a r i n e C o r p s U n i v e r s i t y

U n i t e d S t a t e s M a r i n e C o r p s

Q u a n t i c o , V i r g i n i a

2 0 0 8

Page 6: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 6/36

P C N

1 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0

1 1

Page 7: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 7/36

F o r e w o r d

T h i s a n t h o l o g y p r e s e n t s a c o l l e c t i o n o f 2 7 a r t i c l e s o n c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y w a r f a r ea n d i n c l u d e s a b r o a d b i b l i o g r a p h y t h a t c o l l e c t i v e l y d e s c r i b e t h e r o l e p l a y e d b y t h eU n i t e d S t a t e s i n v a r i o u s c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y a n d i r r e g u l a r w a r f a r e e f f o r t s f r o m 1 8 9 8u n t i l 2 0 0 7 , w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r e m p h a s i s o n t h e r o l e o f t h e M a r i n e C o r p s i n t h e c o n d u c to f s u c h e f f o r t s . L i k e o t h e r p r e v i o u s l y p u b l i s h e d U S M C H i s t o r y D i v i s i o n a n t h o l o g i e so n e a r l i e r w a r s , t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s v o l u m e i s t o p r o v i d e r e a d e r s w i t h a g e n e r a lo v e r v i e w a n d i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e t o p i c o f c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y a n d i r r e g u l a r w a r f a r e .D e s i g n e d e s s e n t i a l l y a s a p r i m e r , t h i s v o l u m e i s i n t e n d e d t o s e r v e a s a n i n i t i a l e d u c a -t i o n a l r e s o u r c e t h a t p r o v i d e s M a r i n e o f f i c e r s a n d o t h e r n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y p r o f e s s i o n a l s

w i t h t h e h i s t o r i c a l b a s i s f o r m o d e r n - d a y U S M C c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y s t r a t e g y a n d o p e r -a t i o n a l d o c t r i n e .

U s i n g a b r o a d r a n g e o f h i s t o r i c a l a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y e x a m p l e s o f U . S . i n v o l v e m e n ti n c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y a n d i r r e g u l a r w a r f a r e , t h i s p a r t i c u l a r a n t h o l o g y h a s d r a w n i t sa r t i c l e s f r o m a n e q u a l l y w i d e r a n g e o f p u b l i s h e r s . A s s u c h , I w o u l d l i k e t o t h a n k t h ee d i t o r s o f t h e N a v a l I n s t i t u t e P r e s s , P a r a m e t e r s , M i l i t a r y R e v i e w , M a r i n e C o r p sG a z e t t e , S t r a t e g i c F o r u m , A e r o s p a c e P o w e r J o u r n a l , R e v i s t a / R e v i e w I n t e r a m e r i c a n a ,O r b i s , U S . N a v a l I n s t i t u t e P r o c e e d i n g s , H i s p a n i c A m e r i c a n H i s t o r i c a l R e v i e w , C e n t e r

f o r S t r a t e g i c a n d I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d i e s , W a s h i n g t o n Q u a r t e r l y , R o y a l U n i t e d S e r v i c e sI n s t i t u t e J o u r n a l , a n d F o r e i g n S e r v i c e J o u r n a l f o r p e r m i t t i n g t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e

a r t i c l e s t h a t c o m p r i s e t h i s v o l u m e . T h e i r v a l u e d s u p p o r t h a s m a d e t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h i sv o l u m e p o s s i b l e .

D r . C h a r l e s P . N e i m e y e r

D i r e c t o r o f M a r i n e C o r p s H i s t o r y

1 1 1

Page 8: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 8/36

Page 9: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 9/36

P r e f a c e

T h i s a n t h o l o g y j o i n s a g r o w i n g n u m b e r o f w o r k s w h o s e t o p i c i s c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c ya n d i r r e g u l a r w a r f a r e . C o n t i n u i n g d i s c u s s i o n a n d s t u d y o f t h e s e s u b j e c t s i s o f c r i t i c a li m p o r t a n c e t o t h e o n g o i n g e f f o r t s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d i t s a l l i e s i n t h e G l o b a l W a ro n T e r r o r i s m .

T h e 2 7 a r t i c l e s p r e s e n t e d h e r e , a s w e l l a s t h e w o r k s r e f e r e n c e d i n t h i s b o o k ' s" S e l e c t e d B i b l i o g r a p h y , " r e p r e s e n t o n l y a s m a l l f r a c t i o n o f t h e e n o r m o u s b o d y o f l i t -e r a t u r e w r i t t e n a b o u t t h e s e s u b j e c t s . E s p e c i a l l y s i n c e t h e t r a g i c e v e n t s o f 9 / 1 1 a n d t h ec o n s e q u e n t a d v e n t o f t h e G l o b a l W a r o n T e r r o r i s m , t h e r e h a s b e e n a r e m a r k a b l es u r g e o f i n t e r e s t i n c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y , r e f l e c t e d m o s t n o t a b l y i n t h e v e r y l a r g e n u m -

b e r o f r e c e n t a r t i c l e s , m o n o g r a p h s , s t u d i e s , a n d r e p o r t s t h a t a r e f o u n d i n a v a r i e t y o fh i g h l y d i v e r g e n t s o u r c e s . T h e s e r u n t h e a c a d e m i c g a m u t f r o m t r a d i t i o n a l m i l i t a r y ,g o v e r n m e n t , a n d u n i v e r s i t y s t u d i e s a n d p u b l i c a t i o n s t o t h o s e p r o d u c e d b y a h o s t o ft h i n k t a n k a n d n o n g o v e r n m e n t a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . T h e a r t i c l e s s e l e c t e d f o r i n c l u s i o n i nt h i s a n t h o l o g y a l l h e l p t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e c o m p l e x i t y i n v o l v e d i n c o n d u c t i n g c o u n t e r i n -s u r g e n c y a n d i r r e g u l a r w a r e f f o r t s , b o t h h i s t o r i c a l l y a n d i n t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y G l o b a l

W a r o n T e r r o r i s m .

T h e a n t h o l o g y i s d i v i d e d b r o a d l y i n t o t w o h a l v e s : t h e f i r s t h a l f p r e s e n t s h i s t o r i c a le x a m p l e s o f c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y i n v o l v i n g t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , w h i l e t h e s e c o n d h a l f

a d d r e s s e s t h e n a t i o n ' s c o n t e m p o r a r y e f f o r t s i n t h i s r e g a r d . P a r t O n e c o n t a i n s t h r e ea r t i c l e s o n c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y d o c t r i n e a n d t h e o r y . P a r t s T w o t h r o u g h S i x p r e s e n t a r t i -c l e s a b o u t h i s t o r i c a l c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y e f f o r t s b y t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , w i t h p a r t i c u l a re m p h a s i s o n t h e r o l e p l a y e d b y t h e M a r i n e C o r p s . S p e c i f i c a l l y , P a r t T w o r e c o u n t s t h eU n i t e d S t a t e s ' f i r s t t a s t e o f f i g h t i n g a p r o l o n g e d , o v e r s e a s c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y — t h eP h i l i p p i n e I n s u r r e c t i o n . T h e e x p e r i e n c e g a i n e d i n t h i s c o n f l i c t s o o n c a m e t o b ee m p l o y e d o n n u m e r o u s o c c a s i o n s a n d a t v a r i o u s l o c a t i o n s i n t h e C a r i b b e a n d u r i n gt h e c o u r s e o f t h e " B a n a n a W a r s " ; m o s t p r o m i n e n t l y i n t h e l o n g - t e r m m i l i t a r y o c c u p a -t i o n s o f N i c a r a g u a ( P a r t T h r e e ) , H a i t i ( P a r t F o u r ) , a n d t h e D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c ( P a r tF i v e ) . B e c a u s e o f i t s a l l - t o o - f r e q u e n t i n v o l v e m e n t i n a r a n g e o f c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c ye f f o r t s , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n g e n e r a l , a n d t h e M a r i n e C o r p s i n p a r t i c u l a r , b e c a m e q u i t ep r o f i c i e n t i n c o n d u c t i n g a v a r i e t y o f c i v i l a n d m i l i t a r y c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y o p e r a t i o n s .

I n f a c t , m a n y o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e s a n d l e s s o n s g a r n e r e d f r o m t h e P h i l i p p i n e s a n d t h eB a n a n a W a r s e v e n t u a l l y c a m e t o b e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o o n e o f t h e M a r i n e C o r p s ' s e m -i n a l p u b l i c a t i o n s — t h e S m a l l W a r s M a n u a l — i n 1 9 4 0 . R e g r e t t a b l y , s o m e o f t h e s e l e s -s o n s h a d t o b e r e l e a r n e d f o r A m e r i c a ' s i n v o l v e m e n t i n V i e t n a m ( P a r t S i x ) .

A f t e r a 3 0 - y e a r h i a t u s , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o n c e a g a i n f i n d s i t s e l f e n g a g e d i n s e v e r a lp r o l o n g e d c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c i e s a n d a n u m b e r o f r e l a t e d c o u n t e r t e r r o r i s m e f f o r t s , a l lp a r t o f t h e o n g o i n g , o v e r a r c h i n g G l o b a l W a r o n T e r r o r i s m ( P a r t S e v e n ) . T h e p r i n c i -

V

Page 10: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 10/36

p a l — t h o u g h c e r t a i n l y n o t t h e e x c l u s i v e — f o c u s o f t h e s e c o n t e m p o r a r y c o u n t e r i n s u r -g e n c y a n d c o u n t e r t e r r o r i s m e f f o r t s i s o n a l - Q a e d a a n d o t h e r p r o p o n e n t s o f r a d i c a l

I s l a m i s t i d e o l o g i e s ( P a r t E i g h t ) . W h i l e t h e G l o b a l W a r o n T e r r o r i s m i s t r u l y g l o b a l i n

s c a l e , w i t h o p e r a t i o n s s t r e t c h i n g f r o m C o l u m b i a t o I n d o n e s i a a n d t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , t h em a i n b a t t l e f i e l d s a r e i n A f g h a n i s t a n ( P a r t N i n e ) , I r a q ( P a r t T e n ) , a n d t h e H o r n o fA f r i c a ( P a r t E l e v e n ) . C o m p a r e d w i t h A m e r i c a ' s c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y o p e r a t i o n s o f t h e

p r e v i o u s c e n t u r y , c o n t e m p o r a r y c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y a n d c o u n t e r t e r r o r i s m e f f o r t s a r ef a r m o r e l i k e l y t o b e m u l t i n a t i o n a l , j o i n t - s e r v i c e , i n t e r a g e n c y a f f a i r s t h a t a r e c o r r e -

s p o n d i n g l y f a r m o r e d i f f i c u l t t o p l a n a n d t o c o o r d i n a t e s u c c e s s f u l l y .A l t h o u g h f u r t h e r d e t a i l s c a n b e f o u n d i n t h e i n i t i a l s e c t i o n o f t h e v o l u m e ' s " S e l e c t e d

B i b l i o g r a p h y , " s e v e r a l t h i n g s s h o u l d b e n o t e d h e r e i n r e g a r d t o t h e r a t i o n a l e a n dd e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e b i b l i o g r a p h y . F i r s t , l i k e t h e a n t h o l o g y i t s e l f , t h e b i b l i o g r a p h i ce n t r i e s d e a l w i t h t o p i c s c o n c e r n i n g c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y a n d i r r e g u l a r w a r f a r e i n v o l v -i n g o n l y t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ; t h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f E u r o p e a n n a t i o n s , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n ,

a n d o t h e r s a r e l e f t l a r g e l y u n e x p l o r e d . B e y o n d t h i s , b e c a u s e i t i s i n t e n d e d p r i m a r i l ya s a n i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d e d u c a t i o n a l r e s o u r c e , t h e e n t r i e s c o m p r i s e E n g l i s h - l a n g u a g ea n d s e c o n d a r y s o u r c e s o n l y . L a s t l y , b e c a u s e t h e c u t o f f f o r r e s e a r c h f o r t h i s v o l u m e

w a s m i d - 2 0 0 7 , t h e i m p a c t o f t h e s u r g e i n I r a q i s n o t a d d r e s s e d . D e s p i t e t h e s e c o n -s t r a i n t s , t h e r e f e r e n c e s m a n a g e t o a d d r e s s a b r o a d r a n g e o f s u b j e c t s : o n h i g h e r - e n do p e r a t i o n a l / s t r a t e g i c l e v e l o f w a r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , o n g e o p o l i t i c a l c o n t e x t , a n d o n a

v a r i e d a r r a y o f r e l a t e d t o p i c s — p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y , h i s t o r i c a l c a s e s t u d i e s , f a i l e d s t a t e s ,c u l t u r a l s t u d i e s a n d a n a l y s i s , a n d m a n y o t h e r s — t h a t a l l p r o v i d e c o n t e x t o r p l a y a r o l ei n c o n d u c t i n g a c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y a n d a c h i e v i n g s u c c e s s i n t h e r e a l m o f i r r e g u l a r

w a r f a r e .

M y s i n c e r e t h a n k s t o D r . C h a r l e s N e i m e y e r , D i r e c t o r o f t h e M a r i n e C o r p s H i s t o r y

D i v i s i o n , f o r g r a n t i n g m e w i d e l a t i t u d e i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e s c o p e o f t h e p r o j e c t , i no r g a n i z i n g t h e t o p i c s t o b e a d d r e s s e d , i n s e l e c t i n g t h e a r t i c l e s t h a t w o u l d b e i n c l u d -e d i n t h e a n t h o l o g y , a n d i n c o m p i l i n g a n d s e l e c t i n g t h e b i b l i o g r a p h i c e n t r i e s . T h a n k sa l s o t o C a p t a i n C . C a m e r o n W i l s o n f o r r e s e a r c h i n g v a r i o u s p h o t o c o l l e c t i o n s a n dh e l p i n g t o s e l e c t t h e p h o t o g r a p h s c o n t a i n e d i n t h i s v o l u m e . M a j o r V a l e r i e J a c k s o n ' sE d i t i n g a n d D e s i g n s e c t i o n a t H i s t o r y D i v i s i o n , a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r W . S t e p h e n H i l l a n dG r e g M a c h e a k , w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t r a n s f o r m i n g a n e c l e c t i c a r r a y o f e l e c t r o n i c f i l e s ,p h o t o c o p i e s , a n d p h o t o g r a p h s i n t o a m a n a g e a b l e f o r m a t , A d d i t i o n a l g u i d a n c e a n da d v i c e w a s p r o v i d e d b y C o l o n e l P a t r i c i a S a i n t , D e p u t y D i r e c t o r , b y C h a r l e s D .

M e l s o n , C h i e f H i s t o r i a n , a n d b y K e n n e t h H . W i l l i a m s , S e n i o r E d i t o r . W a n d a J . R e n f r o w

a i d e d w i t h t h e e d i t i n g , a n d E m i l y D . F u n d e r b u r k e , a n E d i t i n g a n d D e s i g n i n t e r n ,h e l p e d r e - c r e a t e m a n y o f t h e g r a p h i c s f r o m t h e a r t i c l e s .

S t e p h e n S . E v a n s , P h DC o l o n e l , U . S . M a r i n e C o r p s R e s e r v e

v i

Page 11: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 11/36

T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s

F o r e w o r d

.i i i

P r e f a c e i v

P a r t l

C o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y D o c t r i n e a n d T h e o r y

I n s u r g e n c y : M o d e r n W a r f a r e E v o l v e s i n t o a F o u r t h G e n e r a t i o n

T h o m a s X . H a m m e s 1

B a c k t o t h e S t r e e t W i t h o u t J o y : C o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y L e s s o n s f r o m V i e t n a m a n d

O t h e r S m a l l W a r s

R o b e r t M . C a s s i d y 1 3

C o u n t e r i n g I r r e g u l a r T h r e a t s : A C o m p r e h e n s i v e A p p r o a c h

M a r i n e C o r p s C o m b a t D e v e l o p m e n t C o m m a n d 2 3

P a r t I I

P h i l i p p i n e I n s u r r e c t i o n , 1 8 9 9 — 1 9 0 2

L e s s o n s f r o m a S u c c e s s f u l C o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y : T h e P h i l i p p i n e s , 1 8 9 9 — 1 9 0 2

T i m o t h y K D e a d y 2 9

W e W i l l G o H e a v i l y A r m e d : T h e M a r i n e s ' S m a l l W a r o n S a m a r , 1 9 0 1 — 1 9 0 2

B r i a n M c A l l i s t e r L i n n 4 1

P a r t I I I

N i c a r a g u a , 1 9 0 9 — 1 9 3 3

A i r p o w e r a n d R e s t r a i n t i n S m a l l W a r s : M a r i n e C o r p s A v i a t i o n i n t h e S e c o n d N i c a r a g u a n

C a m p a i g n , 1 9 2 7 — 1 9 3 3

W r a y R . J o h n s o n 5 5

U . S . M a r i n e s a n d M i s k i t o I n d i a n s : T h e R i o C o c o P a t r o l i n 1 9 2 8

D a v i d C . B r o o k s 6 7

L e s s o n s f r o m Y e s t e r d a y ' s O p e r a t i o n s S h o r t o f W a r : N i c a r a g u a a n d t h e S m a l l W a r s M a n u a l

R i c h a r d J . M a c a k J r 7 9

v i i

Page 12: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 12/36

P a r t I V

H a i t i , 1 9 1 5 — 1 9 3 4

T h e A m e r i c a n O c c u p a t i o n o f H a i t i : P r o b l e m s a n d P r o g r a m s , 1 9 2 0 — 1 9 2 8

R o b e r t D e b s H e i n l J r . a n d N a n c y G o r d o n H e i n i 8 9

A d m i n i s t e r i n g t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e s : T h e U . S . O c c u p a t i o n o f H a i t i a n d t h e D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c

R i c h a r d M i l l e t t a n d G . D a l e G a d d y 1 0 1

P a r t V

D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c , 1 9 1 6 — 1 9 2 4

C a u d i l l o s a n d G a v i l l e r o s v e r s u s t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s M a r i n e s : G u e r r i l l a I n s u r g e n c y D u r i n g t h eD o m i n i c a n I n t e r v e n t i o n , 1 9 1 6 — 1 9 2 4

B r u c e J . C a l d e r 1 1 7

C a c o s a n d C a u d i l l o s : M a r i n e s a n d C o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y i n H i s p a n o l i a , 1 9 1 5 — 1 9 2 4

G r a h a m A . C o s m a s 1 3 5

P a r t V I

V i e t n a m

A F e a t h e r i n T h e i r C a p ? T h e M a r i n e s ' C o m b i n e d A c t i o n P r o g r a m i n V i e t n a m

L a w r e n c e A . Y a t e s 1 4 7

C O R D S / P h o e n i x : C o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y L e s s o n s f r o m V i e t n a m f o r t h e F u t u r e

D a l e A n d r a d e a n d J a m e s H . W i l b a n k s 1 5 9

P a r t V I I

G l o b a l W a r o n T e r r o r i s m : O v e r v i e w a n d S t r a t e g y

C h a l l e n g e s i n F i g h t i n g a G l o b a l I n s u r g e n c y

D a v i d W . B a r n o 1 7 5

C o u n t e r i n g E v o l v e d I n s u r g e n t N e t w o r k s

T h o m a s X . H a m m e s 1 8 7

A d v a n c e s i n P r e d e p l o y m e n t C u l t u r e T r a i n i n g : T h e U . S . M a r i n e C o r p s A p p r o a c h

B a r a k A . S a l m o n i 1 9 7

P a r t V I I I

I s l a m i s m , I s l a m i s t s , a n d I n s u r g e n c y

A C l a s h o f S y s t e m s : A n A n a l y t i c a l F r a m e w o r k t o D e m y s t i f y t h e R a d i c a l I s l a m i s t T h r e a t

v i i i

Page 13: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 13/36

A n d r e w H a r v e y , I a n S u l l i v a n , a n d R a l p h G r o v e s . 2 0 9

T h e C o n c e p t a n d P r a c t i c e o f J i h a d i n I s l a m

M i c h a e l G . K n a p p 2 2 1

P a r t I X

A f g h a n i s t a n

U n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e T a l i b a n a n d I n s u r g e n c y i n A f g h a n i s t a n

T h o m a s H . J o h n s o n a n d M . C h r i s M a s o n 2 3 1

A f g h a n i s t a n F o u r Y e a r s O n : A n A s s e s s m e n t

S e a n M . M a l o n e y 2 4 7

P a r t X

I r a qA s s e s s i n g I r a q ' s S u n n i A r a b I n s u r g e n c y

M i c h a e l E i s e n s t a d t a n d J e f f r e y W h i t e 2 5 7

I n s u r g e n c y a n d C o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y i n I r a q

S t e v e n M e t z 2 8 3

P a r t X I

C o m b i n e d J o i n t T a s k F o r c e — H o r n o f A f r i c a ( C J T F - H O A ) a n d t h e

H o r n o f A f r i c a

A r o u n d t h e H o r n

D a v i d f D a n e l o 2 9 3

T h e W a r o n T e r r o r i s m i n t h e H o r n o f A f r i c a

T o m D u b s 3 0 1

R e c o g n i z i n g S o m a l i l a n d : F o r w a r d S t e p i n C o u n t e r i n g T e r r o r i s m ?

K u r t S h i l l i n g e r 3 0 9

F i g h t i n g T e r r o r i s m i n E a s t A f r i c a a n d t h e H o r n

D a v i d H . S h i n n 3 1 7

S e l e c t e d B i b l i o g r a p h y 3 2 5

P e r m i s s i o n s a n d A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s 3 4 1

i x

Page 14: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 14/36

Page 15: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 15/36

Insurgency: Modern Warfare Evolves into a

Fourth Generation

by Thomas X Hammes

Strategic Forum, January 2005

Fourth-generation warfare, which is now

playing out in Iraq and Afghanistan, is a

modern form of insurgency. Its practition

ers seek to convince enemy political lead

ers that their trategic goals are either

unachievable or too costly for the perceived benefit. The fundamental precept i

that superior political will, when properly

employed , can defeat greater economic

and militalY power. Because it is organized

to ensure political rather than militalY suc

ces this type of warfare is difficult to

defeat.

Strategically, fourth-generation warfare

remains focused on changing tlle minds of

decisionmakers. Politically, it involves

transnational, national, and subnational

organizations and networks. Operationally,

it LI es different messages for different audi

ences, all of which focus on breaking an

opponent's political will. Tactically, it uti

lizes materials present in tlle society under

attack-to include industrial chemical , liq

uefied natural gas, or fertilizers.

Although tllese modern insurgencie are

tlle only type of war that the nited States

has 10 t (Vietnam, Lebanon, and Somalia),

tlley can be overcome-witness Malaya

(1950s) , Oman (1970s), and EI Salvador

1980s). Winning, however requires coher

ent, patient action tllat encompasse tllefull range of political , economic, social, and

military activities. The United States cannot

force its opponents to fight the short, high

technology wars it easily dominates.

Instead the nation must learn to fight

fourtll-generation wars anew.

1

On 1 May 2003, President George W. Bush

declared the end of major combat in

Iraq. While most Americans rejoiced at

this announcement, students of history under

stood that it simply meant the easy part was over.

In the following months, peace did not break out,and the troopS did not come home. In fact, Iraqi

insurgents have struck back hard. Instead of

peace, each day Americans read about the death

of another soldier, the detonation of deadly car

bombs, the assassination of civilians, and Iraqi

unrest.

Barely three months later, in August, a series of

bombs hit a police academy graduation ceremo

ny, the Jordanian Embassy, and United Nations

(UN) headquarters in Baghdad. The Ayatollah

Mohammed Bakr aI-Hakim (leader of the

Supreme Council for Islamic Revolution in Iraq)

was killed, and an attempt was made to kill theBaghdad chief of police. These attacks marked

the opening of the anti-coalition campaign that

continued through the turnover of authority to

the Interim Iraqi Government. As of this writing,

the violence continues as Iraqi authorities strug

gle to provide security for their people and work

to rebuild their country. Unfortunately, Iraq has

become the scene of another fourth-generation

war.

At the same time things were degenerating in

Iraq, the situation in Afghanistan was moving into

fourth-generation conflict. While al-Qaeda and

the Taliban were not attacking U.S. troops direct

ly, they were moving aggressively to defeat the

U.S.-supported Hamid Kharzai government.

Decisively defeated in the conventional campaign

by a combination of U.S. firepower and Northern

Alliance troops, the anti-coalition forces have

returned to the style of warfare that succeeded

Page 16: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 16/36

a g a i n s t t h e S o v i e t s . T h e T a l i b a n ' s e m p h a s i s o nd e r a i l i n g t h e r e c e n t p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n s s h o w st h e y u n d e r s t a n d t h a t f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n w a r f a r e i sa p o l i t i c a l r a t h e r t h a n m i l i t a r y s t r u g g l e . B y t r y i n g

t o p r e v e n t A f g h a n s f r o m v o t i n g , t h e y s o u g h t t ou n d e r m i n e t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f w h o e v e r w o n t h ee l e c t i o n s . I n s t e a d o f d e f e a t i n g t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' ss e c u r i t y f o r c e s , t h e y p l a n t o d e s t r o y i t s l e g i t i m a c y .

W h i l e p o l l i n g f o r t h e p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n p r o -c e e d e d w i t h o u t m a j o r i n c i d e n t , i t r e m a i n s t o b es e e n w h e t h e r t h i s p o s i t i v e s t e p h a s s e t t h e T a l i b a n

h a c k p o l i t i c a l l y — a n d m u c h m o r e c o n t e n t i o u sl e g i s l a t i v e e l e c t i o n s a r e j u s t o v e r t h e h o r i z o n .

I n I r a q , t h e a t t a c k s o n a n d t h r e a t s a g a i n s t o i lp i p e l i n e s a r e e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l i n n a t u r e .T h e i n s u r g e n t s a r e a s s e s s i n g a t a x o n t h e e n t i r ew o r l d ' s e c o n o m y b y r a i s i n g t h e p r i c e o f o i l . T h e yh o p e s u c h a t t a c k s w i l l w e a k e n t h e I r a q i g o v e r n -m e n t w h i l e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y b r i n g i n g e c o n o m i ca n d p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e t o b e a r o n t h e U n i t e dS t a t e s . S h i ' i t e c l e r i c M o q t a d a a l - S a d r ' s s h i f t f r o mm i l i t a r y a c t i o n t o t h e p o l i t i c a l a r e n a m o s t l i k e l ym e a n s n o r e a l c h a n g e i n g o a l s , o n l y m e t h o d s . H ec a n u s e h i s p o l i t i c a l a n d s o c i a l n e t w o r k s i n c o n -j u n c t i o n w i t h h i s m i l i t i a s t o a d v a n c e h i s g o a l s .

I n S a u d i A r a b i a , T u r k e y , a n d S p a i n , a l - Q a e d aa n d i t s a f f i l i a t e s m a n a g e d a s e r i e s o f h i g h - p r o f i l ea t t a c k s a n d a r e p r o m i s i n g a m a j o r a t t a c k o n t h eU n i t e d S t a t e s . D e s p i t e t h e B u s h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s

d e c l a r a t i o n o f v i c t o r y i n I r a q a n d A f g h a n i s t a n , t h ew a r o n t e r r o r h a s n o t b e e n a n e n t i r e l y o n e - s i d e df i g h t .

A s d e b i l i t a t i n g a n d r e g u l a r a s t h e s e a t t a c k s a r e ,

t h i s k i n d o f w a r f a r e i s n o t n e w b u t r a t h e r h a sb e e n e v o l v i n g o v e r t h e l a s t s e v e n d e c a d e s . T h ew a r s i n A f g h a n i s t a n a n d I r a q h a v e m o v e d f r o mt h i r d - g e n e r a t i o n w a r f a r e , A m e r i c a ' s f o r t e , t o

f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n w a r f a r e . I t i s m u c h t o o e a r l y t op r e d i c t t h e o u t c o m e o f e i t h e r f i g h t , b u t t h e a n t i -c o a l i t i o n f o r c e s i n A f g h a n i s t a n a n d I r a q a r e

a t t e m p t i n g t o t i e t h e i r f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n t a c t i c si n t o i n t e g r a t e d s t r a t e g i c c a m p a i g n s . A t t h e s a m e

t i m e , a l - Q a e d a i s m a i n t a i n i n g i t s o w n s t r a t e g i cc a m p a i g n : t o d e f e a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d i t sa l l i e s .

O p p o n e n t s i n v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d k n o wt h a t f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n w a r f a r e i s t h e o n l y k i n d t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s h a s e v e r l o s t — a n d n o t j u s t o n c e ,b u t t h r e e t i m e s : i n V i e t n a m , L e b a n o n , a n d

2

S o m a l i a . T h i s f o r m o f w a r f a r e a l s o d e f e a t e d t h eF r e n c h i n V i e t n a m a n d A l g e r i a a n d t h e S o v i e t

U n i o n i n A f g h a n i s t a n . I t c o n t i n u e s t o b l e e d R u s s i a

i n C h e c h n y a a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n I r a q ,

A f g h a n i s t a n , a n d o t h e r a r e a s w h e r e i t i s e n g a g e di n t h e w a r o n t e r r o r . T h i s r e c o r d o f d e f e a t o fm a j o r p o w e r s b y m u c h w e a k e r f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o no p p o n e n t s m a k e s i t e s s e n t i a l t o u n d e r s t a n d t h i sn e w f o r m o f w a r f a r e a n d a d a p t a c c o r d i n g l y .

M a o Z e d o n g w a s t h e f i r s t t o d e f i n e m o d e r ni n s u r g e n c y a s a p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e a n d u s e i t s u c -c e s s f u l l y . E a c h p r a c t i t i o n e r s i n c e h a s l e a r n e d ,u s u a l l y t h r o u g h a p a i n f u l p r o c e s s o f t r i a l a n de r r o r , f r o m h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s o r c o - c o m b a t a n t s .E a c h t h e n h a s a d j u s t e d t h e l e s s o n s t o h i s o w nf i g h t a n d a d d e d h i s o w n r e f i n e m e n t s . T h e c u m u -

l a t i v e r e s u l t i s a n e w a p p r o a c h t o w a r . T h e a n t i -c o a l i t i o n f o r c e s i n I r a q , t h e T a l i b a n i n

A f g h a n i s t a n , t h e C h e c h e n s , a n d t h e a l - Q a e d a n e t -

w o r k a r e s i m p l y t h e l a t e s t t o u s e a n a p p r o a c h t h a th a s b e e n d e v e l o p i n g f o r d e c a d e s .

S i n c e W o r l d W a r I I , w a r s h a v e b e e n a m i x e db a g o f c o n v e n t i o n a l a n d u n c o n v e n t i o n a l c o n -f l i c t s . C o n v e n t i o n a l w a r s — t h e K o r e a n W a r , t h eI s r a e l i - A r a b w a r s o f 1 9 5 6 , 1 9 6 7 , a n d 1 9 7 3 , t h eF a l k l a n d s ( M a l v i n a s ) W a r , t h e I r a n - I r a q w a r , a n d

t h e f i r s t G u l f W a r — g e n e r a l l y h a v e e n d e d w i t h a

r e t u r n t o t h e s t r a t e g i c s t a t u s q u o . W h i l e s o m e t e r -r i t o r y c h a n g e d h a n d s a n d , i n s o m e c a s e s , r e g i m e s

c h a n g e d , e a c h s t a t e c a m e o u t o f t h e w a r w i t hl a r g e l y t h e s a m e p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m i c , a n d s o c i a ls t r u c t u r e w i t h w h i c h i t e n t e r e d . I n s h o r t , t h es t r a t e g i c s i t u a t i o n o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s d i d n o tc h a n g e s i g n i f i c a n t l y .

I n c o n t r a s t , u n c o n v e n t i o n a l w a r s — t h eC o m m u n i s t r e v o l u t i o n i n C h i n a , t h e f i r s t a n d s e c -

o n d I n d o c h i n a w a r s , t h e A l g e r i a n w a r o f i n d e -p e n d e n c e , t h e S a n d i n i s t a s t r u g g l e i n N i c a r a g u a ,t h e I r a n i a n r e v o l u t i o n , t h e A f g h a n - S o v i e t w a r o ft h e 1 9 8 0 s , t h e f i r s t i n t i f a d a , a n d t h e H i z b u l l a hc a m p a i g n i n S o u t h L e b a n o n — d i s p l a y a m a r k e d l yd i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n . E a c h e n d e d w i t h m a j o r c h a n g e s

i n t h e p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m i c , a n d s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e o ft h e t e r r i t o r i e s i n v o l v e d . W h i l e t h e c h a n g e s m a yn o t h a v e b e e n b e t t e r f o r t h e p e o p l e , t h e y w e r ed i s t i n c t . E v e n t h o s e u n c o n v e n t i o n a l w a r s w h e r et h e i n s u r g e n t s l o s t ( M a l a y a , O m a n , E l S a l v a d o r )

l e d t o s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s . T h e m e s s a g e i s c l e a rf o r a n y o n e w i s h i n g t o s h i f t t h e p o l i t i c a l b a l a n c e

Page 17: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 17/36

Fourth-GenerationWarfare in Perspective

Th e term fourth-generation warfare came into use among military strategists and planners in the late 1980s

as a way to characterize the dynamics and future direction of warfare. This corruuunity posntlated the evolution of warfare in several distinct phases.The first generation of modern (post-Westphalian) war was dominat

ed by massed manpower and culminated in the Napoleonic Wars. Firepower characterized the second gener

ation, which culminated in World War I. The third generation was dominated by maneuver as developed by

the Germans in World War II. The fourth generation has evolved in ways that take advantage of the political,

social, economic , and technical changes since World War II. It makes use of the advantages those changes offer

an unconventional enemy. For background and a compilation of paper and articles on the subject, see the

Defense and the National Interest Web site at <http://www.d-n-i.net/dni/category/strategy-and-force-employ

ment/4gw-articles/>

of power: only unconventional war works against

established powers.

Strategic Aspects

Fourth-generation warfare attempts to change

the minds of enemy policymakers directly. But this

change is not to be achieved through the tradition

al first- through third-generation objective of

destroying the enemy's armed forces and the

capacity to regenerate them. Both the epic, deci

sive battles of the Napoleonic era and the wide

ranging, high-speed maneuver campaigns of the

20th century are irrelevant to this new warfare.

More relevant is the way in which specific mes-

sages are targeted toward policymakers and thosewho can influence them. Although tailored for var

ious audiences, each message is designed to

achieve the basic purpose of war: to change an

opponent's political position on a matter of nation

al interest.

The struggles in Iraq and Afghanistan show

these characteristics. In each, the insurgents are

sending one message to their supporters, another

to the undecided population, an d a third to the

coalition decisionmakers. Supporters are told that

they are defending the faith and their country

against outside invaders. The message to uncom

mitted or pro-coalition countrymen is to stay ou t

of the fight between the insurgents and the

invaders, who will eventually leave. Finally, the

coalition, particularly the Americans, is advised to

withdraw or be engaged in an endless, costly fight.

Fourth-generation warfare is not bloodless. As

shown in the chart on page 6, the casualties we

3

have sustained in fighting insurgents in Iraq long

ago passed those we sustained in the comparative

ly short, high-intensity phase that toppled Saddam.

And even then, most casualties will tend to be

civilian, a pattern borne out by fighting in Iraq,

Chechnya, Palestinian areas, and elsewhere.

Further, many of those casualties will be caused

not by military weapons but rather by materials

made available within society. Thus, the opponent

does not have to build the warfighting infrastruc

ture reqUired by earlier generations of war.

As displayed in the Beirut bombings, the

Khobar Towers bombing, the Northern Ireland

campaign, the American Embassy bombings in

Africa, the 9/11 attacks, and the ongOing bombing

campaign in Iraq, fourth-generation warfare practitioners are increasingly using materials made

available by the society they are attacking. This

allows them to take a very different strategic

approach. It relieves the practitioners of the neces

sity of defending core production assets and frees

them to focus on offense rather than defense. It

also relieves them of the burden of moving sup

plies long distances. Instead, only money and

ideas-both of which can be digitized and moved

instantly-must be transported.

Furthermore, even at the strategic level, the

importance of the media in shaping the policy of

the participants will continue to increase. This was

demonstrated when U.S. interest in Somalia, previ

ously negligible, was stimulated by the repeated

images of thousands of starving Somali children.

Conversely, the images of U.S. soldiers being

dragged through the streets ended that commit

ment. The media will remain a major factor from

Page 18: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 18/36

the strategic to the tactical level. In fact, world

wide media exposure can quickly give a tactical

action strategic impact.

PoliticalAspects

Fourth-generation warriors exploit interna

tional, transnational, national, and subnational

networks politically for their own purposes. A

growing variety of international conduits are

available: the United Nations, the North Atlantic

Treaty Organization (NATO), the World Bank, the

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries,

and dozens of others. Each organization has a

different function in international affairs, bu t

each has its ow n vulnerabilities and can be used

to convey a political message to its leadershipand then to target capital cities. While these inter

national organizations may not be able to change

the minds of national leaders directly, they can

be used to slow or paralyze an international

response.

The prime objective of the fourth-generation

practitioner is to create political paralysis in both

the international organizations (usually not a dif

ficult task) and the target nation (difficulty varies

with the nation being targeted). In addition to

normal political attacks, planners can influence

other aspects of the target society. For instance,

they know that the security situation in a country

has a direct effect on the ability of that nation to

get loans. This gives the attacker a different

venue to affect the position of a nation-the

mere threat of action may be enough to impact

the financial status of the target nation and

encourage it to negotiate. Thus, if the objective is

to paralyze the political processes of a target

nation, a number of methods can be used.

Attacks by the al-Sadr militia on oil production

infrastructure in southern Iraq have illustrated

this fact. Nigerian rebels have also used the

threat to oil production to force negotiation on

the Nigerian government. The fact that oil prices

were at a record high gave the rebels more lever

age because each day's delay increased the costs

to the Nigerian government. As the world

becomes ever more interconnected, the potential

for varied approaches increases, and the effects

may reinforce each other.

A coherent fourth-generation warfare plan

always exploits transnational elements in variousways. The vehicles may include not only extrem

ist belief-based organizations such as Islamic

Jihad, but also nationalistic organizations such as

the Palestinians and Kurds, mainline Christian

churches, humanitarian organizations, economic

structures such as the stock and bond markets,

and even criminal organizations such as narcO

traffickers and arms merchants. The key traits of

transnational organizations are that none are

contained completely within a recognized

nation-state's borders; none have official mem

bers that report back to nation-states; and they

owe no loyalty to any nation-and sometimes lit

tle to their own organizations.

The use of such transnational elements will

vary with the strategic situation, but they offer a

number of possibilities. They can be a source of

Insurgencies throughout History

Insurgency, often referred to as guerrilla warfare, is not new. The very name guerrilla ("little war") dates

back to the Spanish resistance against Napoleon's occupation of Spain (1809-1813). In fact, insurgency far pre

dates that campaign. Darius the Great, King of Persia (558-486 BC), and Alexander the Great (356-323 BC)

both fought insurgents durin g thei r reigns. Insurgency continued as a form of war through the ages.The Irishnationalist, Michael Collins, drove the British out of Ireland with an insurgent campaign during 1916-1921. Inall cases, the weaker side used insurgent tactics to counter the superior military power of its enemies.

However, in the 20th century, the political aspects of insurgency came to dominate these struggles.The goal

became the destruction of the enemy's political will rather than the exhaustion of his conventional military

power. Advances in communications technology and the growth of formal and informal networks have great

ly increased the ability of the insurgent to attack the will of enemy decisionmakers directly.

4

Page 19: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 19/36

r e c r u i t s . T h e y c a n b e u s e d ( a t t i m e s u n w i t t i n g l y )a s c o v e r t o m o v e p e o p l e a n d a s s e t s . T h e y c a n b e

a n e f f e c t i v e s o u r c e o f f u n d s ; c h a r i t a b l e o r g a n i z a -t i o n s h a v e s u p p o r t e d t e r r o r i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n s a s

d i v e r s e a s t h e I r i s h R e p u b l i c a n A r m y ( I R A ) a n da l - Q a e d a . D u r i n g t h e 1 9 7 0 s , f o r e x a m p l e , I r i s hb a r s o n t h e e a s t c o a s t o f A m e r i c a o f t e n h a d j a r sw h e r e p a t r o n s c o u l d m a k e d o n a t i o n s , o s t e n s i b l yt o p r o v i d e s u p p o r t t o I r i s h f a m i l i e s , b u t i n f a c tm u c h o f t h e m o n e y w e n t d i r e c t l y t o s u p p o r t I R Ai n s u r g e n t o p e r a t i o n s .

A t t i m e s , e n t i r e o r g a n i z a t i o n s c a n b e u s e do p e n l y t o s u p p o r t t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e f o u r t h - g e n -e r a t i o n w a r f a r e o p e r a t o r . U s u a l l y t h i s i s d o n e

w h e n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n g e n u i n e l y a g r e e s w i t h t h ep o s i t i o n o f o n e o f t h e a n t a g o n i s t s , b u t f a l s e f l a g

o p e r a t i o n s a r e a l s o v i a b l e . S u c h s u p p o r t c a n l e n dl e g i t i m a c y t o a m o v e m e n t a n d e v e n r e v e r s e l o n g -h e l d i n t e r n a t i o n a l v i e w s o f a s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n .

N a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e p r i m a r y t a r -g e t s f o r f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n m e s s a g e s . I n s u r g e n t sf i g h t i n g t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s — w h e t h e r t h e N o r t hV i e t n a m e s e , t h e S a n d i n i s t a s , o r t h e P a l e s t i n i a n s —

k n o w t h a t i f C o n g r e s s c u t s o f f f u n d s , U . S . a l l i e sw o u l d l o s e t h e i r w a r s . T h u s , c o n g r e s s m e n h a v eb e e n t a r g e t e d w i t h t h e m e s s a g e t h a t t h e w a r w a su n w i n n a b l e a n d i t m a d e n o s e n s e t o k e e p f i g h t -i n g i t . T h e S a n d i n i s t a s e v e n w o r k e d h a r d t o m a k e

i n d i v i d u a l c o n g r e s s m e n p a r t o f t h e i r n e t w o r k b y

s p o n s o r i n g t r i p s f o r c o n g r e s s i o n a l a i d e s a n dm a i n l i n e c h u r c h g r o u p s t o i n s u r g e n t - h e l d a r e a si n N i c a r a g u a . I f t h e y c o u l d c o n v i n c e t h e i r g u e s t st h a t A n a s t a s i o S o m o z a ' s g o v e r n m e n t w a s i n d e e dc o r r u p t , t h e y w o u l d a c t i v e l y l o b b y o t h e r a i d e sa n d t h e c o n g r e s s m e n t h e m s e l v e s t o c u t o f f a i d t oS o m o z a . N o n g o v e r n m e n t a l n a t i o n a l g r o u p s —c h u r c h e s , d i a s p o r a a s s o c i a t i o n s , b u s i n e s s g r o u p s ,a n d e v e n l o b b y i n g f i r m s — h a v e b e e n m a j o r p l a y -

e r s i n s h a p i n g n a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s . T h e U n i t e dS t a t e s m u s t a s s u m e i t s o p p o n e n t s w i l l c o n t i n u e

t h e s e e f f o r t s .S u b n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s c a n r e p r e s e n t b o t h

g r o u p s w h o a r e m i n o r i t i e s i n t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a lh o m e l a n d s , s u c h a s t h e B a s q u e , a n d t h o s e w h oa r e s e l f - s e l e c t i n g m i n o r i t i e s , s u c h a s S o n s o fL i b e r t y a n d A r y a n N a t i o n . T h e s e g r o u p s a r e i nu n u s u a l p o s i t i o n s ; t h e y c a n b e e i t h e r e n e m i e s o ra l l i e s o f t h e e s t a b l i s h e d p o w e r s . I t s i m p l y

d e p e n d s u p o n w h o b e s t s e r v e s t h e i r i n t e r e s t s .

5

E v e n m o r e c h a l l e n g i n g i s t h e f a c t t h a t s i n c e t h e ya r e n o t u n i f i e d g r o u p s , o n e e l e m e n t o f a s u b n a -t i o n a l g r o u p m a y s u p p o r t t h e g o v e r n m e n t w h i l ea n o t h e r s u p p o r t s t h e i n s u r g e n t s .

P o l i t i c a l a l l i a n c e s , i n t e r e s t s , a n d p o s i t i o n sa m o n g a n d b e t w e e n i n s u r g e n t s w i l l c h a n g ea c c o r d i n g t o v a r i o u s p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m i c , s o c i a l ,a n d m i l i t a r y a s p e c t s o f t h e c o n f l i c t . W h i l e t h i s h a s

b e e n a f a c t o r i n a l l w a r s ( I t a l y c h a n g e d s i d e s i nt h e m i d d l e o f W o r l d W a r I I , t h e l a r g e s t c o n v e n -

t i o n a l w a r ) , i t w i l l b e p r e v a l e n t i n f o u r t h - g e n e r a -t i o n w a r . I t i s m u c h e a s i e r f o r n o n s t a t e e n t i t i e s( t r i b e s , c l a n s , b u s i n e s s e s , c r i m i n a l g r o u p s , r a c i a lg r o u p s , s u b n a t i o n a l g r o u p s , a n d t r a n s n a t i o n a lg r o u p s ) t o c h a n g e s i d e s t h a n i t i s f o r n a t i o n -s t a t e s o r n a t i o n a l g r o u p s . A g o v e r n m e n t u s u a l l y

t i e s i t s e l f t o a s p e c i f i c c a u s e . I t h a s t o c o n v i n c ed e c i s i o n m a k e r s o r i t s p e o p l e t o s u p p o r t i t . T h u s ,i t c a n b e a w k w a r d f o r t h a t g o v e r n m e n t t o c h a n g es i d e s i n m i d c o n f l i c t w i t h o u t l o s i n g t h e c o n f i -d e n c e o f i t s p e o p l e . O f t e n , t h e a c t o f c h a n g i n gs i d e s w i l l l e a d t o t h e f a l l o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t . I nc o n t r a s t , n o n s t a t e e n t i t i e s g e t i n v o l v e d o n l y f o rt h e i r o w n n e e d s , a n d , i f t h e s e n e e d s c h a n g e ,t h e y c a n e a s i l y s h i f t l o y a l t i e s .

O p e r a t i o n a l T e c h n i q u e s

T o i n f l u e n c e t h i s w i d e v a r i e t y o f n e t w o r k s

e f f e c t i v e l y , t h e f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n w a r f a r e o p e r a -t i o n a l p l a n n e r m u s t s e e k d i f f e r e n t p a t h w a y s f o r

v a r i o u s m e s s a g e s . T r a d i t i o n a l d i p l o m a t i c c h a n -n e l s , b o t h o f f i c i a l a n d u n o f f i c i a l , a r e s t i l l i m p o r -t a n t h u t a r e n o l o n g e r t h e o n l y r o u t e f o r c o m m u -n i c a t i o n a n d i n f l u e n c e . O t h e r n e t w o r k s r i v a l t h ep r o m i n e n c e o f t h e o f f i c i a l o n e s . T h e m e d i a h a v eb e c o m e a p r i m a r y a v e n u e , a s s e e n i n p l a c e s s u c ha s V i e t n a m , t h e W e s t B a n k , a n d I r a q . H o w e v e r ,t h e s h e e r d i v e r s i t y a n d f r a g m e n t a t i o n o f t h em e d i a m a k e i t m u c h m o r e c h a l l e n g i n g f o r e i t h e rs i d e t o c o n t r o l t h e m e s s a g e . P r o f e s s i o n a l l o b b y -i n g g r o u p s a l s o h a v e p r o v e n e f f e c t i v e .

A n i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t a v e n u e i s t h eI n t e r n e t a n d t h e p o w e r i t p r o v i d e s g r a s s r o o t sc a m p a i g n s . W h e t h e r i t i s t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c a m -p a i g n t o b a n l a n d m i n e s o r A b u M u s a b a l -Z a r q a w i ' s t e r r o r c a m p a i g n i n I r a q , t h e I n t e r n e tp r o v i d e s a n a l t e r n a t i v e c h a n n e l f o r h i g h - i m p a c tm e s s a g e s u n f i l t e r e d b y e d i t o r s o r p o l i t i c a l i n f l u -

Page 20: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 20/36

u.s. Military Casualties in Iraq: Higher Against the Insurgents Than Against Saddam's Armed Forces

't l2,500)

't l150III

Q) 't l

0 c:::J

0 2,000't lQ) 12 0

1::0Q. (J)

::J 1,500Q)

900::

:0Q)

1,00 060IIIZ

u)

::J 30 500

• Major Combat Phase Insurgency Phase

Source : Based on U.S. Government data compiled on the Global Security Web si te . available at http://globalsecurity .orgimilital'jlops/iraq_casualties .htm

ence. It can also be used to raise money.

A key factor in a fourth-generation warfare

campaign is that the audience is not a unified tar

get. It is increasingly fragmented into interest

groups that may realign or even shift sides

depending on how a particular campaign affects

their issues. During the first intifada, the

Palestinians tailored messages for different con

stituencies. The Israelis have used the same tech

nique during the al-Aqsa intifada, and the anticoalition forces are doing so today in Iraq and

Afghanistan.

The United States has been slow to understand

the importance of these communications. As

recently as last year [2004], military spokesmen

insisted that the insurgent attacks on U.S. troops in

Iraq were "militarily insignificant." This was at a

time when each attack was on the front page of

major daily newspapers in the United States and

Europe. While the actual casualties may have been

few, each story reached the decisionmakers in

Congress and the public.

To succeed, the fourth-generation operational

planner must determine the message he wants to

send; the networks best suited to carry those mes

sages; the actions that will cause the network to

send the message; and the feedback system that

will tell him if the message is being received. In

Bosnia, the seizure of UN hostages by Serb forces

6

during the NATO bombing campaign of 1995 was

the first step of a cycle. The media were used to

transmit images of the peacekeepers chained to

bUildings. Then the Serbs watched television to

determine the response of the various govern

ments. It allowed them to commit the act, transmit

it via various channels, observe the response, and

then decide what to do next. All this occurred

much faster than the bureaucratic reporting

processes of NATO could complete the samecycle.

During the first intifada, the Palestinians made

an operational decision to limit the use of vio

lence. They confronted the Israeli Army not with

heavily armed guerrillas but with teenagers armed

only with rocks. Thus, they neutralized U.S. sup

port for Israeli action, froze Israeli defense forces,

and influenced the Israeli national election, which

led to the Oslo Accords.

Similarly, the series of bombings conducted by

the Iraqi insurgents throughout the fall and winter

of 2003-2004 carefully targeted the organizations

most helpful to the Coalition Provisional

Authority-police, the United Nations, non

governmental organizations (NGOs), coalition

partners, the Kurdish political parties, and Shia

clerics. Each event was tactically separat ed by time

and space, but each fit together operationally to

attack America's strategic position in the country.

Page 21: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 21/36

I n I r a q , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a s f o u n d n o e v i -d e n c e o f c e n t r a l d i r e c t i o n a t t h i s e a r l y d a t e i n t h e

i n s u r g e n c y , y e t t h e p a t t e r n o f t h e a t t a c k s h a s r e p -r e s e n t e d a c o h e r e n t a p p r o a c h t o d r i v i n g t h e

c o a l i t i o n o u t o f t h e c o u n t r y . T h e q u e s t i o n i s :W i t h n o c o o r d i n a t i o n , h o w c o u l d t h e i n s u r g e n t sr e i n f o r c e e a c h o t h e r s ' a c t i o n s ?

T h e i n s u r g e n t s c o u l d t r a c k e a c h a t t a c k a n d , t oa d e g r e e , m e a s u r e i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s b y m o n i t o r i n g

t h e I r a q i , U . S . , a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l m e d i a . T h o s ea t t a c k s t h a t s u c c e e d e d w e r e q u i c k l y e m u l a t e d ;t h o s e t h a t f a i l e d c e a s e d t o b e u s e d . T h e i n s u r g e n t s

s h o w e d m a n y o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a s e l f -

o r g a n i z i n g n e t w o r k . E a c h a t t a c k i s d e s i g n e d t op r e v e n t a s t a b l e , d e m o c r a t i c g o v e r n m e n t f r o me m e r g i n g . N o t a l l a t t a c k s h a v e s u c c e e d e d , b u tt h e y h a v e k e p t U N p r e s e n c e t o a m i n i m u m a n dh a v e d r i v e n m a n y N G O s o u t o f t h e c o u n t r y .F u r t h e r , t h e c o a l i t i o n i s s h r i n k i n g , a n d t h e i n s u r -g e n c y h a s c l e a r l y a f f e c t e d t h e p r i c e o f o i l . A n d t h e

t h r e a t o f i n s t a b i l i t y s p r e a d i n g t o t h e r e s t o f t h eP e r s i a n G u l f i n c r e a s e s t h e u p w a r d p r e s s u r e o n o i l

p r i c e s .

T o c o m p l i c a t e m a t t e r s , f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n w a r -

f a r e w i l l i n c o r p o r a t e e l e m e n t s o f e a r l i e r g e n e r a -t i o n s o f w a r . E v e n a s t h e I s r a e l i s s t r u g g l e d w i t ht h e i n t i f a d a , t h e y h a d t o r e m a i n a w a r e t h a t m a j o rc o n v e n t i o n a l f o r c e s w e r e o n t h e i r b o r d e r . I nV i e t n a m , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d l a t e r S o u t h

V i e t n a m h a d t o d e a l w i t h a g g r e s s i v e , e f f e c t i v ef o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n g u e r r i l l a s w h i l e a l w a y s b e i n gp r e p a r e d t o d e a l w i t h m a j o r N o r t h V i e t n a m e s ec o n v e n t i o n a l f o r c e s . C l e a r l y , t h e n e w g e n e r a t i o no f w a r f a r e s e e k s t o p l a c e a n e n e m y o n t h e h o r n so f t h i s d i l e m m a . J u s t a s c l e a r l y , t h i s i s a n i n t e n -t i o n a l a p p r o a c h t h a t r e a c h e s a l l t h e w a y b a c k t o

M a o .

A c t i o n i n o n e o r a l l o f t h e f i e l d s a b o v e w i l l n o t

b e l i m i t e d t o t h e g e o g r a p h i c l o c a t i o n ( i f a n y ) o ft h e a n t a g o n i s t s b u t w i l l t a k e p l a c e w o r l d w i d e .F r o m N e w Y o r k t o B a l i a n d M a d r i d , a l - Q a e d a a n d

i t s a f f i l i a t e s h a v e f o r c e f u l l y i l l u s t r a t e d t h i s t o t h e i re n e m i e s . T h o u g h s o m e e l e m e n t s w i l l b e m o r e

a t t r a c t i v e a s t a r g e t s , n o e l e m e n t o f A m e r i c a n s o c i -e t y , n o m a t t e r w h e r e i t i s i n t h e w o r l d , i s o f f l i m -i t s t o a t t a c k . T h e B u s h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a c t i o n s i n

A f g h a n i s t a n a n d e l s e w h e r e a g a i n s t t h e a l - Q a e d an e t w o r k s h o w t h a t e f f e c t i v e c o u n t e r s m u s t a l s o b e

w o r l d w i d e .

7

T h e r a n g e o f p o s s i b l e f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n o p p o -n e n t s i s b r o a d . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o r e m e m b e r t h a ts u c h a n o p p o n e n t d o e s n o t n e e d a l a r g e c o m -m a n d a n d c o n t r o l s y s t e m . A t a t i m e w h e n U . S .

f o r c e s a r e p o u r i n g m o r e m o n e y a n d m a n p o w e ri n t o c o m m a n d a n d c o n t r o l , c o m m e r c i a l t e c h n o l o -

g y m a k e s w o r l d w i d e , s e c u r e c o m m u n i c a t i o n sa v a i l a b l e t o a n y o n e w i t h a l a p t o p a n d a c r e d i tc a r d . I t a l s o p r o v i d e s a c c e s s t o 1 - m e t e r - r e s o l u t i o n

s a t e l l i t e i m a g e r y , e x t e n s i v e i n f o r m a t i o n o n U . S .t r o o p m o v e m e n t s , i m m e d i a t e u p d a t e s o n n a t i o n a ld e b a t e s , a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i s c u s s i o n f o r u m s .

F i n a l l y , i t p r o v i d e s a w o r l d w i d e f i n a n c i a l n e t w o r k

t h a t i s f a i r l y s e c u r e . I n f a c t , w i t h t h e p r o l i f e r a t i o no f I n t e r n e t c a f e s , o n e n e e d s n e i t h e r t h e c r e d i t c a r dn o r t h e l a p t o p — o n l y a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h o w e -m a i l a n d a b r o w s e r w o r k a n d s o m e b a s i c h u m a ni n t e l l i g e n c e t r a d e c r a f t .

I d e a s a n d f u n d s c a n b e m o v e d t h r o u g h a v a r i -e t y o f m e t h o d s f r o m e - m a i l t o s u r f a c e m a i l t o p e r -

s o n a l c o u r i e r t o m e s s a g e s e m b e d d e d i n c l a s s i f i e da d v e r t i s e m e n t s . T h e o p p o n e n t w i l l t r y t o s u b -

m e r g e h i s c o m m u n i c a t i o n s i n t h e n o i s e o f t h ee v e r y d a y a c t i v i t y . H e w i l l u s e c o m m e r c i a l s o u r c e s

a n d v e h i c l e s t o d i s g u i s e t h e m o v e m e n t o f m a t e r i -

a l a n d f u n d s a s c o m m e r c e . H i s p e o p l e w i l l d ot h e i r b e s t t o m e r g e i n t o w h a t e v e r c i v i l s o c i e t y t h e y

f i n d t h e m s e l v e s i n . A s a r e s u l t , d e t e c t i n g t h e o p e r -a t i o n a l - l e v e l a c t i v i t i e s o f a s o p h i s t i c a t e d o p p o n e n t

w i l l b e e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y d i f f i c u l t .

T a c t i c a l C o n s i d e r a t i o n s

F o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n w a r f a r e t a k e s p l a c e i n t h ec o m p l e x e n v i r o n m e n t o f l o w - i n t e n s i t y c o n f l i c t .E v e r y p o t e n t i a l o p p o n e n t h a s o b s e r v e d t h e G u l fW a r , O p e r a t i o n I r a q i F r e e d o m , a n d o p e r a t i o n s i nA f g h a n i s t a n . T h e y u n d e r s t a n d t h a t i f t h e U n i t e dS t a t e s i s p r o v i d e d c l e a r t a r g e t s , n o m a t t e r h o ww e l l f o r t i f i e d , t h o s e t a r g e t s w i l l b e d e s t r o y e d . J u s t

a s c e r t a i n l y , t h e y h a v e s e e n t h e s u c c e s s o f t h eS o m a l i s a n d t h e S a n d i n i s t a s . T h e y h a v e a l s o s e e n

a n d a r e a b s o r b i n g t h e c o n t i n u i n g l e s s o n s o fC h e c h n y a , B o s n i a , A f g h a n i s t a n , a n d I r a q . T h e yw i l l n o t f i g h t w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l m e a n s .

I n a t t e m p t i n g t o c h a n g e t h e m i n d s o f k e y d e c i -s i o n m a k e r s , a n t a g o n i s t s w i l l u s e s e v e r a l t a c t i c a lp a t h s t o g e t t h e i r m e s s a g e t h r o u g h t o p r e s i d e n t s ,p r i m e m i n i s t e r s , c a b i n e t m e m b e r s , l e g i s l a t o r s , a n d

Page 22: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 22/36

e v e n v o t e r s . I m m e d i a t e , h i g h - i m p a c t m e s s a g e sw i l l p r o b a b l y c o m e v i a v i s u a l m e d i a — a n d t h em o r e d r a m a t i c a n d b l o o d y t h e i m a g e , t h e s t r o n g e r

t h e m e s s a g e . L o n g e r t e r m , l e s s i m m e d i a t e , b u t

m o r e t h o u g h t - p r o v o k i n g m e s s a g e s w i l l b e p a s s e dt h r o u g h b u s i n e s s , r e l i g i o u s , e c o n o m i c , a c a d e m i c ,

a r t i s t i c , a n d e v e n s o c i a l n e t w o r k s . W h i l e t h e m e s -

s a g e s w i l l b e b a s e d o n a s t r a t e g i c t h e m e , t h ed e l i v e r y w i l l h e b y t a c t i c a l a c t i o n s u c h a s g u i d e dt o u r s o f r e f u g e e c a m p s , e x c l u s i v e i n t e r v i e w s w i t h

i n s u r g e n t l e a d e r s , t a r g e t e d k i d n a p p i n g , b e h e a d -i n g s , c a r b o m b i n g s , a n d a s s a s s i n a t i o n s .

T h i s w a r f a r e w i l l i n v o l v e a m i x t u r e o f i n t e r n a -t i o n a l , t r a n s n a t i o n a i , n a t i o n a l , a n d s u b n a t i o n a la c t o r s . S i n c e t h e o p e r a t i o n a l p l a n n e r o f a f o u r t h -

g e n e r a t i o n c a m p a i g n m u s t u s e a l l t h e t o o l s a v a i l -a b l e , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s p r o b a b l y w i l l h a v e t o d e a lw i t h a c t o r s f r o m a l l t h e s e a r e n a s a t t h e t a c t i c a ll e v e l a s w e l l . E v e n m o r e c h a l l e n g i n g , s o m e w i l lb e v i o l e n t a c t o r s a n d o t h e r s n o n v i o l e n t . I n f a c t ,t h e t e r m n o n c o m b a t a n t a p p l i e s m u c h m o r e r e a d -i l y t o c o n v e n t i o n a l c o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n s t a t e s t h a nt o f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n w a r i n v o l v i n g s t a t e a n d n o n -

s t a t e a c t o r s . N o n v i o l e n t a c t o r s , w h i l e b e i n g l e g a l -

l y n o n c o m b a t a n t s , w i l l b e a c r i t i c a l p a r t o f t a c t i c a l

a c t i o n s . B y u s i n g c r o w d s , p r o t e s t e r s , m e d i a i n t e r -v i e w s , I n t e r n e t W e b s i t e s , a n d o t h e r n o n v i o l e n t

m e t h o d s , f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n w a r r i o r s c a n c r e a t et a c t i c a l d i l e m m a s f o r o p p o n e n t s . T a c t i c a l

r e s o u r c e s i n p o l i c e , i n t e l l i g e n c e , m i l i t a r y , p r o p a -g a n d a , a n d p o l i t i c a l s p h e r e s w i l l b e n e e d e d t od e a l w i t h t h e d i s t r a c t i o n s t h e y c r e a t e .

T a c t i c a l m i l i t a r y a c t i o n ( f o r e x a m p l e , t e r r o r i s t ,

g u e r r i l l a , o r , r a r e l y , c o n v e n t i o n a l ) w i l l b e t i e d t ot h e m e s s a g e a n d t a r g e t e d a t v a r i o u s g r o u p s . T h e

1 9 A u g u s t 2 0 0 3 b o m b i n g o f t h e U N h e a d q u a r t e r s

i n I r a q c o n v i n c e d t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t c o n t i n u i n g

t o o p e r a t e i n I r a q w o u l d b e t o o c o s t l y . T h e 1 9A u g u s t 2 0 0 4 b u r n i n g o f s o u t h e r n I r a q o i l b u i l d -i n g s h a d a n i m m e d i a t e e f f e c t o n t h e p e r - b a r r e lp r i c e o f o i l . T h e s e w e r e t w o t a c t i c a l a c t i o n s w i t hd i f f e r e n t m e s s a g e s f o r d i f f e r e n t t a r g e t a u d i e n c e s ,

y e t t h e y b o t h s u p p o r t t h e s t r a t e g i c g o a l o f i n c r e a s -i n g t h e c o s t t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f s t a y i n g i n I r a q .

W M D A t t a c k s

O n l y b y l o o k i n g a t c u r r e n t c o n f l i c t s a s f o u r t h -g e n e r a t i o n w a r f a r e e v e n t s c a n A m e r i c a ' s t r u e v u l -

8

n e r a h i l i t i e s t o a n a t t a c k w i t h w e a p o n s o f m a s sd e s t r u c t i o n ( W M D ) b e s e e n . E v e n a l i m i t e d b i o -l o g i c a l a t t a c k w i t h a c o n t a g i o u s a g e n t , s u c h a sp l a g u e , w i l l r e s u l t i n a s h u t d o w n o f m a j o r s e g -

m e n t s o f a i r t r a v e l , s h i p p i n g , a n d t r a d e . S m a l l p o xw i l l r e q u i r e a t o t a l q u a r a n t i n e o f t h e a f f e c t e d a r e a su n t i l t h e i n c u b a t i o n p e r i o d h a s p a s s e d . T h ep o t e n t i a l f o r b i l l i o n s o f d o l l a r s i n l o s s e s t o d i s r u p t -

e d t r a d e i s o b v i o u s , a s w e l l a s y e a r s o f c o n t i n u i n g

l o s s d u e t o s u b s e q u e n t l i t i g a t i o n .

W M D a t t a c k s m a y n o t f o c u s O f l p h y s i c a l

d e s t r u c t i o n b u t r a t h e r o n a r e a d e n i a l o r d i s r u p -t i o n . T h e a b i l i t y o f a s i n g l e p e r s o n t o s h u t d o w nS e n a t e o f f i c e b u i l d i n g s a n d p o s t o f f i c e s w i t h t w oa n t h r a x l e t t e r s i s a v i v i d e x a m p l e o f a n a r e a d e n i a l

w e a p o n . D i s r u p t i o n c a n e a s i l y h e m a d e e v e nm o r e w i d e s p r e a d . T h e u s e o f c o n t a i n e r i z e df r e i g h t t o d e l i v e r e i t h e r a W M D o r a h i g h - y i e l de x p l o s i v e w i l l h a v e m o r e f a r - r e a c h i n g a n d c o s t l ye f f e c t s o n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e n e t w o r k t h a n t h e

s h u t d o w n o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l a i r r o u t e s . S e c u r i t y f o ra i r l i n e r s a n d a i r f r e i g h t i s e a s y c o m p a r e d t o t h ep r o b l e m o f i n s p e c t i n g s e a b o r n e s h i p p i n g c o n t a i n -

e r s . Y e t c o n t a i n e r s a r e t h e b a s i c c o m p o n e n t f o rt h e m a j o r i t y o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e t o d a y , a n d t h eU n i t e d S t a t e s h a s n o c u r r e n t s y s t e m t o s e c u r e o ri n s p e c t t h e m . B y t a k i n g a d v a n t a g e o f t h i s v u l n e r -

a b i l i t y , t e r r o r i s t s c a n i m p o s e h u g e e c o n o m i c c o s t s

w i t h l i t t l e e f f o r t . T h e y d o n o t h a v e t o l i m i t t h e i r

a c t i o n s t o t h e c o n t a i n e r s b u t c a n a l s o u s e t h es h i p s t h e m s e l v e s . S h i p s f l y i n g f l a g s o f c o n v e n -i e n c e d o s o t o m i n i m i z e t h e a b i l i t y o f g o v e r n m e n t

e f f o r t s t o r e g u l a t e o r t a x t h e m . I t i s l o g i c a l t oa s s u m e t h e s a m e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i l l a p p e a l t o t e r -

r o r i s t s .

F i n a l l y , t e r r o r i s t s d o n o t e v e n h a v e t o p r o v i d et h e m a t e r i a l s f o r s i m p l e c h e m i c a l a t t a c k s . T h e1 9 8 4 c h e m i c a l p l a n t d i s a s t e r i n B h o p a l , I n d i a ,k i l l e d m o r e p e o p l e t h a n 9 / 1 1 a n d l e f t m o r e w i t hs e r i o u s l o n g - t e r m i n j u r i e s . W h i l e B h o p a l w a s a na c c i d e n t , i t p r e s e n t s a p r e c e d e n t f o r a d e v a s t a t i n gc h e m i c a l a t t a c k .

T h e e x i s t e n c e o f c h e m i c a l p l a n t s a n d t h em o v e m e n t o f t o x i c i n d u s t r i a l c h e m i c a l s n e e d e d t o

s u p p o r t t h e A m e r i c a n l i f e s t y l e e n s u r e t h e r a wm a t e r i a l f o r a c h e m i c a l a t t a c k i s a l w a y s p r e s e n t . I n

a d d i t i o n t o t h e w i d e l y r e c o g n i z e d p o t e n t i a l f o rc h e m i c a l a t t a c k , i t i s f a i r l y c e r t a i n t e r r o r i s t s a r et o d a y e x p l o r i n g h o w t o u s e l i q u i d n a t u r a l g a s

Page 23: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 23/36

t a n k e r s , f u e l t r u c k s , r a d i o a c t i v e w a s t e , a n d o t h e ra v a i l a b l e m a t e r i a l f o r f u t u r e a t t a c k s . T h e s e a r e j u s ta f e w o f t h e r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e t o a n i n t e l l i g e n t ,c r e a t i v e o p p o n e n t .

L o n g T i m e l i n e s

F o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n w a r f a r e t i m e l i n e s , o r g a n i z a -t i o n s , a n d o b j e c t i v e s a r e v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h o s e

o f c o n v e n t i o n a l w a r , O f p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e i st h e f a c t t h a t t i m e l i n e s a r e m u c h l o n g e r . F a i l u r e t ou n d e r s t a n d t h a t e s s e n t i a l f a c t i s w h y m a n yo b s e r v e r s d o n o t f u i l y a p p r e c i a t e t h e m a g n i t u d eo f t h e c h a l l e n g e p r e s e n t e d b y a f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o ne n e m y .

W h e n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a s t o f i g h t , i t p r e f e r s

t o w a g e s h o r t , w e l l - d e f i n e d w a r s . F o r t h e U n i t e dS t a t e s , a l o n g w a r i s f i v e y e a r s — w h i c h , i n f a c t ,w a s t h e d u r a t i o n o f m a j o r U . S . i n v o l v e m e n t i n

V i e t n a m ( 1 9 6 5 — 1 9 7 0 ) . T h e n a t i o n e n t e r e d w h e nt h e w a r w a s a l r e a d y u n d e r w a y a n d l e f t b e f o r e i t

w a s o v e r . E v e n t h e n , t h e U . S . p u b l i c t h o u g h t t h ec o u n t r y h a d b e e n a t w a r t o o l o n g .

B u t f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n w a r s a r e l o n g . T h eC h i n e s e C o m m u n i s t s f o u g h t f o r 2 8 y e a r s ; t h e

V i e t n a m e s e C o m m u n i s t s f o r 3 0 ; t h e S a n d i n i s t a sf o r 1 8 . T h e P a l e s t i n i a n s h a v e b e e n r e s i s t i n g I s r a e l i

o c c u p a t i o n f o r 3 7 y e a r s s o f a r — a n d s o m e w o u l da r g u e t h e y h a v e b e e n f i g h t i n g s i n c e 1 9 4 8 . T h e

C h e c h e n s h a v e b e e n f i g h t i n g o v e r 1 0 y e a r s — t h i st i m e . A I - Q a e d a h a s b e e n f i g h t i n g f o r t h e i r v i s i o no f t h e w o r l d f o r 2 0 y e a r s s i n c e t h e f o u n d i n g o fM a k t a b a l - K h i d a m a r i n 1 9 8 4 . N u m e r o u s o t h e ri n s u r g e n c i e s i n t h e w o r l d h a v e l a s t e d d e c a d e s .A c c o r d i n g l y , w h e n g e t t i n g i n v o l v e d i n t h i s t y p e o f

f i g h t , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s m u s t p l a n f o r a d e c a d e s -l o n g c o m m i t m e n t . F r o m a n A m e r i c a n p o i n t o fv i e w , d u r a t i o n m a y w e l l b e t h e s i n g l e m o s ti m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n w a r -

f a r e . L e a d e r s h i p m u s t m a i n t a i n t h e f o c u s o f e f f o r t

t h r o u g h n u m e r o u s e l e c t i o n s a n d e v e n c h a n g e s o fa d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o p r e v a i l i n s u c h a n e f f o r t .

T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s m u s t u n d e r s t a n d t h a t f o u r t h -g e n e r a t i o n o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e d i f f e r e n t . S i n c e M a o ,

t h e y h a v e f o c u s e d o n t h e l o n g - t e r m p o l i t i c a l v i a -b i l i t y o f t h e m o v e m e n t r a t h e r t h a n o n i t s s h o r t -t e r m t a c t i c a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s . T h e y d o n o t s e e t h e m -s e l v e s a s m i l i t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n s b u t r a t h e r a s w e b s

t h a t g e n e r a t e t h e p o l i t i c a l p o w e r c e n t r a l t o t h i s

9

t y p e o f w a r f a r e . T h u s , t h e s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e u n i -

f i e d b y i d e a s . T h e l e a d e r s h i p a n d t h e o r g a n i z a -t i o n s a r e n e t w o r k e d t o p r o v i d e f o r s u r v i v a b i l i t ya n d c o n t i n u i t y w h e n a t t a c k e d . A n d t h e l e a d e r s h i p

r e c o g n i z e s t h a t t h e i r m o s t i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n i s t os u s t a i n t h e i d e a a n d t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s , n o t s i m p l yt o w i n o n t h e b a t t l e f i e l d .

T h e s e o p p o n e n t s f o c u s o n t h e p o l i t i c a l a s p e c t so f t h e c o n f l i c t b e c a u s e t h e y a c c e p t t h a t w a r i s u l t i -

m a t e l y a p o l i t i c a l a c t . S i n c e t h e f i n a l o b j e c t i v e i s

c h a n g i n g t h e m i n d s o f t h e e n e m y ' s p o l i t i c a l l e a d -e r s h i p , t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e o b j e c t i v e s a r e a l l m i l e -s t o n e s f o c u s e d o n s h i f t i n g t h e o p i n i o n o f t h e v a r -i o u s t a r g e t a u d i e n c e s . T h e y k n o w t h a t t i m e i s o nt h e i r s i d e .

N o t e d m i l i t a r y s t r a t e g i s t H a r r y S u m m e r s

r e c o u n t e d h o w h e o n c e t o l d a N o r t h V i e t n a m e s ec o l o n e l t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a d n e v e r b e e nb e a t e n o n t h e b a t t l e f i e l d . T h e o f f i c e r r e p l i e d ," T h a t m a y b e s o , b u t i t i s a l s o i r r e l e v a n t . "B e c a u s e o f t h e l o n g t i m e l i n e s a n d i t s p o l i t i c a l

n a t u r e , t h e o b j e c t i v e s a r e d i f f e r e n t . F o u r t h - g e n e r -

a t i o n o p p o n e n t s d o n o t s e e k t h e d e f e a t o f t h ee n e m y f o r c e s . T h e y s e e k t h e e r o s i o n o f t h ee n e m y ' s p o l i t i c a l w i l l a n d c a n w i n e v e n i f t h eo p p o s i n g m i l i t a r y f o r c e i s l a r g e l y i n t a c t . T h e yf o c u s o n w i n n i n g w a r s , n o t b a t t l e s .

U . S . R e s p o n s e

F o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n o p p o n e n t s a r e n o t i n v i n c i -b l e . T h e y c a n b e b e a t e n , b u t o n l y b y c o h e r e n t ,p a t i e n t a c t i o n s t h a t e n c o m p a s s a l l a g e n c i e s o f t h eg o v e r n m e n t a n d e l e m e n t s o f t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r .

T h e i r w a r f a r e e n c o m p a s s e s t h e f i e l d s o f d i p l o m a -c y , d e f e n s e , i n t e l l i g e n c e , l a w e n f o r c e m e n t , a n de c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l d e v e l o p m e n t . A m e r i c a n

e f f o r t s m u s t b e o r g a n i z e d a s a n e t w o r k r a t h e r t h a n

i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l v e r t i c a l b u r e a u c r a c i e s o f F e d e r a l

d e p a r t m e n t s . T h i s i n t e r a g e n c y p r o c e s s w i l l h a v et o e x e r t i t s i n f l u e n c e f o r t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e w a r —

f r o m t h e i n i t i a t i o n o f p l a n n i n g t o t h e f i n a l w i t h -d r a w a l o f f o r c e s .

B e s i d e s d e a l i n g w i t h t h e l o n g t i m e l i n e s , d e v e l -o p i n g g e n u i n e i n t e r a g e n c y n e t w o r k s w i l l b e t h e

m o s t d i f f i c u l t U . S . p r o b l e m i n f i g h t i n g a f o u r t h -g e n e r a t i o n o p p o n e n t . T h i s w i l l r e q u i r e f u n d a m e n -

t a l c h a n g e s i n h o w n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y l e a d e r s h i pt r a i n s , d e v e l o p s , p r o m o t e s , d e p l o y s , a n d e m p l o y s

Page 24: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 24/36

p e r s o n n e l a c r o s s t h e F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t . T h ec u r r e n t s y s t e m , w h i c h i s b a s e d o n 1 9 t h - c e n t u r yb u r e a u c r a t i c t h e o r y , c a n n o t s u p p o r t 2 1 s t - c e n t u r yo p e r a t i o n s . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s m u s t

b e a b l e t o :• t r a i n p e r s o n n e l i n a g e n u i n e i n t e r a g e n c y

e n v i r o n m e n t . F r o m t h e c l a s s r o o m t o d a i l y o p e r a -t i o n s t o i n t e r a g e n c y t r a i n i n g e x e r c i s e s , p e r s o n n e lm u s t t h i n k a n d a c t a s p a r t o f a n e t w o r k r a t h e rt h a n a h i e r a r c h y .

• d e v e l o p p e r s o n n e l t h r o u g h t h e e q u i v a l e n t o fm i l i t a r y j o i n t t o u r s . A s i n t h e m i l i t a r y , t h e s e t o u r s

m u s t b e a n e s s e n t i a l s t e p f o r p r o m o t i o n .

• d e p l o y i n t e r a g e n c y p e r s o n n e l f r o m a l l s e g -m e n t s o f t h e U . S . G o v e r n m e n t o v e r s e a s f o r m u c h

l o n g e r t o u r s . T h e c u r r e n t 3 - t o 1 2 - m o n t h o v e r s e a st o u r s i n a c r i s i s c a n n o t w o r k i n f i g h t s l a s t i n g

d e c a d e s .

• o p e r a t e a s i n t e r a g e n c y e l e m e n t s d o w n t o t h et a c t i c a l l e v e l . T h i s m e a n s a b a n d o n i n g t h e a g e n c y -

s p e c i f i c s t o v e p i p e s t h a t l i n k o p e r a t i o n s o v e r s e a st o t h e i r U . S . h e a d q u a r t e r s . T h e B r i t i s h W a rC o m m i t t e e s y s t e m u s e d i n t h e M a l a y a e m e r g e n c yp r o v i d e s o n e m o d e l t h a t e l i m i n a t e d t h es t o v e p i p e s a n d e n s u r e d u n i f i e d e f f o r t a t e v e r yl e v e l o f g o v e r n m e n t . S t a r t i n g i n p e a c e t i m e , p e r -s o n n e l m u s t b e t r a i n e d t o b e e f f e c t i v e l i n k i n g i n t o

t h e i n t e r a g e n c y p r o c e s s , a n d t h o s e w h o d o s os h o u l d b e r e w a r d e d . T h e c u r r e n t p r o c e s s o fr e w a r d i n g t h o s e w h o w o r k e n t i r e l y w i t h i n a s p e -

c i f i c a g e n c y p r e v e n t s e f f e c t i v e n e t w o r k i n g .

• e l i m i n a t e t h e d e t a i l e d , b u r e a u c r a t i c p r o c e s s -e s t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e p e a c e t i m e g o v e r n m e n t a c t i o n s

( p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n t r a c t i n g a n d p u r c h a s i n g ) . P e o p l eh a v e t o b e t r u s t e d a n d h e l d a c c o u n t a b l e . L o n g e r

t o u r s o f d u t y w i l l b e e s s e n t i a l , b o t h t o e n s u r e t h a t

p e r s o n n e l u n d e r s t a n d t h e s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n w e l le n o u g h t o m a k e d e c i s i o n s a n d c a n l e g i t i m a t e l y b e

h e l d a c c o u n t a b l e f o r t h e i r a c t i o n s . T h e c u r r e n ts h o r t t o u r s m e a n n o o n e m a s t e r s h i s o r h e r j o b ,

t h e r e c o r d s a r e i n c o m p l e t e , a n d a c c o u n t a b i l i t yc a n n o t b e m a i n t a i n e d .

• d e v e l o p p r o c e d u r e s f o r f u l l y i n t e g r a t i n g t h er a n g e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , N G O s , a l l i e s ,

a n d s p e c i a l i s t s n e c e s s a r y t o s u c c e e d a g a i n s t a na d e p t , a g i l e i n s u r g e n t .

1 0

T h e s e a r e m a j o r c h a l l e n g e s , b u t a m o d e l e x i s t s

w i t h w h i c h t o w o r k . P r e s i d e n t i a l D e c i s i o n

D i r e c t i v e 5 6 p r o v i d e s a n e x c e l l e n t s t a r t i n g p o i n t . 2

B a s e d o n l e s s o n s l e a r n e d f r o m U . S . i n v o l v e m e n t

i n m u l t i p l e c r i s e s a n d c o m p l e x c o n t i n g e n c i e s d u r -i n g t h e 1 9 9 0 s , i t p r o v i d e s g u i d a n c e f o r b o t h t r a i n -

i n g a n d o p e r a t i o n s i n a n i n t e r a g e n c y e n v i r o n m e n tt h a t c a n b e a d a p t e d f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f w a g i n gf o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n w a r f a r e .

Y e t t h i s i s o n l y a s t a r t i n g p o i n t . I n t h e s a m ew a y t h a t t h e A r m e d F o r c e s h a d t o l e a r n t o f i g h t

j o i n t l y t o m a s t e r t h i r d - g e n e r a t i o n w a r , t h e e n t i r eg o v e r n m e n t m u s t l e a r n t o o p e r a t e i n a g e n u i n ei n t e r a g e n c y f a s h i o n t o m a s t e r f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o nc o n f l i c t . T h e r e a r e n o s i m p l e , o n e d e p a r t m e n t ,o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l s o l u t i o n s t o t h e s e w a r s . E v e n

w i t h a f u l l y f u n c t i o n i n g i n t e r a g e n c y p r o c e s s , t h ea s s u m p t i o n m u s t b e m a d e t h a t f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o nw a r s w i l l l a s t a d e c a d e o r m o r e .

C o n c l u s i o n

A s G e r m a n m i l i t a r y s t r a t e g i s t C a r l v o n

C l a u s e w i t z o n c e o b s e r v e d : " T h e f i r s t , t h e

s u p r e m e , t h e m o s t f a r - r e a c h i n g a c t o f j u d g m e n tt h a t t h e s t a t e s m a n a n d c o m m a n d e r h a v e t o m a k ei s t o e s t a b l i s h b y t h a t t e s t t h e k i n d o f w a r o nw h i c h t h e y a r e e m b a r k i n g ; n e i t h e r m i s t a k i n g i tf o r , n o r t r y i n g t o t u r n i t i n t o , s o m e t h i n g t h a t i s

a l i e n t o i t s n a t u r e . " 3 F o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n w a r , l i k e i t sp r e d e c e s s o r s , w i l l c o n t i n u e t o e v o l v e i n w a y s t h a t

m i r r o r g l o b a l s o c i e t y a s a w h o l e . A s t h e U n i t e dS t a t e s m o v e s a w a y f r o m a h i e r a r c h i c a l , i n d u s t r i a l -

b a s e d s o c i e t y t o a n e t w o r k e d , i n f o r m a t i o n - b a s e ds o c i e t y , i t s p o l i t i c a l , s o c i o e c o n o m i c , a n d t e c h n o -

l o g i c a l b a s e s w i l l a l s o e v o l v e .

W i t h t h i s e v o l u t i o n c o m e o p p o r t u n i t y a n d h a z -

a r d . T h e k e y t o p r o v i d i n g f o r s e c u r i t y l i e s i n r e c -o g n i z i n g t h e s e c h a n g e s f o r w h a t t h e y a r e . I n

u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e k i n d o f w a r b e i n g f o u g h t , t h eU n i t e d S t a t e s m u s t n o t a t t e m p t t o s h a p e i t i n t o

s o m e t h i n g i t i s n o t . O p p o n e n t s c a n n o t b e f o r c e di n t o a t h i r d - g e n e r a t i o n w a r t h a t m a x i m i z e sA m e r i c a n s t r e n g t h s ; t h e y w i l l f i g h t t h e f o u r t h - g e n -e r a t i o n w a r t h a t c h a l l e n g e s U . S . w e a k n e s s e s .C l a u s e w i t z ' s a d m o n i t i o n t o n a t i o n a l l e a d e r sr e m a i n s a s v a l i d a s e v e r , a n d i t m u s t g u i d e t h ep l a n n i n g f o r f u t u r e w a r s

Page 25: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 25/36

N o t e s

1 . H a r r y G . S u m m e r s , O n S t r a t e g y : A C r i t i c a l A n a l y s i so f t h e V i e t n a m W a r ( N o v a t o , C A : P r e s i d i o P r e s s , 1 9 8 2 ) ,

1 .2 . P r e s i d e n t i a l D e c i s i o n D i r e c t i v e 5 6 w a s d e v e l o p e d b yt h e C l i n t o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o m a n a g e c o m p l e x c o n t i n -g e n c y o p e r a t i o n s . A l t h o u g h c a n c e l e d b y t h e B u s ha d m i n i s t r a t i o n , i t s t i l l p r o v i d e s a w e l l - t h o u g h t - o u tm o d e l f o r i n s u r g e n c y o p e r a t i o n s .3 . C a r l v o n C l a u s e w i t z , O n W a r , t r a n s . P e t e r P a r e t a n d

1 1

M i c h a e l H o w a r d ( P r i n c e t o n : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t yP r e s s , 1 9 7 6 ) , 8 8 .

A b o u t t h e A u t h o rT h o m a s X . H a m m e s , C o l o n e l , U S M C ( R e t . ) , i s t h e a u t h o r o f T h e S l i n g

a n d t h e S t o n e : O n W a r f a r e i n t h e 2 1 s t C e n t u r y ( 2 0 0 4 ) , a n i n f l u e n t i a lb o o k o n f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n w a r f a r e , a s u b j e c t o n w h i c h h e h a s b e e n p u b -

l i s h i n g s i n c e 1 9 8 9 . A t t h e t i m e t h i s a r t i c l e w a s p u b l i s h e d , h e w a s a s e n i o r

m i l i t a r y f e l l o w a t t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r N a t i o n a l S t r a t e g i c S t u d i e s a t N a t i o n a l

D e f e n s e U n i v e r s i t y i n W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . I n h i s 3 0 y e a r s i n t h e M a r i n e

C o r p s , H a m m e s s e r v e d a t a l l l e v e l s i n t h e o p e r a t i n g f o r c e s a n d p a r t i c i p a t -

e d i n s t a b i l i z a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s i n S o m a l i a a n d I r a q .

Page 26: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 26/36

Page 27: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 27/36

B a c k t o t h e S t r e e tw i t h o u t J o y :C o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c yL e s s o n s f r o m

V i e t n a m a n d O t h e rS m a l l W a r s

b y R o b e r t M C a s s i d y

P a r a m e t e r s , S u m m e r 2 0 0 4

" T h e d e p l o r a b l e e x p e r i e n c e i n V i e t n a m o v e r -s h a d o w s A m e r i c a n t h i n k i n g a b o u t g u e r r i l l a i n s u r -

g e n c y . "

— A n t h o n y J a m e s J o e s 1

" F o o l s s a y t h e y l e a r n f r o m e x p e r i e n c e ; I p r e f e r t ol e a r n f r o m t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f o t h e r s . "

O t t o v o n B i s m a r k 2

n 1 9 6 1 , B e r n a r d F a l l , a s c h o l a r a n d p r a c t i -t i o n e r o f w a r , p u b l i s h e d a b o o k e n t i t l e d T h eS t r e e t W i t h o u t J o y . T h e b o o k p r o v i d e d a

l u c i d a c c o u n t o f w h y t h e F r e n c h E x p e d i t i o n a r yC o r p s f a i l e d t o d e f e a t t h e V i e t M i n h d u r i n g t h eI n d o c h i n a W a r , a n d t h e b o o k ' s t i t l e d e r i v e d

f r o m t h e F r e n c h s o l d i e r s ' s a r d o n i c m o n i k e r f o rH i g h w a y 1 o n t h e c o a s t o f I n d o c h i n a —

" A m b u s h A l l e y , " o r t h e " S t r e e t w i t h o u t J o y . " I n1 9 6 7 , w h i l e p a t r o l l i n g w i t h U . S . M a r i n e s o n t h e

S t r e e t w i t h o u t J o y i n V i e t n a m , B e r n a r d F a l l w a sk i l l e d b y a n i m p r o v i s e d e x p l o s i v e m i n e d u r i n ga V i e t C o n g a m b u s h . I n 2 0 0 3 , a f t e r t h e f a l l o fB a g h d a d a n d f o l l o w i n g t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l p h a s eo f O p e r a t i o n I r a q i F r e e d o m , U . S . a n d C o a l i t i o n

f o r c e s o p e r a t i n g i n t h e S u n n i T r i a n g l e b e g a nf i g h t i n g a c o u n t e r - g u e r r i l l a t y p e w a r i n w h i c hm u c h o f t h e e n e m y i n s u r g e n t a c t i v i t y o c c u r r e da l o n g H i g h w a y 1 , a n o t h e r s t r e e t e x h i b i t i n g l i t t l ej o y . L e a r n i n g f r o m t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f o t h e r U . S .c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c i e s i s p r e f e r a b l e t o t h e a l t e r n a -t i v e .

1 3

Page 28: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 28/36

T h e U . S . m i l i t a r y h a s h a d a h o s t o f s u c c e s s f u le x p e r i e n c e s i n c o u n t e r g u e r r i l l a w a r , i n c l u d i n gs o m e d i s t i n c t s u c c e s s e s w i t h c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o ft h e V i e t n a m W a r . H o w e v e r , t h e p a r a d o x s t e m -

m i n g f r o m A m e r i c a ' s u n s u c c e s s f u l c r u s a d e i nt h e j u n g l e s o f V i e t n a m i s t h i s — b e c a u s e t h ee x p e r i e n c e w a s p e r c e i v e d a s a n a t h e m a t o t h e

m a i n s t r e a m A m e r i c a n m i l i t a r y , h a r d l e s s o n sl e a r n e d t h e r e a b o u t f i g h t i n g g u e r r i l l a s w e r e n e i -t h e r e m b e d d e d n o r p r e s e r v e d i n t h e U . S . A r m y ' s

i n s t i t u t i o n a l m e m o r y . T h e A m e r i c a n m i l i t a r yc u l t u r e ' s e f f o r t s t o e x p u n g e t h e s p e c t e r o fV i e t n a m , e m b o d i e d i n t h e m a n t r a " N o M o r eV i e t n a m s , " a l s o p r e v e n t e d t h e U . S . A r m y a s a n

i n s t i t u t i o n f r o m r e a l l y l e a r n i n g f r o m t h o s e l e s -s o n s . I n f a c t , e v e n t h e t e r m c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y

s e e m e d t o b e c o m e a r e v i l e d a n d u n w e l c o m ew o r d , o n e t h a t t h e d o c t r i n a l c o g n o s c e n t i o f t h e1 9 8 0 s c o n v e n i e n t l y t r a n s m o g r i f i e d i n t o " f o r e i g n

i n t e r n a l d e f e n s e . " E v e n t h o u g h m a n y l e s s o n se x i s t i n t h e U . S . m i l i t a r y ' s h i s t o r i c a l e x p e r i e n c e

w i t h s m a l l w a r s , t h e l e s s o n s f r o m t h e V i e t n a mW a r w e r e t h e m o s t v o l u m i n o u s . Y e t t h e s e l e s -

S o n s w e r e m o s t l i k e l y t h e l e a s t r e a d , b e c a u s et h e A r m y ' s i n t e l l e c t u a l r e b i r t h a f t e r V i e t n a m

f o c u s e d a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y o n a b i g c o n v e n t i o n -a l w a r i n E u r o p e — t h e s c e n a r i o p r e f e r r e d b y t h eU . S . m i l i t a r y c u l t u r e . 3

S i n c e t h e U . S . A r m y a n d i t s c o a l i t i o n p a r t n e r s

a r e c u r r e n t l y p r o s e c u t i n g c o u n t e r g u e r r i l l a w a r si n I r a q a n d A f g h a n i s t a n , i t i s u s e f u l t o r e v i s i t t h e

l e s s o n s f r o m V i e t n a m a n d o t h e r c o u n t e r i n s u r -g e n c i e s b e c a u s e t h e y a r e g e r m a n e t o t h e w a r so f t o d a y a n d t o m o r r o w . C a p t u r i n g a l l o r m a n yo f t h e s e l e s s o n s i s b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f t h i s a r t i -c l e a n d i s m o s t l i k e l y b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f a s i n -

g l e - v o l u m e b o o k . H o w e v e r , t h i s a r t i c l e a i m s t od i s t i l l s o m e o f t h e m o r e r e l e v a n t c o u n t e r i n s u r -g e n c y l e s s o n s f r o m t h e A m e r i c a n m i l i t a r y ' se x p e r i e n c e s d u r i n g V i e t n a m • a n d b e f o r e . A b i g -g e r g o a l o f t h i s a r t i c l e , h o w e v e r , i s t o h i g h l i g h ts o m e s a l i e n t s t u d i e s f o r p r o f e s s i o n a l r e a d i n g a st h e U . S . A r m y s t a r t s t o i n c u l c a t e a m i n d s e t t h a te m b r a c e s t h e c h a l l e n g e s o f c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c ya n d t o d e v e l o p a c u l t u r e t h a t l e a r n s f r o m p a s tl e s s o n s i n c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y . T h i s a n a l y s i s a l s oo f f e r s a b r i e f e x p l a n a t i o n o f U . S . m i l i t a r y c u l t u r ea n d t h e h i t h e r t o e m b e d d e d c u l t u r a l o b s t a c l e s t ol e a r n i n g h o w t o f i g h t g u e r r i l l a s . T o s i m p l i f y a n d

1 4

c l a r i f y a t t h e o u t s e t , t h e t e r m s c o u n t e r i n s u r -g e n c y , c o u n t e r g u e r r i l l a w a r f a r e , s m a l l w a r , a n d

a s y m m e t r i c c o n f l i c t a r e u s e d i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y . I ti s a f o r m o f w a r f a r e i n w h i c h e n e m i e s o f t h e

r e g i m e o r o c c u p y i n g f o r c e a i m t o u n d e r m i n et h e r e g i m e b y e m p l o y i n g c l a s s i c a l g u e r r i l l a t a c -t i c s . 4

T h e U . S . A r m y a n d t h e b r o a d e r A m e r i c a nm i l i t a r y a r e o n l y n o w , w e l l i n t o t h e s e c o n dd e c a d e a f t e r t h e e n d o f t h e C o l d W a r , w h o l e -h e a r t e d l y t r y i n g t o t r a n s f o r m t h e i r c u l t u r e , o rm i n d s e t . S e n i o r c i v i l i a n a n d m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s o ft h e d e f e n s e e s t a b l i s h m e n t r e a l i z e t h a t m i l i t a r yc u l t u r a l c h a n g e i s a p r e c o n d i t i o n f o r i n n o v a t i v ea n d a d a p t i v e a p p r o a c h e s t o m e e t t h e e x i g e n c i e so f a m o r e c o m p l e x s e c u r i t y l a n d s c a p e , o n e i n

w h i c h o u r a d v e r s a r i e s w i l l m o s t l i k e l y a d o p tu n o r t h o d o x s t r a t e g i e s a n d t a c t i c s t o u n d e r m i n eo u r t e c h n o l o g i c a l o v e r m a t c h i n t h e W e s t e r n ,o r t h o d o x , w a y o f w a r . M i l i t a r y c u l t u r e c a n g e n -e r a l l y b e d e f i n e d a s t h e e m b e d d e d b e l i e f s a n da t t i t u d e s w i t h i n a m i l i t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t

s h a p e t h a t o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s p r e f e r e n c e o n w h e na n d h o w t h e m i l i t a r y i n s t r u m e n t s h o u l d b eu s e d . B e c a u s e t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n a l b e l i e f s s o m e -t i m e s t e n d t o v a l u e c e r t a i n r o l e s a n d m a r g i n a l -i z e o t h e r s , m i l i t a r y c u l t u r e c a n i m p e d e i n n o v a -t i o n i n w a y s o f w a r f a r e t h a t l i e o u t s i d e t h a to r g a n i z a t i o n ' s v a l u e d , o r c o r e , r o l e s . 5

F o r m o s t o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y , t h e U . S . m i l i t a r yc u l t u r e ( n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e M a r i n e s ' w o r k i ns m a l l w a r s ) g e n e r a l l y e m b r a c e d t h e b i g c o n v e n -t i o n a l w a r p a r a d i g m a n d f u n d a m e n t a l l ye s c h e w e d s m a l l w a r s a n d i n s u r g e n c i e s . T h u s ,i n s t e a d o f l e a r n i n g f r o m o u r e x p e r i e n c e s i n

V i e t n a m , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , t h e M a r i n e C o r p s 'e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e B a n a n a W a r s , a n d t h e I n d i a nc a m p a i g n s , t h e U . S . A r m y f o r m o s t o f t h e l a s t1 0 0 y e a r s h a s v i e w e d t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s a se p h e m e r a l a n o m a l i e s a n d a b e r r a t i o n s — d i s t r a c -t i o n s f r o m p r e p a r i n g t o w i n b i g w a r s a g a i n s to t h e r b i g p o w e r s . A s a r e s u l t o f m a r g i n a l i z i n g

t h e c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c i e s a n d s m a l l w a r s t h a t i th a s s p e n t m o s t o f i t s e x i s t e n c e p r o s e c u t i n g , t h eU . S . m i l i t a r y ' s b i g - w a r c u l t u r a l p r e f e r e n c e s h a v ei m p e d e d i t f r o m f u l l y b e n e f i t i n g — s t u d y i n g , d i s -

t i l l i n g , a n d i n c o r p o r a t i n g i n t o d o c t r i n e — f r o mo u r s o m e w h a t e x t e n s i v e l e s s o n s i n s m a l l w a r s

a n d i n s u r g e n c i e s . T h i s a r t i c l e s t a r t s b y b r i e f l y

Page 29: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 29/36

e x a m i n i n g s o m e o f t h e s a l i e n t l e s s o n s f o r c o u n -t e r i n s u r g e n c y f r o m V i e t n a m a n d l i s t s s o m e o ft h e s o u r c e s f o r l e s s o n s f r o m t h a t w a r t h a t h a v eb e e n n e g l e c t e d o r f o r g o t t e n . T h i s a r t i c l e a l s o

e x a m i n e s s o m e s o u r c e s a n d l e s s o n s o f c o u n -t e r i n s u r g e n c i e s a n d s m a l l w a r s p r e d a t i n gV i e t n a m .

V i e t n a m — T h e " O t h e r W a r " a n dV a l u a b l e L e s s o n s

I f a n d w h e n m o s t A m e r i c a n s t h i n k a b o u tV i e t n a m , t h e y p r o b a b l y t h i n k o f G e n e r a l W i l l i a mC . W e s t m o r e l a n d , t h e A m e r i c a n i z a t i o n o f t h e w a rt h a t w a s e n g e n d e r e d b y t h e b i g - u n i t b a t t l e s o fa t t r i t i o n , a n d t h e T e t O f f e n s i v e o f 1 9 6 8 . H o w e v e r ,

t h e r e w a s a n o t h e r w a r — c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y a n dp a c i f i c a t i o n — w h e r e m a n y S p e c i a l F o r c e s ,

M a r i n e s , a n d o t h e r a d v i s e r s e m p l o y e d s m a l l - w a rm e t h o d s w i t h s o m e s u c c e s s . M o r e o v e r , w h e nG e n e r a l C r e i g h t o n A b r a m s b e c a m e t h e c o m -m a n d e r o f t h e w a r i n V i e t n a m i n 1 9 6 8 , h e p u t a ne n d t o t h e t w o - w a r a p p r o a c h b y a d o p t i n g a o n e -w a r f o c u s o n p a c i f i c a t i o n . A l t h o u g h t h i s c a m et o o l a t e t o r e g a i n t h e p o l i t i c a l s u p p o r t f o r t h e w a rt h a t w a s i r r e v o c a b l y s q u a n d e r e d d u r i n g t h e

W e s t m o r e l a n d y e a r s , A b r a m s ' u n i f i e d s t r a t e g y t oc l e a r a n d h o l d t h e c o u n t r y s i d e b y p a c i f y i n g a n d

s e c u r i n g t h e p o p u l a t i o n m e t w i t h m u c h s u c c e s s .A b r a m s b a s e d h i s a p p r o a c h o n a s t u d y p r e -

p a r e d b y t h e A r m y s t a f f i n 1 9 6 6 t h a t w a s e n t i -t l e d A P r o g r a m f o r t h e P a c i f i c a t i o n a n d L o n g -

T e r m D e v e l o p m e n t o f S o u t h V i e t n a m ( P R O V NS t u d y ) . T h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h e S p e c i a l F o r c e s i no r g a n i z i n g C i v i l i a n I r r e g u l a r D e f e n s e G r o u p s( C I D G ) , t h e M a r i n e s ' C o m b i n e d A c t i o n P r o g r a m( C A P ) , a n d A b r a m s ' P R O V N S t u d y - b a s e d e x p a n -

s i o n o f t h e C i v i l O p e r a t i o n s a n d R e v o l u t i o n a r y( l a t e r R u r a l ) D e v e l o p m e n t a n d S u p p o r t( C O R D S ) p a c i f i c a t i o n e f f o r t u n d e r M i l i t a r y

A s s i s t a n c e C o m m a n d V i e t n a m ( M A C V ) a l l o f f e r

s o m e v a l u a b l e l e s s o n s f o r c u r r e n t a n d f u t u r ec o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c i e s , 6

F o r m u c h o f t h e V i e t n a m W a r , t h e 5 t h S p e c i a lF o r c e s G r o u p t r a i n e d a n d l e d C I D G m o b i l es t r i k e f o r c e s a n d r e c o n n a i s s a n c e c o m p a n i e s t h a tc o m p r i s e d e t h n i c m i n o r i t y t r i b e s a n d g r o u p sf r o m t h e m o u n t a i n a n d b o r d e r r e g i o n s . T h e s e

1 5

s t r i k e f o r c e s e s s e n t i a l l y c o n d u c t e d r e c o n n a i s -s a n c e b y m e a n s o f s m a l l - u n i t p a t r o l s a n dd e f e n d e d t h e i r h o m e b a s e s i n t h e b o r d e r a r e a s ,d e n y i n g t h e m t o t h e V i e t C o n g a n d N o r t h

V i e t n a m e s e r e g u l a r u n i t s . W h a t ' s m o r e , d u r i n g1 9 6 6 — 6 7 A m e r i c a n f i e l d c o m m a n d e r s i n c r e a s -

i n g l y e m p l o y e d S p e c i a l F o r c e s - l e d " M i k e " u n i t si n l o n g - r a n g e r e c o n n a i s s a n c e m i s s i o n s o r a se c o n o m y - o f - f o r c e s e c u r i t y e l e m e n t s f o r r e g u l a ru n i t s . O t h e r C I D G - t y p e f o r c e s , c a l l e d m o b i l eg u e r r i l l a f o r c e s , r a i d e d e n e m y b a s e a r e a s a n de m p l o y e d h i t - a n d - r u n g u e r r i l l a t a c t i c s a g a i n s t

r e g u l a r e n e m y u n i t s . T h e S p e c i a l F o r c e s a l s or e c r u i t e d h e a v i l y a m o n g t h e N u n g t r i b e s f o r

" D e l t a , " " S i g m a , " a n d " O m e g a " u n i t s — S p e c i a lF o r c e s - l e d r e c o n n a i s s a n c e a n d r e a c t i o n f o r c e s .

T o b e s u r e , t h e C I D G p r o g r a m p r o v i d e d a s i g -n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e w a r e f f o r t . T h ea p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 , 5 0 0 s o l d i e r s a s s i g n e d t o t h e 5 t h

S p e c i a l F o r c e s G r o u p e s s e n t i a l l y r a i s e d a n d l e da n a r m y o f 5 0 , 0 0 0 t r i b a l f i g h t e r s t o o p e r a t e i ns o m e o f t h e m o s t d i f f i c u l t a n d d a n g e r o u s t e r r a i ni n V i e t n a m . T h e C I D G p a t r o l l i n g o f b o r d e ri n f i l t r a t i o n a r e a s p r o v i d e d r e l i a b l e t a c t i c a l i n t e l -l i g e n c e , a n d t h e u n i t s s e c u r e d p o p u l a t i o n s i n

a r e a s t h a t m i g h t h a v e b e e n o t h e r w i s e c o n c e d e dt o t h e e n e m y . 7

A n o t h e r p r o g r a m t h a t g r e a t l y i m p r o v e d t h eU . S . m i l i t a r y ' s c a p a c i t y t o s e c u r e t h e p o p u l a t i o n

a n d t o a c q u i r e b e t t e r t a c t i c a l i n t e l l i g e n c e w a st h e U . S . M a r i n e C o r p s ' c o m b i n e d A c t i o nP r o g r a m ( C A P ) . T h e C A P w a s a l o c a l i n n o v a t i o nw i t h p o t e n t i a l s t r a t e g i c i m p a c t — i t c o u p l e d aM a r i n e r i f l e s q u a d w i t h a p l a t o o n o f l o c a li n d i g e n o u s f o r c e s a n d p o s i t i o n e d t h i s c o m -b i n e d - a c t i o n p l a t o o n i n t h e v i l l a g e o f t h o s el o c a l f o r c e s . T h i s c o m b i n e d M a r i n e / i n d i g e n o u sp l a t o o n t r a i n e d , p a t r o l l e d , d e f e n d e d , a n d l i v e di n t h e v i l l a g e t o g e t h e r . T h e m i s s i o n o f t h e C A Pw a s t o d e s t r o y t h e V i e t C o n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r ew i t h i n t h e v i l l a g e o r h a m l e t a r e a o f r e s p o n s i b i l -i t y ; p r o t e c t p u b l i c s e c u r i t y a n d h e l p m a i n t a i nl a w a n d o r d e r ; p r o t e c t f r i e n d l y i n f r a s t r u c t u r e ;p r o t e c t b a s e s a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s w i t h i n t h ev i l l a g e s a n d h a m l e t s ; o r g a n i z e i n d i g e n o u s i n t e l -l i g e n c e n e t s ; p a r t i c i p a t e i n c i v i c a c t i o n ; a n dc o n d u c t p r o p a g a n d a a g a i n s t t h e V i e t C o n g .C i v i c a c t i o n p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n e f f o r t st o d e s t r o y t h e V i e t C o n g , a s i t a c q u i r e d i m p o r -

Page 30: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 30/36

t a n t i n t e l l i g e n c e a b o u t e n e m y a c t i v i t y f r o m t h el o c a l p o p u l a t i o n . B e c a u s e o f t h e c o m b i n e d -

a c t i o n p l a t o o n ' s p r o x i m i t y t o t h e p e o p l e a n db e c a u s e i t p r o t e c t e d t h e p e o p l e f r o m r e p r i s a l s ,

i t w a s i d e a l f o r g a i n i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e f r o m t h el o c a l s . T h e M a r i n e s ' e m p h a s i s o n p a c i f y i n g t h eh i g h l y p o p u l a t e d a r e a s p r e v e n t e d t h e g u e r r i l l a sf r o m c o e r c i n g t h e l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n i n t o p r o v i d -i n g r i c e , i n t e l l i g e n c e , a n d s a n c t u a r y t o t h e

e n e m y . T h e M a r i n e s w o u l d c l e a r a n d h o l d a v i l -l a g e i n t h i s w a y a n d t h e n e x p a n d t h e s e c u r e da r e a . T h e C A P u n i t s a c c o u n t e d f o r 7 . 6 p e r c e n t

o f t h e e n e m y k i l l e d w h i l e r e p r e s e n t i n g o n l y 1 . 5p e r c e n t o f t h e M a r i n e s i n V i e t n a m . T h e l e s s o n sf r o m C A P p r o v i d e o n e m o d e l f o r p r o t r a c t e d

c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c i e s , b e c a u s e t h e p r o g r a m

e m p l o y e d U . S . t r o o p s a n d l e a d e r s h i p i n a ne c o n o m y o f f o r c e w h i l e m a x i m i z i n g i n d i g e n o u st r o o p s . A m o d e s t i n v e s t m e n t o f U . S . f o r c e s a t

t h e v i l l a g e l e v e l c a n y i e l d m a j o r i m p r o v e m e n t si n l o c a l s e c u r i t y a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e . 8

A l t h o u g h C O R D S w a s i n t e g r a t e d u n d e rM A C V w h e n A b r a m s w a s s t i l l t h e D e p u t y

C o m m a n d e r i n 1 9 6 7 , i t w a s A b r a m s a n d W i l l i a m

C o l b y , a s t h e D i r e c t o r o f C O R D S , w h o e x p a n d -e d a n d i n v e s t e d C O R D S w i t h g o o d p e o p l e a n d

r e s o u r c e s . U n d e r t h e o n e - w a r s t r a t e g y , C O R D Sw a s e s t a b l i s h e d a s t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n u n d e rM A C V t o u n i f y a n d p r o v i d e s i n g l e o v e r s i g h t o f

t h e p a c i f i c a t i o n e f f o r t . A f t e r 1 9 6 8 , A b r a m s a n dC o l b y m a d e C O R D S a n d p a c i f i c a t i o n t h e m a i n

e f f o r t . T h e i n v i g o r a t e d c i v i l a n d r u r a l d e v e l o p -m e n t p r o g r a m p r o v i d e d i n c r e a s e d s u p p o r t ,a d v i s e r s , a n d f u n d i n g t o t h e p o l i c e a n d t e r r i t o -

r i a l f o r c e s ( r e g i o n a l f o r c e s a n d p o p u l a r f o r c e s ) .E s s e n t i a l l y , t h i s r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t a l l o w e d m i l -

i t a r y a n d c i v i l i a n U . S . A g e n c y f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a lD e v e l o p m e n t a d v i s e r s t o w o r k w i t h t h e i rV i e t n a m e s e c o u n t e r p a r t s a t t h e p r o v i n c e a n dv i l l a g e l e v e l t o i m p r o v e l o c a l s e c u r i t y a n d

d e v e l o p i n f r a s t r u c t u r e . I d e n t i f y i n g a n d e l i m i n a t -

i n g t h e V i e t C o n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e w a s a c r i t i c a lp a r t o f t h e n e w f o c u s o n p a c i f i c a t i o n , a n dC o l b y ' s a p p r o a c h — t h e A c c e l e r a t e d P a c i f i c a t i o nC a m p a i g n — i n c l u d e d t h e P h u o n g H o a n g p r o -g r a m , o r P h o e n i x . T h e p u r p o s e o f P h o e n i x w a st o n e u t r a l i z e t h e V i e t C o n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , a n da l t h o u g h t h e p r o g r a m r e c e i v e d s o m e n e g a t i v ea t t e n t i o n i n t h e i n s t a n c e s w h e n i t w a s a b u s e d ,

1 6

i t s u s e o f f o r m e r V i e t C o n g a n d i n d i g e n o u sP r o v i s i o n a l R e c o n n a i s s a n c e U n i t s t o r o o t o u tt h e e n e m y ' s s h a d o w g o v e r n m e n t w a s v e r ye f f e c t i v e . T h e C O R D S ' A c c e l e r a t e d P a c i f i c a t i o n

C a m p a i g n f o c u s e d o n t e r r i t o r i a l s e c u r i t y , n e u -t r a l i z i n g V i e t C o n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , a n d s u p p o r t -i n g p r o g r a m s f o r s e l f - d e f e n s e a n d s e l f - g o v e r n -m e n t a t t h e l o c a l l e v e l . 9

T h e A c c e l e r a t e d P a c i f i c a t i o n C a m p a i g n

b e g a n i n N o v e m b e r 1 9 6 8 , a n d b y l a t e 1 9 7 0 t h eg o v e r n m e n t o f t h e R e p u b l i c o f V i e t n a m c o n -t r o l l e d m o s t o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e . T h e " o t h e rw a r " — p a c i f i c a t i o n — h a d e s s e n t i a l l y b e e n w o n ." F o u r m i l l i o n m e m b e r s o f t h e P e o p l e ' s S e l f -D e f e n s e F o r c e , a r m e d w i t h s o m e 6 0 0 , 0 0 0w e a p o n s " c o n s t i t u t e d a p o w e r f u l e x a m p l e o f

t h e c o m m i t m e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n i n s u p p o r t o ft h e R e p u b l i c o f V i e t n a m a n d i n o p p o s i t i o n t ot h e e n e m y . E x p a n d e d , b e t t e r a d v i s e d , a n d b e t -t e r a r m e d , t h e R e g i o n a l F o r c e s a n d P o p u l a rF o r c e s r e p r e s e n t e d t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t

i m p r o v e m e n t . U n d e r C O R D S , t h e s e f o r c e sb e c a m e c a p a b l e o f p r o v i d i n g c l o s e - i n s e c u r i t yf o r t h e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n . T h e H a m l e t E v a l u a t i o nS y s t e m , t h o u g h i m p e r f e c t a n d q u a n t i t a t i v e , i n d i -

c a t e d t h a t f r o m 1 9 6 9 t o 1 9 7 0 , 2 , 6 0 0 h a m l e t s( t h r e e m i l l i o n p e o p l e ) h a d b e e n s e c u r e d . O t h e rm o r e p r a c t i c a l m e a s u r e s o f t h e A c c e l e r a t e dP a c i f i c a t i o n C a m p a i g n ' s s u c c e s s w e r e a r e d u c -

t i o n i n t h e e x t o r t i o n o f t a x e s b y t h e V i e t C o n g ,a r e d u c t i o n i n r e c r u i t i n g b y t h e e n e m y i n S o u t hV i e t n a m , a n d a d e c r e a s e i n e n e m y f o o d p r o v i -s i o n s t a k e n f r o m t h e v i l l a g e r s .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e M A C V a n d C O R D S p a c i f i -c a t i o n e f f o r t s , o t h e r f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t e d t o S o u t hV i e t n a m ' s c o n t r o l o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e . F i r s t , t h ee n e m y ' s T e t O f f e n s i v e i n J a n u a r y 1 9 6 8 a n dM i n i - T e t i n M a y 1 9 6 8 r e s u l t e d i n d e v a s t a t i n gl o s s e s t o V i e t C o n g f o r c e s i n t h e s o u t h , a l l o w -i n g M A C V / C O R D S t o i n t e n s i f y p a c i f i c a t i o n .

S e c o n d , t h e e n e m y ' s b r u t a l m e t h o d s ( i n c l u d i n g

m a s s m u r d e r i n H u e ) d u r i n g T e t s h o c k e d t h ec i v i l i a n p o p u l a t i o n o f S o u t h V i e t n a m , c r e a t i n g aw i l l i n g n e s s t o a c c e p t t h e m o r e a g g r e s s i v e c o n -s c r i p t i o n r e q u i r e d t o e x p a n d i n d i g e n o u s f o r c e s .L a s t , o n e c a n s u r m i s e t h a t H o C h i M i n h ' s d e a t hi n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 6 9 m a y h a v e h a d s o m e n e g a -t i v e e f f e c t o n t h e q u a l i t y a n d d i r e c t i o n o f t h eN o r t h V i e t n a m e s e a r m y ' s l e a d e r s h i p . 1 °

Page 31: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 31/36

I n a n d o f t h e m s e l v e s , t h e C I D G , C A P , a n dC O R D S p r o g r a m s m e t w i t h s u c c e s s i n p r o s e c u t -i n g k e y a s p e c t s o f t h e c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y i nV i e t n a m . E a c h p r o g r a m e x p a n d e d t h e q u a l i t y

a n d q u a n t i t y o f t h e f o r c e s c o n d u c t i n g p a c i f i c a -t i o n a n d c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y , i m p r o v e d t h ec a p a c i t y f o r d i s p e r s e d s m a l l - u n i t p a t r o l l i n g , a n dc o n s e q u e n t l y i m p r o v e d t h e s c o p e a n d c o n t e n to f a c t i o n a b l e i n t e l l i g e n c e . O n e c a n o n l y p o s t u -l a t e , c o u n t e r f a c t u a l l y , h o w t h e w a r m i g h t h a v eg o n e i f b o t h C A P a n d C I D G h a d b e e n h a r m o -n i z e d a n d u n i f i e d u n d e r C O R D S a n d M A C V ,w i t h C o l b y a n d A b r a m s a t t h e h e l m , b a c k i n

1 9 6 4 . I r o n i c a l l y , A b r a m s h a d b e e n o n t h e s h o r tl i s t o f t h o s e c o n s i d e r e d f o r t h e M A C V c o m m a n di n 1 9 6 4 . T h e l e s s o n s a n d s u c c e s s e s o f t h e s e p r o -g r a m s a r e s a l i e n t t o d a y b e c a u s e i n b o t h

A f g h a n i s t a n a n d I r a q , i m p r o v i n g t h e q u a n t i t ya n d c a p a b i l i t i e s o f i n d i g e n o u s f o r c e s , e n s u r i n gt h a t t h e r e i s a n i n t e g r a t e d a n d u n i f i e d c i v i l - m i l -i t a r y a p p r o a c h , a n d t h e s e c u r i t y o f t h e p o p u l a -t i o n a l l c o n t i n u e t o b e c e n t r a l g o a l s . ' 1

N o n e o f t h e s e V i e t n a m - e r a p r o g r a m s , h o w e v -

e r , w a s w i t h o u t p r o b l e m s . T h e C I D G p r o g r a mw a s p l a g u e d b y t w o p e r s i s t e n t f l a w s . F i r s t , c o n -t i n u o u s h o s t i l i t y b e t w e e n t h e S o u t h V i e t n a m e s ea n d t h e e t h n i c m i n o r i t y g r o u p s w h o c o m p r i s e dC I D G s t r i k e f o r c e s i m p e d e d t h e U . S . e f f o r t s t oh a v e R e p u b l i c o f V i e t n a m ( R V N ) S p e c i a l F o r c e s

t a k e o v e r t h e C I D G p r o g r a m . S e c o n d , p a r t l y a sa c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h a t , 5 t h S p e c i a l F o r c e sG r o u p f a i l e d t o d e v e l o p a n e f f e c t i v e i n d i g e n o u sU . S . c o u n t e r p a r t o r g a n i z a t i o n t o l e a d t h eC I D G — t h e R V N S p e c i a l F o r c e s p r o v e d i n e f f e c -t i v e i n t h i s r o l e . M o r e o v e r , U . S . M a r i n e s t h e m -s e l v e s w h o h a v e w r i t t e n s t u d i e s t h a t g e n e r a l l yl a u d t h e b e n e f i t s o f t h e C A P m o d e l a l s o r e v e a lt h a t t h e c o m b i n e d - a c t i o n p l a t o o n s w e r e n o t a l lc o m p l e t e l y e f f e c t i v e . I n s o m e i n s t a n c e s t h ee f f e c t s o f C A P " w e r e t r a n s i t o r y a t b e s t " b e c a u s et h e v i l l a g e r s b e c a m e d e p e n d e n t o n t h e M a r i n e sf o r s e c u r i t y . I n o t h e r i n s t a n c e s , e s p e c i a l l y

b e f o r e G e n e r a l A b r a m s u s h e r e d - i n a n e we m p h a s i s o n t r a i n i n g p o p u l a r f o r c e s , t h e l o c a lm i l i t i a ' s p o o r e q u i p m e n t a n d t r a i n i n g m a d et h e m m i s e r a b l y i n c a p a b l e o f d e f e n d i n g t h e v i l -l a g e s w i t h o u t t h e M a r i n e s . A s f o r C O R D S , t h eo n e m a j o r p r o b l e m w i t h r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t w a st h a t u n t i l 1 9 6 7 i t w a s n o t i n t e g r a t e d u n d e r

1 7

M A C V , w h i c h s e r i o u s l y u n d e r m i n e d a n y

p r o s p e c t o f a c t u a l l y a c h i e v i n g u n i t y o f e f f o r ta n d u n i t y o f p u r p o s e . A b r a m s ' i n f l u e n c er e s o l v e d t h i s b y a l l o w i n g M A C V t o o v e r s e e

C O R D S a s w e l l a s r e g u l a r m i l i t a r y f o r m a t i o n s . 1 2T h r e e w o r k s w r i t t e n d u r i n g o r a b o u t t h e

V i e t n a m e r a a r e h i g h l y r e l e v a n t t o f i g h t i n g

c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c i e s : T h e G u e r r i l l a a n d H o w t oF i g h t H i m , e d i t e d b y L i e u t e n a n t C o l o n e l T . N .

G r e e n e ; t h e U . S . A r m y ' s 1 9 6 6 P R O V N S t u d y ;a n d L e w i s S o r l e y ' s A B e t t e r W a r , p u b l i s h e d i n

1 9 9 9 . T h e G u e r r i l l a a n d H o w t o F i g h t H i m i s ag r e a t s i n g l e - v o l u m e c o m p e n d i u m o n t h e n a t u r ea n d t h e o r y o f g u e r r i l l a w a r f a r e . T h e m o s t g e r -m a n e c h a p t e r t h e b o o k i s " T h e T h e o r y a n d t h eT h r e a t , " w h i c h i n c l u d e s a p r i m e r o n g u e r r i l l aw a r f a r e b y M a o ; a n a n a l y s i s o f M a o , t i m e ,s p a c e , a n d w i l l b y E d w a r d K a t z e n b a c h ; a n d as e c t i o n o n g u e r r i l l a w a r f a r e b y P e t e r P a r e t a n d

J o h n S h y . T h i s b o o k a l s o i n c l u d e s t w o s e c t i o n so n w h y t h e F r e n c h l o s t t h e f i r s t I n d o c h i n a W a r ,o n e w r i t t e n b y V o N g u y e n G i a p a n d t h e o t h e rb y B e r n a r d F a l l . T h e P R O V N S t u d y a n d A B e t t e r

W a r o f f e r v a l u a b l e i n s i g h t s o n p a c i f i c a t i o n a n dt h e c o m m a n d a n d c o n t r o l r e q u i r e d f o r i n t e g r a t -i n g t h e c i v i l a n d m i l i t a r y e f f o r t s i n c o u n t e r i n s u r -g e n c y . A B e t t e r W a r i s t h e s h o r t e r a n d m o r er e a d a b l e o f t h e t w o , b u t t h e e x e c u t i v e s u m m a -r y , t h e " r e s u m e , " a n d c h a p t e r f i v e o f t h e P R O V N

S t u d y m e r i t r e a d i n g b e c a u s e t h i s a n a l y s i sf o r m e d t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e a p p r o a c he x p l a i n e d i n A B e t t e r W a r .

L e s s o n s f r o m C o u n t e r i n s u r -g e n c i e s b e f o r e V i e t n a m

B e f o r e V i e t n a m , b o t h t h e A r m y a n d t h eM a r i n e C o r p s h a d m u c h e x p e r i e n c e f i g h t i n gg u e r r i l l a - s t y l e o p p o n e n t s . T h e A r m y s e e m e d t ol e a r n a n e w f o r e a c h c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y , w h i l et h e M a r i n e s c o d i f i e d t h e i r c o r p u s o f e x p e r i e n c e

i n t h e 1 9 4 0 S m a l l W a r s M a n u a l . I n f a c t , t h eM a r i n e s ' l e s s o n s f r o m l e a d i n g N i c a r a g u a nG u a r d i a N a c i o n a l i n d i g e n o u s p a t r o l s i n c o u n t e r -g u e r r i l l a o p e r a t i o n s a g a i n s t S a n d i n o ' s g u e r r i l l a sm a y v e r y w e l l h a v e s e r v e d a s t h e b a s i s f r o mw h i c h t o d e s i g n t h e i r C A P m o d e l i n V i e t n a m .N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e r e a r e a h o s t o f g o o d w o r k s

Page 32: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 32/36

a n d l e s s o n s f r o m t h e B a n a n a W a r s , f r o m t h eP h i l i p p i n e I n s u r r e c t i o n , a n d f r o m t h e I n d i a nW a r s . T h i s s e c t i o n e n c a p s u l a t e s s o m e o f t h e

c o m m o n l e s s o n s f r o m t h e s e w a r s a n d r e c o m -

m e n d s s o m e k e y b o o k s t h a t c o v e r t h e m . T h eH u k b u l a h a p R e b e l l i o n i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s f o l -l o w i n g W o r l d W a r I I i s e x c l u d e d b e c a u s e t h eU . S . r o l e t h e r e w a s e s s e n t i a l l y l i m i t e d t o p r o v i d -

i n g m o n e y a n d t h e a d v i c e o f E d w a r d L a n s d a l e .F r o m t h e M a r i n e s ' e x p e r i e n c e i n H a i t i , t h e

D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c , a n d N i c a r a g u a d u r i n g t h ef i r s t p a r t o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y , t h e y l e a r n e d t h a ts m a l l w a r s , u n l i k e c o n v e n t i o n a l w a r s , p r e s e n tn o d e f i n e d o r l i n e a r b a t t l e a r e a a n d t h e a t e r o fo p e r a t i o n s . W h i l e d e l a y i n t h e u s e o f f o r c e m a yb e i n t e r p r e t e d a s w e a k n e s s , t h e S m a l l W a r s

M a n u a l m a i n t a i n s , t h e b r u t a l u s e o f f o r c e i s n o ta p p r o p r i a t e e i t h e r . " I n s m a l l w a r s , t o l e r a n c e ,s y m p a t h y , a n d k i n d n e s s s h o u l d b e t h e k e y n o t et o o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e m a s s o f t h e p o p u -l a t i o n . " F o r s m a l l w a r s , t h e m a n u a l u r g e s U . S .f o r c e s t o e m p l o y a s m a n y i n d i g e n o u s t r o o p s a sp r a c t i c a l e a r l y o n t o c o n f e r p r o p e r r e s p o n s i b i l i -t y o n i n d i g e n o u s a g e n c i e s f o r r e s t o r i n g l a w a n do r d e r . M o r e o v e r , i t s t r e s s e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o ff o c u s i n g o n t h e s o c i a l , e c o n o m i c , a n d p o l i t i c a ld e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e p e o p l e m o r e t h a n o n s i m -p i e m a t e r i a l d e s t r u c t i o n . I t a l s o u n d e r s c o r e s t h ei m p o r t a n c e o f a g g r e s s i v e p a t r o l l i n g , p o p u l a t i o n

s e c u r i t y , a n d t h e d e n i a l o f s a n c t u a r y t o t h ei n s u r g e n t s . A n o v e r a r c h i n g p r i n c i p l e , t h o u g h , i sn o t t o f i g h t s m a l l w a r s w i t h b i g - w a rm e t h o d s — t h e g o a l i s t o g a i n r e s u l t s w i t h t h el e a s t a p p l i c a t i o n o f f o r c e a n d m i n i m u m l o s s o fc i v i l i a n ( n o n - c o m b a t a n t ) l i f e .

T h e 1 9 4 0 S m a l l W a r s M a n u a l a n d t h e d r a f to f i t s 2 0 0 4 a d d e n d u m , S m a l l W a r s , a r e t h e b e s ts o u r c e s f o r d i s t i l l i n g t h e M a r i n e s ' l e s s o n s f r o mt h e B a n a n a W a r s a n d b e y o n d . W h i l e t h e l o g i s t i -c a l a n d p h y s i c a l a s p e c t s o f t h e 1 9 4 0 m a n u a lh a v e b e c o m e o b s o l e t e , t h e p o r t i o n s t h a ta d d r e s s t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s a n d p r i n c i p l e s o fs m a l l w a r s a r e s t i l l q u i t e r e l e v a n t . O n e i n d i c a -t i o n o f t h i s m a n u a l ' s c o n t i n u e d r e l e v a n c e i s t h ef a c t t h a t t h e 2 0 0 4 d r a f t , S m a l l W a r s , i s n o ti n t e n d e d t o s u p p l a n t t h e e a r l i e r v e r s i o n b u t t oc o m p l e m e n t i t b y l i n k i n g i t t o t h e 2 1 s t c e n t u -r y . 1 3

D u r i n g t h e P h i l i p p i n e i n s u r g e n c y , t h e

1 8

A m e r i c a n m i l i t a r y w o n a r e l a t i v e l y b l o o d l e s sb u t u n a m b i g u o u s v i c t o r y i n t h r e e a n d a h a l fy e a r s i n a w a y t h a t e s t a b l i s h e d t h e b a s i s f o r af u t u r e f r i e n d s h i p b e t w e e n A m e r i c a n s a n d

F i l i p i n o s . A n t h o n y J a m e s J o e s , a s c h o l a r o nA m e r i c a n a n d g u e r r i l l a w a r f a r e , s u c c i n c t l y

e x p l a i n s w h y :

T h e r e w e r e n o s c r e a m i n g j e t s a c c i d e n -t a l l y b o m b i n g h e l p l e s s v i l l a g e s , n o B - 5 2 s ,n o n a p a l m , n o a r t i l l e r y b a r r a g e s , n o c o l l a t -e r a l d a m a g e . I n s t e a d , t h e A m e r i c a n s c o n -

d u c t e d a d e c e n t r a l i z e d w a r o f s m a l lm o b i l e u n i t s a r m e d m a i n l y w i t h r i f l e s a n da i d e d b y n a t i v e F i l i p i n o s , h u n t i n g g u e r r i l -

l a s w h o w e r e i n c r e a s i n g l y i s o l a t e d b o t h b yt h e i n d i f f e r e n c e o r h o s t i l i t y o f m u c h o f t h e

p o p u l a t i o n a n d b y t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o fs c a t t e r e d p e a s a n t g r o u p s i n t o l a r g e r s e t t l e -

m e n t s . 1 4

D u r i n g t h e P h i l i p p i n e I n s u r r e c t i o n f r o m 1 8 9 9t o 1 9 0 2 , t h e U . S . m i l i t a r y l e a r n e d t o a v o i d b i g -u n i t s e a r c h a n d d e s t r o y m i s s i o n s b e c a u s e t h e yw e r e c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e ; t o m a x i m i z e t h ee m p l o y m e n t o f i n d i g e n o u s s c o u t s a n d p a r a m i l -

i t a r y f o r c e s t o i n c r e a s e a n d s u s t a i n d e c e n t r a l -i z e d p a t r o l l i n g ; t o m o b i l i z e p o p u l a r s u p p o r t b yf o c u s i n g o n t h e i m p r o v e m e n t o f s c h o o l s , h o s p i -t a l s , a n d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e ; a n d t o e n h a n c e r e g i m e

l e g i t i m a c y b y a l l o w i n g i n s u r g e n t s a n d f o r m e ri n s u r g e n t s t o o r g a n i z e a n t i - r e g i m e p o l i t i c a l p a r -t i e s . I n S a v a g e W a r s o f P e a c e , a n a w a r d - w i n n i n gs t u d y o n A m e r i c a ' s r o l e i n s m a l l w a r s , M a x B o o ta t t r i b u t e d A m e r i c a n s u c c e s s i n t h e P h i l i p p i n eI n s u r r e c t i o n t o a b a l a n c e d a n d s o u n d a p p l i c a -t i o n o f s t i c k s a n d c a r r o t s ; t h e U . S . m i l i t a r y u s e da g g r e s s i v e p a t r o l l i n g a n d f o r c e t o p u r s u e a n dc r u s h i n s u r g e n t s ; i t g e n e r a l l y t r e a t e d c a p t u r e dr e b e l s w e l l ; a n d i t g e n e r a t e d g o o d w i l l a m o n gt h e p o p u l a t i o n b y r u n n i n g s c h o o l s a n d h o s p i -t a l s , a n d b y i m p r o v i n g s a n i t a t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n t o

B o o t ' s b o o k , A m e r i c a a n d G u e r r i l l a W a r f a r e b yA n t h o n y J a m e s J o e s a n d A m e r i c a ' s F o r g o t t e nW a r s b y S a m C . S a r k e s i a n b o t h o f f e r i n s i g h t f u l

c h a p t e r s o n U . S . m i l i t a r y c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c ym e t h o d s i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . ' 5 S a r k e s i a n w r i t e s

T h e r e i s a n e e d t o l e a r n f r o m h i s t o r y , a n a -l y z e A m e r i c a n i n v o l v e m e n t a n d t h e n a t u r e

Page 33: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 33/36

o f l o w - i n t e n s i t y c o n f l i c t , a n d t r a n s l a t et h e s e i n t o s t r a t e g y a n d o p e r a t i o n a l d o c -

t r i n e s . W i t h o u t s o m e s e n s e o f h i s t o r i c a lc o n t i n u i t y , A m e r i c a n s a r e l i k e l y t o r e l e a r n

t h e l e s s o n s o f h i s t o r y e a c h t i m e t h e y a r ef a c e d w i t h a l o w i n t e n s i t y c o n f l i c t . 1 6

W h e n B r i g a d i e r G e n e r a l J a c k P e r s h i n gr e t u r n e d t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t o s e r v e a s m i l i t a r y

g o v e r n o r o f t h e M o r o P r o v i n c e b e t w e e n 1 9 0 9a n d 1 9 1 3 , h e a p p l i e d t h e l e s s o n s h e h a d l e a r n e da s a c a p t a i n d u r i n g t h e P h i l i p p i n e I n s u r r e c t i o nt o p a c i f y t h e M o r o s . H e e s t a b l i s h e d t h eP h i l i p p i n e C o n s t a b u l a r y , c o m p r i s i n g l o y a l

F i l i p i n o s f r o m t h e m a i n i s l a n d s a n d s e r v i n g a s ap o l i c e f o r c e , t o a s s i s t i n t h e c a m p a i g n t o p a c i f yt h e M o r o s . P e r s h i n g d i d n o t a t t e m p t t o a p p l y

m i l i t a r y f o r c e a l o n e t o s u p p r e s s t h e M o r o r e b e l -l i o n . " P e r s h i n g f e l t t h a t a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o fM o r o c u s t o m s a n d h a b i t s w a s e s s e n t i a l i n s u c -c e s s f u l l y d e a l i n g w i t h t h e m — a n d h e w e n t t oe x t r a o r d i n a r y l e n g t h s t o u n d e r s t a n d M o r o s o c i -e t y a n d c u l t u r e . " P e r s h i n g u n d e r s t o o d t h ei m p e r a t i v e o f h a v i n g A m e r i c a n f o r c e s i n v o l v e da t t h e g r a s s - r o o t s l e v e l . H e a l s o c o m p r e h e n d e dt h e s o c i a l - p o l i t i c a l a s p e c t s a n d k n e w t h a t m i l i -t a r y g o a l s s o m e t i m e s h a d t o b e s u b o r d i n a t e d t ot h e m . " H e s c a t t e r e d s m a l l d e t a c h m e n t s o f s o l -d i e r s t h r o u g h o u t t h e i n t e r i o r , t o g u a r a n t e e

p e a c e f u l e x i s t e n c e o f t h o s e t r i b e s t h a t w a n t e dt o r a i s e h e m p , p r o d u c e t i m b e r , o r f a r m . " T oi n f l u e n c e a n d w i n t h e p e o p l e , t h e r e h a d t o b ec o n t a c t b e t w e e n t h e m a n d h i s s o l d i e r s . D u r i n gh i s f i r s t t o u r t h e r e a s a c a p t a i n , h e w a s a l l o w e di n s i d e t h e " F o r b i d d e n K i n g d o m " a n d a s a nh o n o r n o t g r a n t e d t o a n y o t h e r w h i t e m a n , h ew a s m a d e a M o r o D a t u . 1 7

M o r e r e m o v e d i n t i m e a n d c o n t e x t , t h e

I n d i a n W a r s o f t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y n o n e t h e l e s sp r o v i d e s o m e l e s s o n s f o r c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y .T h e s e l e s s o n s a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e o v e r a r -c h i n g f u n d a m e n t a l s f o r f i g h t i n g s m a l l w a r s a r e

i n d e e d t i m e l e s s . W i t h l i t t l e p r e s e r v e d i n s t i t u -t i o n a l m e m o r y a n d l e s s c o d i f i e d d o c t r i n e f o rc o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y , t h e l a t e - l 9 t h - c e n t u r y U . S .A r m y h a d t o a d a p t o n t h e f l y t o I n d i a n t a c t i c s .A l o o s e b o d y o f p r i n c i p l e s e m e r g e d f r o m t h eI n d i a n W a r s : t o e n s u r e t h e c l o s e c i v i l - m i l i t a r yc o o r d i n a t i o n o f t h e p a c i f i c a t i o n e f f o r t , t o p r o -

1 9

v i d e f i r m b u t f a i r a n d p a t e r n a l i s t i c g o v e r n a n c e ,a n d t o r e f o r m t h e e c o n o m i c a n d e d u c a t i o n a ls p h e r e s . G o o d t r e a t m e n t o f p r i s o n e r s , a t t e n t i o nt o t h e I n d i a n s ' g r i e v a n c e s , a n d t h e a v o i d a n c e o f

k i l l i n g w o m e n a n d c h i l d r e n ( l e a r n e d b y e r r o r )w e r e a l s o r e g a r d e d a s f u n d a m e n t a l t o a n y l o n g -t e r m s o l u t i o n . A d d i t i o n a l l y , G e n e r a l G e o r g eC r o o k d e v e l o p e d t h e t a c t i c o f i n s e r t i n g s m a l lt e a m s f r o m f r i e n d l y A p a c h e t r i b e s i n t o t h e s a n c -t u a r i e s o f i n s u r g e n t A p a c h e s t o n e u t r a l i z e t h e m ,t o p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y u n h i n g e t h e m , a n d t o s a pt h e i r w i l l . T h i s t e c h n i q u e s u b s e q u e n t l y e m e r g e di n o n e f o r m o r a n o t h e r i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , d u r -i n g t h e B a n a n a W a r s , a n d d u r i n g t h e V i e t n a mW a r . 1 8

O n e o f t h e b e t t e r b o o k s o n t h e U . S . A r m y ' sr o l e i n c o u n t e r g u e r r i l l a w a r f a r e a g a i n s t t h eI n d i a n s i s A n d r e w J . B i r t l e ' s U . S . A r m yC o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y a n d C o n t i n g e n c y O p e r -a t i o n s D o c t r i n e , 1 8 6 0 — 1 9 4 1 . I t i n c l u d e s s o m ei n t e r e s t i n g a n d r e l e v a n t s e c t i o n s e n t i t l e d" I n d i a n W a r f a r e a n d M i l i t a r y T h o u g h t , " " U . S .

A r m y C o u n t e r - g u e r r i l l a O p e r a t i o n s o n t h eW e s t e r n F r o n t i e r , " a n d " T h e A r m y a n d I n d i a nP a c i f i c a t i o n . " B i r t l e d e s c r i b e s o n e o f t h e f e wm a n u a l s p u b l i s h e d d u r i n g t h e e r a o n h o w t oo p e r a t e o n t h e P l a i n s , T h e P r a i r i e T r a v e l e r , a s" p e r h a p s t h e s i n g l e m o s t i m p o r t a n t w o r k o n t h ec o n d u c t o f f r o n t i e r e x p e d i t i o n s p u b l i s h e d u n d e r

t h e a e g i s o f t h e W a r D e p a r t m e n t . " C a p t a i nR a n d o l p h M a r c y ' s T h e P r a i r i e T r a v e l e r w a s a" h o w - t o " m a n u a l f o r p a c k i n g , t r a v e l i n g , t r a c k -i n g , a n d b i v o u a c k i n g o n t h e P l a i n s . M o r ei m p o r t a n t , i t w a s a l s o a p r i m e r o n f i g h t i n g t h eI n d i a n s .

I n f o r m u l a t i n g p r i n c i p l e s f o r p a c i f i c a t i o n ,

M a r c y ' l o o k e d a t h i s o w n e x p e r i e n c e s o n t h ef r o n t i e r a s w e l l a s t h e F r e n c h a n d T u r k i s h e x p e -r i e n c e s c o n d u c t i n g p a c i f i c a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s i nN o r t h A f r i c a t o a r r i v e a t t h r e e l e s s o n s : o v e r - d i s -p e r s i o n s t r i p s t h e c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n t f o r c e o f i n i -t i a t i v e , i n c r e a s e s i t s v u l n e r a b i l i t y , a n d s a p s i t s

m o r a l e ; m o b i l i t y i s a n i m p e r a t i v e ( m o u n t i n gi n f a n t r y o n m u l e s w a s o n e w a y o f i n c r e a s i n gm o b i l i t y d u r i n g t h a t e r a ) ; a n d t h e b e s t w a y t oc o u n t e r a n e l u s i v e g u e r r i l l a w a s t o e m p l o ym o b i l e m o u n t e d f o r c e s a t n i g h t t o s u r p r i s e t h ee n e m y a t d a w n . H o w e v e r , T h e P r a i r i e T r a v e l e rc o n v e y s o n e c e n t r a l m e s s a g e t h a t i s s t i l l s a l i e n t

Page 34: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 34/36

N o t e s

1 A n t h o n y J a m e s J o e s , A m e r i c a a n d G u e r r i l l a W a r f a r e( L e x i n g t o n : U n i v . P r e s s o f K e n t u c k y , 2 0 0 0 ) , 3 2 5 .2 . C i t e d i n S a m u e l B . G r i f f i t h I I , " G u e r r i l l a , P a r t I , "M a r i n e C o r p s G a z e l i e , J u l y 1 9 5 0 , 4 3 .3 . F o r a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h i s r e b i r t h , s e e R o b e r t M .C a s s i d y , " P r o p h e t s o r P r a e t o r i a n s : T h e U p t o n i a nP a r a d o x a n d t h e P o w e l l C o r o l l a r y , " P a r a m e t e r s , 3 3( A u t u m n 2 0 0 3 ) , 1 3 2 — 3 3 .4 . F o r a l e n g t h i e r e x p l a n a t i o n o f c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y ,s m a l l w a r , o r a s y m m e t r i c c o n f l i c t , s e e R o b e r t M .C a s s i d y , " W h y G r e a t P o w e r s F i g h t S m a l l W a r s B a d l y , "M i l i t a r y R e v i e w , 8 2 : 4 3 ( S e p t e m b e r — O c t o b e r 2 0 0 2 ) . F o ra d e f i n i t i o n o f g u e r r i l l a i n s u r g e n c y , s e e J o e s , 3 3 3 .5 . F o r a s h o r t d i s c u s s i o n o n m i l i t a r y c u l t u r e a n d b i g -w a r p r e f e r e n c e s , s e e R o b e r t M . C a s s i d y , R u s s i a i nA f g h a n i s t a n a n d C h e c h n y a : M i l i t a r y S t r a t e g i c C u l t u r ea n d t h e P a r a d o x e s o f A s y m m e t r i c C o n f l i c t ( C a r l i s l e , P a . :U . S . A r m y W a r C o l l e g e , S t r a t e g i c S t u d i e s I n s t i t u t e ,

2 0 0 3 ) , 8 , 5 4 - 6 0 .6 . U . S . D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e A r m y , A P r o g r a m f o r t h eP a c f i c a 1 i o n a n d L o n g - T e r m D e v e l o p m e n t o f S o u t h

V i e t n a m ( W a s h i n g t o n : D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e A r m y , 1 9 6 6 ) ,1 — 9 ; a n d L e w i s S o r l e y , A B e t t e r W a r ( N e w Y o r k :

H a r c o u r t B r a c e , 1 9 9 9 ) , 1 0 — 1 2 5 . S o m e a n a l y s i s i n t h i sa r t i c l e d e r i v e s f r o m a b r i e f i n g p r o d u c e d b y t h eU S A R E U R C o m m a n d i n g G e n e r a l ' s I n i t i a t i v e s G r o u p( C I G ) . T h e b r i e f i n g w a s d i s t r i b u t e d t o U S A R E U R u n i t si n I r a q i n D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 3 .7 . J e f f r e y J . C l a r k e , A d v i c e a n d S u p p o r t : T h e F i n a l Y e a r s( W a s h i n g t o n : U . S . A r m y C e n t e r o f M i l i t a r y H i s t o r y ,

1 9 8 8 ) , 1 9 6 — 2 0 7 .

8 . F r a n k P e l l i , " I n s u r g e n c y , C o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y , a n d t h eM a r i n e s i n V i e t n a m , " u n p u b l i s h e d p a p e r , U S M CC o m m a n d a n d S t a f f C o l l e g e , Q u a n t i c o , V a . , 1 9 9 0 ,

1 3 — 1 6 ; a n d B r o o k s R . B r e w i n g t o n , " C o m b i n e d A c t i o nP l a t o o n s : A S t r a t e g y f o r P e a c e E n f o r c e m e n t , " u n p u b -l i s h e d p a p e r , U S M C C o m m a n d a n d S t a f f C o l l e g e ,

Q u a n t i c o , V a . , 1 9 9 6 , 1 3 — 1 9 .

9 . S o r l e y , 2 2 — 2 3 , 6 4 — 6 7 .

1 0 . I b i d . , 6 4 — . 6 7 , 7 2 — 7 3 , 2 1 7 — 2 4 .

1 1 . I b i d . , 1 .

1 2 . C l a r k e , 2 0 7 ; K e i t h F . K o p e t s , " T h e C o m b i n e d A c t i o n

P r o g r a m : V i e t n a m , " M i l i t a r y R e v i e w , 8 2 : 7 8 — 7 9

( J u l y — A u g u s t 2 0 0 2 ) .

1 3 . U . S . M a r i n e C o r p s , S m a l l W a r s M a n u a l( W a s h i n g t o n : G P O , 1 9 4 0 ) , 1 - 1 t o 1 - 3 1 ; M a r i n e C o r p s

C o m b a t D e v e l o p m e n t C o m m a n d , S m a l l W a r s ( D r a f t )( Q u a n t i c o , V a . : U . S . M a r i n e C o r p s , 2 0 0 4 ) , i i i — i v ; a n d

M a x B o o t , " A C e n t u r y o f S m a l l W a r s S h o w s T h e y C a n

b e W o n , " N e w Y o r k T i m e s W e e k i n R e v i e w , 6 J u l y 2 0 0 3 .

1 4 . J o e s , 1 2 0 — 2 3 .

1 5 . M a x B o o t , S a v a g e W a r s o f P e a c e . . S m a l l W a r s a n dt h e R i s e o f A m e r i c a n P o w e r ( N e w Y o r k : B a s i c B o o k s ,2 0 0 3 ) , 1 2 6 .1 6 . S a m C . S a r k e s i a n , A m e r i c a ' s F o r g o t t e n W a r s : T h eC o u n t e r r e v o l u t i o n a r y P a s t a n d L e s s o n s f o r t h e F u t u r e

a n d g e r m a n e t o d a y : i t u r g e s s o l d i e r s t o b e a d a p -t i v e b y c o u p l i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l d i s c i p l i n e w i t ht h e s e l f - r e l i a n c e , i n d i v i d u a l i t y , a n d r a p i d m o b i l -i t y o f t h e i n s u r g e n t . 1 9

A M i n d s e t f o r W i n n i n g t h e" W a r o f t h e F l e a "

I n T h e W a r o f t h e F l e a : G u e r r i l l a W a r f a r e i nT h e o r y a n d P r a c t i c e , a u t h o r R o b e r t T a b e r

w r o t e :

A n a l o g i c a l l y , t h e g u e r r i l l a f i g h t s t h e w a r o ft h e f l e a , a n d h i s m i l i t a r y e n e m y s u f f e r s t h ed o g ' s d i s a d v a n t a g e s : t o o m u c h t o d e f e n d ;t o o s m a l l , u b i q u i t o u s , a n d a g i l e a n e n e m yt o c o m e t o g r i p s w i t h . I f t h e w a r c o n t i n u e s

l o n g e n o u g h — t h i s i s t h e t h e o r y — t h e d o gs u c c u m b s t o e x h a u s t i o n a n d a n e m i a w i t h -o u t e v e r h a v i n g f o u n d a n y t h i n g o n w h i c ht o c l o s e i t s j a w s o r t o r a k e w i t h i t s c l a w s . 2 0

T h e " w a r o f t h e f l e a " i s h a r d e r t h a n f i g h t i n ga g a i n s t e n e m i e s w h o o p t , i m p r u d e n t l y , t o f i g h tt h e U . S . m i l i t a r y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c o n v e n t i o n a lp a r a d i g m i t h a s h i s t o r i c a l l y p r e f e r r e d a n d i nw h i c h i t i s u n e q u a l e d . O u r c u r r e n t a n d f u t u r e

a d v e r s a r i e s i n t h e p r o t r a c t e d w a r o n t e r r o r a r e

f i g h t i n g — a n d w i l l c o n t i n u e t o f i g h t — t h e " w a r

o f t h e f l e a . " E m p l o y i n g h i t - a n d - r u n a m b u s h e s ,

t h e y s t r i v e t o t u r n C o a l i t i o n l i n e s o f c o m m u n i -c a t i o n a n d f r i e n d l y r e g i m e k e y r o a d s i n t o

" s t r e e t s w i t h o u t j o y . " H o w e v e r , t h e l e s s o n s f r o mp r e v i o u s U . S . m i l i t a r y s u c c e s s e s i n f i g h t i n g t h e

e l u s i v e g u e r r i l l a s h o w t h a t w i t h t h e r i g h t m i n d -s e t a n d w i t h s o m e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e a f o r e m e n -t i o n e d m e t h o d s , t h e w a r o f t h e f l e a i s i n f a c tw i n n a b l e .

T h e U . S . A r m y i s a d a p t i n g i n c o n t a c t , l e a r n -i n g a n d c a p t u r i n g l e s s o n s a n e w f o r b e a t i n g t h e

g u e r r i l l a . A s i t t r a n s f o r m s a n d d e v e l o p s a m i n d -s e t t h a t p l a c e s m u c h m o r e e m p h a s i s o n s t a b i l i -

t y o p e r a t i o n s a n d c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y , t h e b o o k sl i s t e d i n t h i s a r t i c l e a r e o n e s t h a t s h o u l d a p p e a r

o n r e a d i n g l i s t s a n d i n t h e c u r r i c u l a o f p r o f e s -s i o n a l s c h o o l s , b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e b a s i c c o u r s -

e s .

2 0

Page 35: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 35/36

( W e s t p o r t , C o n n . G r e e n w o o d P r e s s , 1 9 8 4 ) , 2 4 5 .1 7 . I b i d . , 1 7 8 — 8 0 .

1 8 . A n d r e w J . B i r t l e , U S . A r m y C o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y a n dC o n t i n g e n c y O p e r a t i o n s D o c t r i n e , 1 8 6 0 - 1 9 4 1( W a s h i n g t o n : U . S . A r m y C e n t e r o f M i l i t a r y H i s t o r y ,

1 9 8 8 ) , 5 5 — 9 2 .1 9 . I b i d . , 6 4 — 6 6 .

2 0 . R o b e r t T a b e r , T h e W a r o f t h e F l e a : G u e r r i l l aW a r f a r e i n T h e o r y a n d P r a c t i c e ( N e w Y o r k : L y l e S t u a r t ,

1 9 6 5 ) , 2 7 — 2 8 .

2 1

A b o u t t h e A u t h o rR o b e r t M . C a s s i d y , L i e u t e n a n t C o l o n e l , U S A , h o l d s a d o c t o r a t e f r o m t h e

F l e t c h e r S c h o o l o f L a w a n d D i p l o m a c y . H e h a s s e r v e d i n v a r i o u s l e a d e r -

s h i p a n d s t a f f p o s i t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g S 3 , 4 t h A v i a t i o n B r i g a d e , 4 t h I n f a n t r y

D i v i s i o n ( M e c h a n i z e d ) , i n O p e r a t i o n I r a q i F r e e d o m , a n d a s t r o o p c o m -

m a n d e r , 1 - 1 7 C a v a l r y , 8 2 d A i r b o m e D i v i s i o n . C a s s i d y h a s p u b l i s h e d

n u m e r o u s a r t i c l e s a n d t w o b o o k s , P e a c e k e e p i n g i n t h e A b y s s : B r i t i s h a n d

A m e r i c a n D o c t r i n e a n d P r a c t i c e a f t e r T h e C o l d W a r ( 2 0 0 4 ) , a n d

C o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y a n d T h e G l o b a l W a r o n T e r r o r . M i l i t a r y C u l t u r e

a n d I r r e g u l a r W a r ( 2 0 0 6 ) .

Page 36: US Marines and Irregular Warfare

7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/us-marines-and-irregular-warfare 36/36