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7/28/2019 US Marines and Irregular Warfare
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C o v e r :T o p P h o t o : S a n d i n o s c o l o r s c a p t u r e d a t O c o t a l ,
N i c a r a g u a . ( U S M C O f f i c i a l P h o t o . )
B o t t o m P h o t o : M a r i n e s a n d I r a q i P o l i c e d i s t r i b u t es c h o o l s u p p l i e s a n d t o y s t o I r a q i c h i l d r e n o u t s i d et h e F a l l u j a h C i v i l - M i l i t a r y O p e r a t i o n s C e n t e r , 2 8
J u n e 2 0 0 5 . ( P h o t o b y L t C o l D a v i d A . B e n h o f f ,U S M C R . )
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U . S . M A R I N E S A N D
I R R E G U L A R W A R F A R E ,1 8 9 8 - 2 0 0 7 :
A N T H O L O G Y A N D
S E L E C T E D B I B L I O G R A P H Y
C o m p i l e d b y
C o l o n e l S t e p h e n S . E v a n s
U . S . M a r i n e C o r p s R e s e r v e
M a r i n e C o r p s U n i v e r s i t y
U n i t e d S t a t e s M a r i n e C o r p s
Q u a n t i c o , V i r g i n i a
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F o r e w o r d
T h i s a n t h o l o g y p r e s e n t s a c o l l e c t i o n o f 2 7 a r t i c l e s o n c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y w a r f a r ea n d i n c l u d e s a b r o a d b i b l i o g r a p h y t h a t c o l l e c t i v e l y d e s c r i b e t h e r o l e p l a y e d b y t h eU n i t e d S t a t e s i n v a r i o u s c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y a n d i r r e g u l a r w a r f a r e e f f o r t s f r o m 1 8 9 8u n t i l 2 0 0 7 , w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r e m p h a s i s o n t h e r o l e o f t h e M a r i n e C o r p s i n t h e c o n d u c to f s u c h e f f o r t s . L i k e o t h e r p r e v i o u s l y p u b l i s h e d U S M C H i s t o r y D i v i s i o n a n t h o l o g i e so n e a r l i e r w a r s , t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s v o l u m e i s t o p r o v i d e r e a d e r s w i t h a g e n e r a lo v e r v i e w a n d i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e t o p i c o f c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y a n d i r r e g u l a r w a r f a r e .D e s i g n e d e s s e n t i a l l y a s a p r i m e r , t h i s v o l u m e i s i n t e n d e d t o s e r v e a s a n i n i t i a l e d u c a -t i o n a l r e s o u r c e t h a t p r o v i d e s M a r i n e o f f i c e r s a n d o t h e r n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y p r o f e s s i o n a l s
w i t h t h e h i s t o r i c a l b a s i s f o r m o d e r n - d a y U S M C c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y s t r a t e g y a n d o p e r -a t i o n a l d o c t r i n e .
U s i n g a b r o a d r a n g e o f h i s t o r i c a l a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y e x a m p l e s o f U . S . i n v o l v e m e n ti n c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y a n d i r r e g u l a r w a r f a r e , t h i s p a r t i c u l a r a n t h o l o g y h a s d r a w n i t sa r t i c l e s f r o m a n e q u a l l y w i d e r a n g e o f p u b l i s h e r s . A s s u c h , I w o u l d l i k e t o t h a n k t h ee d i t o r s o f t h e N a v a l I n s t i t u t e P r e s s , P a r a m e t e r s , M i l i t a r y R e v i e w , M a r i n e C o r p sG a z e t t e , S t r a t e g i c F o r u m , A e r o s p a c e P o w e r J o u r n a l , R e v i s t a / R e v i e w I n t e r a m e r i c a n a ,O r b i s , U S . N a v a l I n s t i t u t e P r o c e e d i n g s , H i s p a n i c A m e r i c a n H i s t o r i c a l R e v i e w , C e n t e r
f o r S t r a t e g i c a n d I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d i e s , W a s h i n g t o n Q u a r t e r l y , R o y a l U n i t e d S e r v i c e sI n s t i t u t e J o u r n a l , a n d F o r e i g n S e r v i c e J o u r n a l f o r p e r m i t t i n g t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e
a r t i c l e s t h a t c o m p r i s e t h i s v o l u m e . T h e i r v a l u e d s u p p o r t h a s m a d e t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h i sv o l u m e p o s s i b l e .
D r . C h a r l e s P . N e i m e y e r
D i r e c t o r o f M a r i n e C o r p s H i s t o r y
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P r e f a c e
T h i s a n t h o l o g y j o i n s a g r o w i n g n u m b e r o f w o r k s w h o s e t o p i c i s c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c ya n d i r r e g u l a r w a r f a r e . C o n t i n u i n g d i s c u s s i o n a n d s t u d y o f t h e s e s u b j e c t s i s o f c r i t i c a li m p o r t a n c e t o t h e o n g o i n g e f f o r t s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d i t s a l l i e s i n t h e G l o b a l W a ro n T e r r o r i s m .
T h e 2 7 a r t i c l e s p r e s e n t e d h e r e , a s w e l l a s t h e w o r k s r e f e r e n c e d i n t h i s b o o k ' s" S e l e c t e d B i b l i o g r a p h y , " r e p r e s e n t o n l y a s m a l l f r a c t i o n o f t h e e n o r m o u s b o d y o f l i t -e r a t u r e w r i t t e n a b o u t t h e s e s u b j e c t s . E s p e c i a l l y s i n c e t h e t r a g i c e v e n t s o f 9 / 1 1 a n d t h ec o n s e q u e n t a d v e n t o f t h e G l o b a l W a r o n T e r r o r i s m , t h e r e h a s b e e n a r e m a r k a b l es u r g e o f i n t e r e s t i n c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y , r e f l e c t e d m o s t n o t a b l y i n t h e v e r y l a r g e n u m -
b e r o f r e c e n t a r t i c l e s , m o n o g r a p h s , s t u d i e s , a n d r e p o r t s t h a t a r e f o u n d i n a v a r i e t y o fh i g h l y d i v e r g e n t s o u r c e s . T h e s e r u n t h e a c a d e m i c g a m u t f r o m t r a d i t i o n a l m i l i t a r y ,g o v e r n m e n t , a n d u n i v e r s i t y s t u d i e s a n d p u b l i c a t i o n s t o t h o s e p r o d u c e d b y a h o s t o ft h i n k t a n k a n d n o n g o v e r n m e n t a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . T h e a r t i c l e s s e l e c t e d f o r i n c l u s i o n i nt h i s a n t h o l o g y a l l h e l p t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e c o m p l e x i t y i n v o l v e d i n c o n d u c t i n g c o u n t e r i n -s u r g e n c y a n d i r r e g u l a r w a r e f f o r t s , b o t h h i s t o r i c a l l y a n d i n t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y G l o b a l
W a r o n T e r r o r i s m .
T h e a n t h o l o g y i s d i v i d e d b r o a d l y i n t o t w o h a l v e s : t h e f i r s t h a l f p r e s e n t s h i s t o r i c a le x a m p l e s o f c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y i n v o l v i n g t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , w h i l e t h e s e c o n d h a l f
a d d r e s s e s t h e n a t i o n ' s c o n t e m p o r a r y e f f o r t s i n t h i s r e g a r d . P a r t O n e c o n t a i n s t h r e ea r t i c l e s o n c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y d o c t r i n e a n d t h e o r y . P a r t s T w o t h r o u g h S i x p r e s e n t a r t i -c l e s a b o u t h i s t o r i c a l c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y e f f o r t s b y t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , w i t h p a r t i c u l a re m p h a s i s o n t h e r o l e p l a y e d b y t h e M a r i n e C o r p s . S p e c i f i c a l l y , P a r t T w o r e c o u n t s t h eU n i t e d S t a t e s ' f i r s t t a s t e o f f i g h t i n g a p r o l o n g e d , o v e r s e a s c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y — t h eP h i l i p p i n e I n s u r r e c t i o n . T h e e x p e r i e n c e g a i n e d i n t h i s c o n f l i c t s o o n c a m e t o b ee m p l o y e d o n n u m e r o u s o c c a s i o n s a n d a t v a r i o u s l o c a t i o n s i n t h e C a r i b b e a n d u r i n gt h e c o u r s e o f t h e " B a n a n a W a r s " ; m o s t p r o m i n e n t l y i n t h e l o n g - t e r m m i l i t a r y o c c u p a -t i o n s o f N i c a r a g u a ( P a r t T h r e e ) , H a i t i ( P a r t F o u r ) , a n d t h e D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c ( P a r tF i v e ) . B e c a u s e o f i t s a l l - t o o - f r e q u e n t i n v o l v e m e n t i n a r a n g e o f c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c ye f f o r t s , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n g e n e r a l , a n d t h e M a r i n e C o r p s i n p a r t i c u l a r , b e c a m e q u i t ep r o f i c i e n t i n c o n d u c t i n g a v a r i e t y o f c i v i l a n d m i l i t a r y c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y o p e r a t i o n s .
I n f a c t , m a n y o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e s a n d l e s s o n s g a r n e r e d f r o m t h e P h i l i p p i n e s a n d t h eB a n a n a W a r s e v e n t u a l l y c a m e t o b e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o o n e o f t h e M a r i n e C o r p s ' s e m -i n a l p u b l i c a t i o n s — t h e S m a l l W a r s M a n u a l — i n 1 9 4 0 . R e g r e t t a b l y , s o m e o f t h e s e l e s -s o n s h a d t o b e r e l e a r n e d f o r A m e r i c a ' s i n v o l v e m e n t i n V i e t n a m ( P a r t S i x ) .
A f t e r a 3 0 - y e a r h i a t u s , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o n c e a g a i n f i n d s i t s e l f e n g a g e d i n s e v e r a lp r o l o n g e d c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c i e s a n d a n u m b e r o f r e l a t e d c o u n t e r t e r r o r i s m e f f o r t s , a l lp a r t o f t h e o n g o i n g , o v e r a r c h i n g G l o b a l W a r o n T e r r o r i s m ( P a r t S e v e n ) . T h e p r i n c i -
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p a l — t h o u g h c e r t a i n l y n o t t h e e x c l u s i v e — f o c u s o f t h e s e c o n t e m p o r a r y c o u n t e r i n s u r -g e n c y a n d c o u n t e r t e r r o r i s m e f f o r t s i s o n a l - Q a e d a a n d o t h e r p r o p o n e n t s o f r a d i c a l
I s l a m i s t i d e o l o g i e s ( P a r t E i g h t ) . W h i l e t h e G l o b a l W a r o n T e r r o r i s m i s t r u l y g l o b a l i n
s c a l e , w i t h o p e r a t i o n s s t r e t c h i n g f r o m C o l u m b i a t o I n d o n e s i a a n d t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , t h em a i n b a t t l e f i e l d s a r e i n A f g h a n i s t a n ( P a r t N i n e ) , I r a q ( P a r t T e n ) , a n d t h e H o r n o fA f r i c a ( P a r t E l e v e n ) . C o m p a r e d w i t h A m e r i c a ' s c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y o p e r a t i o n s o f t h e
p r e v i o u s c e n t u r y , c o n t e m p o r a r y c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y a n d c o u n t e r t e r r o r i s m e f f o r t s a r ef a r m o r e l i k e l y t o b e m u l t i n a t i o n a l , j o i n t - s e r v i c e , i n t e r a g e n c y a f f a i r s t h a t a r e c o r r e -
s p o n d i n g l y f a r m o r e d i f f i c u l t t o p l a n a n d t o c o o r d i n a t e s u c c e s s f u l l y .A l t h o u g h f u r t h e r d e t a i l s c a n b e f o u n d i n t h e i n i t i a l s e c t i o n o f t h e v o l u m e ' s " S e l e c t e d
B i b l i o g r a p h y , " s e v e r a l t h i n g s s h o u l d b e n o t e d h e r e i n r e g a r d t o t h e r a t i o n a l e a n dd e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e b i b l i o g r a p h y . F i r s t , l i k e t h e a n t h o l o g y i t s e l f , t h e b i b l i o g r a p h i ce n t r i e s d e a l w i t h t o p i c s c o n c e r n i n g c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y a n d i r r e g u l a r w a r f a r e i n v o l v -i n g o n l y t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ; t h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f E u r o p e a n n a t i o n s , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n ,
a n d o t h e r s a r e l e f t l a r g e l y u n e x p l o r e d . B e y o n d t h i s , b e c a u s e i t i s i n t e n d e d p r i m a r i l ya s a n i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d e d u c a t i o n a l r e s o u r c e , t h e e n t r i e s c o m p r i s e E n g l i s h - l a n g u a g ea n d s e c o n d a r y s o u r c e s o n l y . L a s t l y , b e c a u s e t h e c u t o f f f o r r e s e a r c h f o r t h i s v o l u m e
w a s m i d - 2 0 0 7 , t h e i m p a c t o f t h e s u r g e i n I r a q i s n o t a d d r e s s e d . D e s p i t e t h e s e c o n -s t r a i n t s , t h e r e f e r e n c e s m a n a g e t o a d d r e s s a b r o a d r a n g e o f s u b j e c t s : o n h i g h e r - e n do p e r a t i o n a l / s t r a t e g i c l e v e l o f w a r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , o n g e o p o l i t i c a l c o n t e x t , a n d o n a
v a r i e d a r r a y o f r e l a t e d t o p i c s — p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y , h i s t o r i c a l c a s e s t u d i e s , f a i l e d s t a t e s ,c u l t u r a l s t u d i e s a n d a n a l y s i s , a n d m a n y o t h e r s — t h a t a l l p r o v i d e c o n t e x t o r p l a y a r o l ei n c o n d u c t i n g a c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y a n d a c h i e v i n g s u c c e s s i n t h e r e a l m o f i r r e g u l a r
w a r f a r e .
M y s i n c e r e t h a n k s t o D r . C h a r l e s N e i m e y e r , D i r e c t o r o f t h e M a r i n e C o r p s H i s t o r y
D i v i s i o n , f o r g r a n t i n g m e w i d e l a t i t u d e i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e s c o p e o f t h e p r o j e c t , i no r g a n i z i n g t h e t o p i c s t o b e a d d r e s s e d , i n s e l e c t i n g t h e a r t i c l e s t h a t w o u l d b e i n c l u d -e d i n t h e a n t h o l o g y , a n d i n c o m p i l i n g a n d s e l e c t i n g t h e b i b l i o g r a p h i c e n t r i e s . T h a n k sa l s o t o C a p t a i n C . C a m e r o n W i l s o n f o r r e s e a r c h i n g v a r i o u s p h o t o c o l l e c t i o n s a n dh e l p i n g t o s e l e c t t h e p h o t o g r a p h s c o n t a i n e d i n t h i s v o l u m e . M a j o r V a l e r i e J a c k s o n ' sE d i t i n g a n d D e s i g n s e c t i o n a t H i s t o r y D i v i s i o n , a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r W . S t e p h e n H i l l a n dG r e g M a c h e a k , w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t r a n s f o r m i n g a n e c l e c t i c a r r a y o f e l e c t r o n i c f i l e s ,p h o t o c o p i e s , a n d p h o t o g r a p h s i n t o a m a n a g e a b l e f o r m a t , A d d i t i o n a l g u i d a n c e a n da d v i c e w a s p r o v i d e d b y C o l o n e l P a t r i c i a S a i n t , D e p u t y D i r e c t o r , b y C h a r l e s D .
M e l s o n , C h i e f H i s t o r i a n , a n d b y K e n n e t h H . W i l l i a m s , S e n i o r E d i t o r . W a n d a J . R e n f r o w
a i d e d w i t h t h e e d i t i n g , a n d E m i l y D . F u n d e r b u r k e , a n E d i t i n g a n d D e s i g n i n t e r n ,h e l p e d r e - c r e a t e m a n y o f t h e g r a p h i c s f r o m t h e a r t i c l e s .
S t e p h e n S . E v a n s , P h DC o l o n e l , U . S . M a r i n e C o r p s R e s e r v e
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P h i l i p p i n e I n s u r r e c t i o n , 1 8 9 9 — 1 9 0 2
L e s s o n s f r o m a S u c c e s s f u l C o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y : T h e P h i l i p p i n e s , 1 8 9 9 — 1 9 0 2
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W e W i l l G o H e a v i l y A r m e d : T h e M a r i n e s ' S m a l l W a r o n S a m a r , 1 9 0 1 — 1 9 0 2
B r i a n M c A l l i s t e r L i n n 4 1
P a r t I I I
N i c a r a g u a , 1 9 0 9 — 1 9 3 3
A i r p o w e r a n d R e s t r a i n t i n S m a l l W a r s : M a r i n e C o r p s A v i a t i o n i n t h e S e c o n d N i c a r a g u a n
C a m p a i g n , 1 9 2 7 — 1 9 3 3
W r a y R . J o h n s o n 5 5
U . S . M a r i n e s a n d M i s k i t o I n d i a n s : T h e R i o C o c o P a t r o l i n 1 9 2 8
D a v i d C . B r o o k s 6 7
L e s s o n s f r o m Y e s t e r d a y ' s O p e r a t i o n s S h o r t o f W a r : N i c a r a g u a a n d t h e S m a l l W a r s M a n u a l
R i c h a r d J . M a c a k J r 7 9
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P a r t I V
H a i t i , 1 9 1 5 — 1 9 3 4
T h e A m e r i c a n O c c u p a t i o n o f H a i t i : P r o b l e m s a n d P r o g r a m s , 1 9 2 0 — 1 9 2 8
R o b e r t D e b s H e i n l J r . a n d N a n c y G o r d o n H e i n i 8 9
A d m i n i s t e r i n g t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e s : T h e U . S . O c c u p a t i o n o f H a i t i a n d t h e D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c
R i c h a r d M i l l e t t a n d G . D a l e G a d d y 1 0 1
P a r t V
D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c , 1 9 1 6 — 1 9 2 4
C a u d i l l o s a n d G a v i l l e r o s v e r s u s t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s M a r i n e s : G u e r r i l l a I n s u r g e n c y D u r i n g t h eD o m i n i c a n I n t e r v e n t i o n , 1 9 1 6 — 1 9 2 4
B r u c e J . C a l d e r 1 1 7
C a c o s a n d C a u d i l l o s : M a r i n e s a n d C o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y i n H i s p a n o l i a , 1 9 1 5 — 1 9 2 4
G r a h a m A . C o s m a s 1 3 5
P a r t V I
V i e t n a m
A F e a t h e r i n T h e i r C a p ? T h e M a r i n e s ' C o m b i n e d A c t i o n P r o g r a m i n V i e t n a m
L a w r e n c e A . Y a t e s 1 4 7
C O R D S / P h o e n i x : C o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y L e s s o n s f r o m V i e t n a m f o r t h e F u t u r e
D a l e A n d r a d e a n d J a m e s H . W i l b a n k s 1 5 9
P a r t V I I
G l o b a l W a r o n T e r r o r i s m : O v e r v i e w a n d S t r a t e g y
C h a l l e n g e s i n F i g h t i n g a G l o b a l I n s u r g e n c y
D a v i d W . B a r n o 1 7 5
C o u n t e r i n g E v o l v e d I n s u r g e n t N e t w o r k s
T h o m a s X . H a m m e s 1 8 7
A d v a n c e s i n P r e d e p l o y m e n t C u l t u r e T r a i n i n g : T h e U . S . M a r i n e C o r p s A p p r o a c h
B a r a k A . S a l m o n i 1 9 7
P a r t V I I I
I s l a m i s m , I s l a m i s t s , a n d I n s u r g e n c y
A C l a s h o f S y s t e m s : A n A n a l y t i c a l F r a m e w o r k t o D e m y s t i f y t h e R a d i c a l I s l a m i s t T h r e a t
v i i i
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A n d r e w H a r v e y , I a n S u l l i v a n , a n d R a l p h G r o v e s . 2 0 9
T h e C o n c e p t a n d P r a c t i c e o f J i h a d i n I s l a m
M i c h a e l G . K n a p p 2 2 1
P a r t I X
A f g h a n i s t a n
U n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e T a l i b a n a n d I n s u r g e n c y i n A f g h a n i s t a n
T h o m a s H . J o h n s o n a n d M . C h r i s M a s o n 2 3 1
A f g h a n i s t a n F o u r Y e a r s O n : A n A s s e s s m e n t
S e a n M . M a l o n e y 2 4 7
P a r t X
I r a qA s s e s s i n g I r a q ' s S u n n i A r a b I n s u r g e n c y
M i c h a e l E i s e n s t a d t a n d J e f f r e y W h i t e 2 5 7
I n s u r g e n c y a n d C o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y i n I r a q
S t e v e n M e t z 2 8 3
P a r t X I
C o m b i n e d J o i n t T a s k F o r c e — H o r n o f A f r i c a ( C J T F - H O A ) a n d t h e
H o r n o f A f r i c a
A r o u n d t h e H o r n
D a v i d f D a n e l o 2 9 3
T h e W a r o n T e r r o r i s m i n t h e H o r n o f A f r i c a
T o m D u b s 3 0 1
R e c o g n i z i n g S o m a l i l a n d : F o r w a r d S t e p i n C o u n t e r i n g T e r r o r i s m ?
K u r t S h i l l i n g e r 3 0 9
F i g h t i n g T e r r o r i s m i n E a s t A f r i c a a n d t h e H o r n
D a v i d H . S h i n n 3 1 7
S e l e c t e d B i b l i o g r a p h y 3 2 5
P e r m i s s i o n s a n d A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s 3 4 1
i x
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Insurgency: Modern Warfare Evolves into a
Fourth Generation
by Thomas X Hammes
Strategic Forum, January 2005
Fourth-generation warfare, which is now
playing out in Iraq and Afghanistan, is a
modern form of insurgency. Its practition
ers seek to convince enemy political lead
ers that their trategic goals are either
unachievable or too costly for the perceived benefit. The fundamental precept i
that superior political will, when properly
employed , can defeat greater economic
and militalY power. Because it is organized
to ensure political rather than militalY suc
ces this type of warfare is difficult to
defeat.
Strategically, fourth-generation warfare
remains focused on changing tlle minds of
decisionmakers. Politically, it involves
transnational, national, and subnational
organizations and networks. Operationally,
it LI es different messages for different audi
ences, all of which focus on breaking an
opponent's political will. Tactically, it uti
lizes materials present in tlle society under
attack-to include industrial chemical , liq
uefied natural gas, or fertilizers.
Although tllese modern insurgencie are
tlle only type of war that the nited States
has 10 t (Vietnam, Lebanon, and Somalia),
tlley can be overcome-witness Malaya
(1950s) , Oman (1970s), and EI Salvador
1980s). Winning, however requires coher
ent, patient action tllat encompasse tllefull range of political , economic, social, and
military activities. The United States cannot
force its opponents to fight the short, high
technology wars it easily dominates.
Instead the nation must learn to fight
fourtll-generation wars anew.
1
On 1 May 2003, President George W. Bush
declared the end of major combat in
Iraq. While most Americans rejoiced at
this announcement, students of history under
stood that it simply meant the easy part was over.
In the following months, peace did not break out,and the troopS did not come home. In fact, Iraqi
insurgents have struck back hard. Instead of
peace, each day Americans read about the death
of another soldier, the detonation of deadly car
bombs, the assassination of civilians, and Iraqi
unrest.
Barely three months later, in August, a series of
bombs hit a police academy graduation ceremo
ny, the Jordanian Embassy, and United Nations
(UN) headquarters in Baghdad. The Ayatollah
Mohammed Bakr aI-Hakim (leader of the
Supreme Council for Islamic Revolution in Iraq)
was killed, and an attempt was made to kill theBaghdad chief of police. These attacks marked
the opening of the anti-coalition campaign that
continued through the turnover of authority to
the Interim Iraqi Government. As of this writing,
the violence continues as Iraqi authorities strug
gle to provide security for their people and work
to rebuild their country. Unfortunately, Iraq has
become the scene of another fourth-generation
war.
At the same time things were degenerating in
Iraq, the situation in Afghanistan was moving into
fourth-generation conflict. While al-Qaeda and
the Taliban were not attacking U.S. troops direct
ly, they were moving aggressively to defeat the
U.S.-supported Hamid Kharzai government.
Decisively defeated in the conventional campaign
by a combination of U.S. firepower and Northern
Alliance troops, the anti-coalition forces have
returned to the style of warfare that succeeded
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a g a i n s t t h e S o v i e t s . T h e T a l i b a n ' s e m p h a s i s o nd e r a i l i n g t h e r e c e n t p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n s s h o w st h e y u n d e r s t a n d t h a t f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n w a r f a r e i sa p o l i t i c a l r a t h e r t h a n m i l i t a r y s t r u g g l e . B y t r y i n g
t o p r e v e n t A f g h a n s f r o m v o t i n g , t h e y s o u g h t t ou n d e r m i n e t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f w h o e v e r w o n t h ee l e c t i o n s . I n s t e a d o f d e f e a t i n g t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' ss e c u r i t y f o r c e s , t h e y p l a n t o d e s t r o y i t s l e g i t i m a c y .
W h i l e p o l l i n g f o r t h e p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n p r o -c e e d e d w i t h o u t m a j o r i n c i d e n t , i t r e m a i n s t o b es e e n w h e t h e r t h i s p o s i t i v e s t e p h a s s e t t h e T a l i b a n
h a c k p o l i t i c a l l y — a n d m u c h m o r e c o n t e n t i o u sl e g i s l a t i v e e l e c t i o n s a r e j u s t o v e r t h e h o r i z o n .
I n I r a q , t h e a t t a c k s o n a n d t h r e a t s a g a i n s t o i lp i p e l i n e s a r e e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l i n n a t u r e .T h e i n s u r g e n t s a r e a s s e s s i n g a t a x o n t h e e n t i r ew o r l d ' s e c o n o m y b y r a i s i n g t h e p r i c e o f o i l . T h e yh o p e s u c h a t t a c k s w i l l w e a k e n t h e I r a q i g o v e r n -m e n t w h i l e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y b r i n g i n g e c o n o m i ca n d p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e t o b e a r o n t h e U n i t e dS t a t e s . S h i ' i t e c l e r i c M o q t a d a a l - S a d r ' s s h i f t f r o mm i l i t a r y a c t i o n t o t h e p o l i t i c a l a r e n a m o s t l i k e l ym e a n s n o r e a l c h a n g e i n g o a l s , o n l y m e t h o d s . H ec a n u s e h i s p o l i t i c a l a n d s o c i a l n e t w o r k s i n c o n -j u n c t i o n w i t h h i s m i l i t i a s t o a d v a n c e h i s g o a l s .
I n S a u d i A r a b i a , T u r k e y , a n d S p a i n , a l - Q a e d aa n d i t s a f f i l i a t e s m a n a g e d a s e r i e s o f h i g h - p r o f i l ea t t a c k s a n d a r e p r o m i s i n g a m a j o r a t t a c k o n t h eU n i t e d S t a t e s . D e s p i t e t h e B u s h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s
d e c l a r a t i o n o f v i c t o r y i n I r a q a n d A f g h a n i s t a n , t h ew a r o n t e r r o r h a s n o t b e e n a n e n t i r e l y o n e - s i d e df i g h t .
A s d e b i l i t a t i n g a n d r e g u l a r a s t h e s e a t t a c k s a r e ,
t h i s k i n d o f w a r f a r e i s n o t n e w b u t r a t h e r h a sb e e n e v o l v i n g o v e r t h e l a s t s e v e n d e c a d e s . T h ew a r s i n A f g h a n i s t a n a n d I r a q h a v e m o v e d f r o mt h i r d - g e n e r a t i o n w a r f a r e , A m e r i c a ' s f o r t e , t o
f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n w a r f a r e . I t i s m u c h t o o e a r l y t op r e d i c t t h e o u t c o m e o f e i t h e r f i g h t , b u t t h e a n t i -c o a l i t i o n f o r c e s i n A f g h a n i s t a n a n d I r a q a r e
a t t e m p t i n g t o t i e t h e i r f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n t a c t i c si n t o i n t e g r a t e d s t r a t e g i c c a m p a i g n s . A t t h e s a m e
t i m e , a l - Q a e d a i s m a i n t a i n i n g i t s o w n s t r a t e g i cc a m p a i g n : t o d e f e a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d i t sa l l i e s .
O p p o n e n t s i n v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d k n o wt h a t f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n w a r f a r e i s t h e o n l y k i n d t h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s h a s e v e r l o s t — a n d n o t j u s t o n c e ,b u t t h r e e t i m e s : i n V i e t n a m , L e b a n o n , a n d
2
S o m a l i a . T h i s f o r m o f w a r f a r e a l s o d e f e a t e d t h eF r e n c h i n V i e t n a m a n d A l g e r i a a n d t h e S o v i e t
U n i o n i n A f g h a n i s t a n . I t c o n t i n u e s t o b l e e d R u s s i a
i n C h e c h n y a a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n I r a q ,
A f g h a n i s t a n , a n d o t h e r a r e a s w h e r e i t i s e n g a g e di n t h e w a r o n t e r r o r . T h i s r e c o r d o f d e f e a t o fm a j o r p o w e r s b y m u c h w e a k e r f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o no p p o n e n t s m a k e s i t e s s e n t i a l t o u n d e r s t a n d t h i sn e w f o r m o f w a r f a r e a n d a d a p t a c c o r d i n g l y .
M a o Z e d o n g w a s t h e f i r s t t o d e f i n e m o d e r ni n s u r g e n c y a s a p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e a n d u s e i t s u c -c e s s f u l l y . E a c h p r a c t i t i o n e r s i n c e h a s l e a r n e d ,u s u a l l y t h r o u g h a p a i n f u l p r o c e s s o f t r i a l a n de r r o r , f r o m h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s o r c o - c o m b a t a n t s .E a c h t h e n h a s a d j u s t e d t h e l e s s o n s t o h i s o w nf i g h t a n d a d d e d h i s o w n r e f i n e m e n t s . T h e c u m u -
l a t i v e r e s u l t i s a n e w a p p r o a c h t o w a r . T h e a n t i -c o a l i t i o n f o r c e s i n I r a q , t h e T a l i b a n i n
A f g h a n i s t a n , t h e C h e c h e n s , a n d t h e a l - Q a e d a n e t -
w o r k a r e s i m p l y t h e l a t e s t t o u s e a n a p p r o a c h t h a th a s b e e n d e v e l o p i n g f o r d e c a d e s .
S i n c e W o r l d W a r I I , w a r s h a v e b e e n a m i x e db a g o f c o n v e n t i o n a l a n d u n c o n v e n t i o n a l c o n -f l i c t s . C o n v e n t i o n a l w a r s — t h e K o r e a n W a r , t h eI s r a e l i - A r a b w a r s o f 1 9 5 6 , 1 9 6 7 , a n d 1 9 7 3 , t h eF a l k l a n d s ( M a l v i n a s ) W a r , t h e I r a n - I r a q w a r , a n d
t h e f i r s t G u l f W a r — g e n e r a l l y h a v e e n d e d w i t h a
r e t u r n t o t h e s t r a t e g i c s t a t u s q u o . W h i l e s o m e t e r -r i t o r y c h a n g e d h a n d s a n d , i n s o m e c a s e s , r e g i m e s
c h a n g e d , e a c h s t a t e c a m e o u t o f t h e w a r w i t hl a r g e l y t h e s a m e p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m i c , a n d s o c i a ls t r u c t u r e w i t h w h i c h i t e n t e r e d . I n s h o r t , t h es t r a t e g i c s i t u a t i o n o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s d i d n o tc h a n g e s i g n i f i c a n t l y .
I n c o n t r a s t , u n c o n v e n t i o n a l w a r s — t h eC o m m u n i s t r e v o l u t i o n i n C h i n a , t h e f i r s t a n d s e c -
o n d I n d o c h i n a w a r s , t h e A l g e r i a n w a r o f i n d e -p e n d e n c e , t h e S a n d i n i s t a s t r u g g l e i n N i c a r a g u a ,t h e I r a n i a n r e v o l u t i o n , t h e A f g h a n - S o v i e t w a r o ft h e 1 9 8 0 s , t h e f i r s t i n t i f a d a , a n d t h e H i z b u l l a hc a m p a i g n i n S o u t h L e b a n o n — d i s p l a y a m a r k e d l yd i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n . E a c h e n d e d w i t h m a j o r c h a n g e s
i n t h e p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m i c , a n d s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e o ft h e t e r r i t o r i e s i n v o l v e d . W h i l e t h e c h a n g e s m a yn o t h a v e b e e n b e t t e r f o r t h e p e o p l e , t h e y w e r ed i s t i n c t . E v e n t h o s e u n c o n v e n t i o n a l w a r s w h e r et h e i n s u r g e n t s l o s t ( M a l a y a , O m a n , E l S a l v a d o r )
l e d t o s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s . T h e m e s s a g e i s c l e a rf o r a n y o n e w i s h i n g t o s h i f t t h e p o l i t i c a l b a l a n c e
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Fourth-GenerationWarfare in Perspective
Th e term fourth-generation warfare came into use among military strategists and planners in the late 1980s
as a way to characterize the dynamics and future direction of warfare. This corruuunity posntlated the evolution of warfare in several distinct phases.The first generation of modern (post-Westphalian) war was dominat
ed by massed manpower and culminated in the Napoleonic Wars. Firepower characterized the second gener
ation, which culminated in World War I. The third generation was dominated by maneuver as developed by
the Germans in World War II. The fourth generation has evolved in ways that take advantage of the political,
social, economic , and technical changes since World War II. It makes use of the advantages those changes offer
an unconventional enemy. For background and a compilation of paper and articles on the subject, see the
Defense and the National Interest Web site at <http://www.d-n-i.net/dni/category/strategy-and-force-employ
ment/4gw-articles/>
of power: only unconventional war works against
established powers.
Strategic Aspects
Fourth-generation warfare attempts to change
the minds of enemy policymakers directly. But this
change is not to be achieved through the tradition
al first- through third-generation objective of
destroying the enemy's armed forces and the
capacity to regenerate them. Both the epic, deci
sive battles of the Napoleonic era and the wide
ranging, high-speed maneuver campaigns of the
20th century are irrelevant to this new warfare.
More relevant is the way in which specific mes-
sages are targeted toward policymakers and thosewho can influence them. Although tailored for var
ious audiences, each message is designed to
achieve the basic purpose of war: to change an
opponent's political position on a matter of nation
al interest.
The struggles in Iraq and Afghanistan show
these characteristics. In each, the insurgents are
sending one message to their supporters, another
to the undecided population, an d a third to the
coalition decisionmakers. Supporters are told that
they are defending the faith and their country
against outside invaders. The message to uncom
mitted or pro-coalition countrymen is to stay ou t
of the fight between the insurgents and the
invaders, who will eventually leave. Finally, the
coalition, particularly the Americans, is advised to
withdraw or be engaged in an endless, costly fight.
Fourth-generation warfare is not bloodless. As
shown in the chart on page 6, the casualties we
3
have sustained in fighting insurgents in Iraq long
ago passed those we sustained in the comparative
ly short, high-intensity phase that toppled Saddam.
And even then, most casualties will tend to be
civilian, a pattern borne out by fighting in Iraq,
Chechnya, Palestinian areas, and elsewhere.
Further, many of those casualties will be caused
not by military weapons but rather by materials
made available within society. Thus, the opponent
does not have to build the warfighting infrastruc
ture reqUired by earlier generations of war.
As displayed in the Beirut bombings, the
Khobar Towers bombing, the Northern Ireland
campaign, the American Embassy bombings in
Africa, the 9/11 attacks, and the ongOing bombing
campaign in Iraq, fourth-generation warfare practitioners are increasingly using materials made
available by the society they are attacking. This
allows them to take a very different strategic
approach. It relieves the practitioners of the neces
sity of defending core production assets and frees
them to focus on offense rather than defense. It
also relieves them of the burden of moving sup
plies long distances. Instead, only money and
ideas-both of which can be digitized and moved
instantly-must be transported.
Furthermore, even at the strategic level, the
importance of the media in shaping the policy of
the participants will continue to increase. This was
demonstrated when U.S. interest in Somalia, previ
ously negligible, was stimulated by the repeated
images of thousands of starving Somali children.
Conversely, the images of U.S. soldiers being
dragged through the streets ended that commit
ment. The media will remain a major factor from
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the strategic to the tactical level. In fact, world
wide media exposure can quickly give a tactical
action strategic impact.
PoliticalAspects
Fourth-generation warriors exploit interna
tional, transnational, national, and subnational
networks politically for their own purposes. A
growing variety of international conduits are
available: the United Nations, the North Atlantic
Treaty Organization (NATO), the World Bank, the
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries,
and dozens of others. Each organization has a
different function in international affairs, bu t
each has its ow n vulnerabilities and can be used
to convey a political message to its leadershipand then to target capital cities. While these inter
national organizations may not be able to change
the minds of national leaders directly, they can
be used to slow or paralyze an international
response.
The prime objective of the fourth-generation
practitioner is to create political paralysis in both
the international organizations (usually not a dif
ficult task) and the target nation (difficulty varies
with the nation being targeted). In addition to
normal political attacks, planners can influence
other aspects of the target society. For instance,
they know that the security situation in a country
has a direct effect on the ability of that nation to
get loans. This gives the attacker a different
venue to affect the position of a nation-the
mere threat of action may be enough to impact
the financial status of the target nation and
encourage it to negotiate. Thus, if the objective is
to paralyze the political processes of a target
nation, a number of methods can be used.
Attacks by the al-Sadr militia on oil production
infrastructure in southern Iraq have illustrated
this fact. Nigerian rebels have also used the
threat to oil production to force negotiation on
the Nigerian government. The fact that oil prices
were at a record high gave the rebels more lever
age because each day's delay increased the costs
to the Nigerian government. As the world
becomes ever more interconnected, the potential
for varied approaches increases, and the effects
may reinforce each other.
A coherent fourth-generation warfare plan
always exploits transnational elements in variousways. The vehicles may include not only extrem
ist belief-based organizations such as Islamic
Jihad, but also nationalistic organizations such as
the Palestinians and Kurds, mainline Christian
churches, humanitarian organizations, economic
structures such as the stock and bond markets,
and even criminal organizations such as narcO
traffickers and arms merchants. The key traits of
transnational organizations are that none are
contained completely within a recognized
nation-state's borders; none have official mem
bers that report back to nation-states; and they
owe no loyalty to any nation-and sometimes lit
tle to their own organizations.
The use of such transnational elements will
vary with the strategic situation, but they offer a
number of possibilities. They can be a source of
Insurgencies throughout History
Insurgency, often referred to as guerrilla warfare, is not new. The very name guerrilla ("little war") dates
back to the Spanish resistance against Napoleon's occupation of Spain (1809-1813). In fact, insurgency far pre
dates that campaign. Darius the Great, King of Persia (558-486 BC), and Alexander the Great (356-323 BC)
both fought insurgents durin g thei r reigns. Insurgency continued as a form of war through the ages.The Irishnationalist, Michael Collins, drove the British out of Ireland with an insurgent campaign during 1916-1921. Inall cases, the weaker side used insurgent tactics to counter the superior military power of its enemies.
However, in the 20th century, the political aspects of insurgency came to dominate these struggles.The goal
became the destruction of the enemy's political will rather than the exhaustion of his conventional military
power. Advances in communications technology and the growth of formal and informal networks have great
ly increased the ability of the insurgent to attack the will of enemy decisionmakers directly.
4
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r e c r u i t s . T h e y c a n b e u s e d ( a t t i m e s u n w i t t i n g l y )a s c o v e r t o m o v e p e o p l e a n d a s s e t s . T h e y c a n b e
a n e f f e c t i v e s o u r c e o f f u n d s ; c h a r i t a b l e o r g a n i z a -t i o n s h a v e s u p p o r t e d t e r r o r i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n s a s
d i v e r s e a s t h e I r i s h R e p u b l i c a n A r m y ( I R A ) a n da l - Q a e d a . D u r i n g t h e 1 9 7 0 s , f o r e x a m p l e , I r i s hb a r s o n t h e e a s t c o a s t o f A m e r i c a o f t e n h a d j a r sw h e r e p a t r o n s c o u l d m a k e d o n a t i o n s , o s t e n s i b l yt o p r o v i d e s u p p o r t t o I r i s h f a m i l i e s , b u t i n f a c tm u c h o f t h e m o n e y w e n t d i r e c t l y t o s u p p o r t I R Ai n s u r g e n t o p e r a t i o n s .
A t t i m e s , e n t i r e o r g a n i z a t i o n s c a n b e u s e do p e n l y t o s u p p o r t t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e f o u r t h - g e n -e r a t i o n w a r f a r e o p e r a t o r . U s u a l l y t h i s i s d o n e
w h e n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n g e n u i n e l y a g r e e s w i t h t h ep o s i t i o n o f o n e o f t h e a n t a g o n i s t s , b u t f a l s e f l a g
o p e r a t i o n s a r e a l s o v i a b l e . S u c h s u p p o r t c a n l e n dl e g i t i m a c y t o a m o v e m e n t a n d e v e n r e v e r s e l o n g -h e l d i n t e r n a t i o n a l v i e w s o f a s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n .
N a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e p r i m a r y t a r -g e t s f o r f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n m e s s a g e s . I n s u r g e n t sf i g h t i n g t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s — w h e t h e r t h e N o r t hV i e t n a m e s e , t h e S a n d i n i s t a s , o r t h e P a l e s t i n i a n s —
k n o w t h a t i f C o n g r e s s c u t s o f f f u n d s , U . S . a l l i e sw o u l d l o s e t h e i r w a r s . T h u s , c o n g r e s s m e n h a v eb e e n t a r g e t e d w i t h t h e m e s s a g e t h a t t h e w a r w a su n w i n n a b l e a n d i t m a d e n o s e n s e t o k e e p f i g h t -i n g i t . T h e S a n d i n i s t a s e v e n w o r k e d h a r d t o m a k e
i n d i v i d u a l c o n g r e s s m e n p a r t o f t h e i r n e t w o r k b y
s p o n s o r i n g t r i p s f o r c o n g r e s s i o n a l a i d e s a n dm a i n l i n e c h u r c h g r o u p s t o i n s u r g e n t - h e l d a r e a si n N i c a r a g u a . I f t h e y c o u l d c o n v i n c e t h e i r g u e s t st h a t A n a s t a s i o S o m o z a ' s g o v e r n m e n t w a s i n d e e dc o r r u p t , t h e y w o u l d a c t i v e l y l o b b y o t h e r a i d e sa n d t h e c o n g r e s s m e n t h e m s e l v e s t o c u t o f f a i d t oS o m o z a . N o n g o v e r n m e n t a l n a t i o n a l g r o u p s —c h u r c h e s , d i a s p o r a a s s o c i a t i o n s , b u s i n e s s g r o u p s ,a n d e v e n l o b b y i n g f i r m s — h a v e b e e n m a j o r p l a y -
e r s i n s h a p i n g n a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s . T h e U n i t e dS t a t e s m u s t a s s u m e i t s o p p o n e n t s w i l l c o n t i n u e
t h e s e e f f o r t s .S u b n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s c a n r e p r e s e n t b o t h
g r o u p s w h o a r e m i n o r i t i e s i n t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a lh o m e l a n d s , s u c h a s t h e B a s q u e , a n d t h o s e w h oa r e s e l f - s e l e c t i n g m i n o r i t i e s , s u c h a s S o n s o fL i b e r t y a n d A r y a n N a t i o n . T h e s e g r o u p s a r e i nu n u s u a l p o s i t i o n s ; t h e y c a n b e e i t h e r e n e m i e s o ra l l i e s o f t h e e s t a b l i s h e d p o w e r s . I t s i m p l y
d e p e n d s u p o n w h o b e s t s e r v e s t h e i r i n t e r e s t s .
5
E v e n m o r e c h a l l e n g i n g i s t h e f a c t t h a t s i n c e t h e ya r e n o t u n i f i e d g r o u p s , o n e e l e m e n t o f a s u b n a -t i o n a l g r o u p m a y s u p p o r t t h e g o v e r n m e n t w h i l ea n o t h e r s u p p o r t s t h e i n s u r g e n t s .
P o l i t i c a l a l l i a n c e s , i n t e r e s t s , a n d p o s i t i o n sa m o n g a n d b e t w e e n i n s u r g e n t s w i l l c h a n g ea c c o r d i n g t o v a r i o u s p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m i c , s o c i a l ,a n d m i l i t a r y a s p e c t s o f t h e c o n f l i c t . W h i l e t h i s h a s
b e e n a f a c t o r i n a l l w a r s ( I t a l y c h a n g e d s i d e s i nt h e m i d d l e o f W o r l d W a r I I , t h e l a r g e s t c o n v e n -
t i o n a l w a r ) , i t w i l l b e p r e v a l e n t i n f o u r t h - g e n e r a -t i o n w a r . I t i s m u c h e a s i e r f o r n o n s t a t e e n t i t i e s( t r i b e s , c l a n s , b u s i n e s s e s , c r i m i n a l g r o u p s , r a c i a lg r o u p s , s u b n a t i o n a l g r o u p s , a n d t r a n s n a t i o n a lg r o u p s ) t o c h a n g e s i d e s t h a n i t i s f o r n a t i o n -s t a t e s o r n a t i o n a l g r o u p s . A g o v e r n m e n t u s u a l l y
t i e s i t s e l f t o a s p e c i f i c c a u s e . I t h a s t o c o n v i n c ed e c i s i o n m a k e r s o r i t s p e o p l e t o s u p p o r t i t . T h u s ,i t c a n b e a w k w a r d f o r t h a t g o v e r n m e n t t o c h a n g es i d e s i n m i d c o n f l i c t w i t h o u t l o s i n g t h e c o n f i -d e n c e o f i t s p e o p l e . O f t e n , t h e a c t o f c h a n g i n gs i d e s w i l l l e a d t o t h e f a l l o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t . I nc o n t r a s t , n o n s t a t e e n t i t i e s g e t i n v o l v e d o n l y f o rt h e i r o w n n e e d s , a n d , i f t h e s e n e e d s c h a n g e ,t h e y c a n e a s i l y s h i f t l o y a l t i e s .
O p e r a t i o n a l T e c h n i q u e s
T o i n f l u e n c e t h i s w i d e v a r i e t y o f n e t w o r k s
e f f e c t i v e l y , t h e f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n w a r f a r e o p e r a -t i o n a l p l a n n e r m u s t s e e k d i f f e r e n t p a t h w a y s f o r
v a r i o u s m e s s a g e s . T r a d i t i o n a l d i p l o m a t i c c h a n -n e l s , b o t h o f f i c i a l a n d u n o f f i c i a l , a r e s t i l l i m p o r -t a n t h u t a r e n o l o n g e r t h e o n l y r o u t e f o r c o m m u -n i c a t i o n a n d i n f l u e n c e . O t h e r n e t w o r k s r i v a l t h ep r o m i n e n c e o f t h e o f f i c i a l o n e s . T h e m e d i a h a v eb e c o m e a p r i m a r y a v e n u e , a s s e e n i n p l a c e s s u c ha s V i e t n a m , t h e W e s t B a n k , a n d I r a q . H o w e v e r ,t h e s h e e r d i v e r s i t y a n d f r a g m e n t a t i o n o f t h em e d i a m a k e i t m u c h m o r e c h a l l e n g i n g f o r e i t h e rs i d e t o c o n t r o l t h e m e s s a g e . P r o f e s s i o n a l l o b b y -i n g g r o u p s a l s o h a v e p r o v e n e f f e c t i v e .
A n i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t a v e n u e i s t h eI n t e r n e t a n d t h e p o w e r i t p r o v i d e s g r a s s r o o t sc a m p a i g n s . W h e t h e r i t i s t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c a m -p a i g n t o b a n l a n d m i n e s o r A b u M u s a b a l -Z a r q a w i ' s t e r r o r c a m p a i g n i n I r a q , t h e I n t e r n e tp r o v i d e s a n a l t e r n a t i v e c h a n n e l f o r h i g h - i m p a c tm e s s a g e s u n f i l t e r e d b y e d i t o r s o r p o l i t i c a l i n f l u -
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u.s. Military Casualties in Iraq: Higher Against the Insurgents Than Against Saddam's Armed Forces
't l2,500)
't l150III
Q) 't l
0 c:::J
0 2,000't lQ) 12 0
1::0Q. (J)
::J 1,500Q)
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:0Q)
1,00 060IIIZ
u)
::J 30 500
• Major Combat Phase Insurgency Phase
Source : Based on U.S. Government data compiled on the Global Security Web si te . available at http://globalsecurity .orgimilital'jlops/iraq_casualties .htm
ence. It can also be used to raise money.
A key factor in a fourth-generation warfare
campaign is that the audience is not a unified tar
get. It is increasingly fragmented into interest
groups that may realign or even shift sides
depending on how a particular campaign affects
their issues. During the first intifada, the
Palestinians tailored messages for different con
stituencies. The Israelis have used the same tech
nique during the al-Aqsa intifada, and the anticoalition forces are doing so today in Iraq and
Afghanistan.
The United States has been slow to understand
the importance of these communications. As
recently as last year [2004], military spokesmen
insisted that the insurgent attacks on U.S. troops in
Iraq were "militarily insignificant." This was at a
time when each attack was on the front page of
major daily newspapers in the United States and
Europe. While the actual casualties may have been
few, each story reached the decisionmakers in
Congress and the public.
To succeed, the fourth-generation operational
planner must determine the message he wants to
send; the networks best suited to carry those mes
sages; the actions that will cause the network to
send the message; and the feedback system that
will tell him if the message is being received. In
Bosnia, the seizure of UN hostages by Serb forces
6
during the NATO bombing campaign of 1995 was
the first step of a cycle. The media were used to
transmit images of the peacekeepers chained to
bUildings. Then the Serbs watched television to
determine the response of the various govern
ments. It allowed them to commit the act, transmit
it via various channels, observe the response, and
then decide what to do next. All this occurred
much faster than the bureaucratic reporting
processes of NATO could complete the samecycle.
During the first intifada, the Palestinians made
an operational decision to limit the use of vio
lence. They confronted the Israeli Army not with
heavily armed guerrillas but with teenagers armed
only with rocks. Thus, they neutralized U.S. sup
port for Israeli action, froze Israeli defense forces,
and influenced the Israeli national election, which
led to the Oslo Accords.
Similarly, the series of bombings conducted by
the Iraqi insurgents throughout the fall and winter
of 2003-2004 carefully targeted the organizations
most helpful to the Coalition Provisional
Authority-police, the United Nations, non
governmental organizations (NGOs), coalition
partners, the Kurdish political parties, and Shia
clerics. Each event was tactically separat ed by time
and space, but each fit together operationally to
attack America's strategic position in the country.
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I n I r a q , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a s f o u n d n o e v i -d e n c e o f c e n t r a l d i r e c t i o n a t t h i s e a r l y d a t e i n t h e
i n s u r g e n c y , y e t t h e p a t t e r n o f t h e a t t a c k s h a s r e p -r e s e n t e d a c o h e r e n t a p p r o a c h t o d r i v i n g t h e
c o a l i t i o n o u t o f t h e c o u n t r y . T h e q u e s t i o n i s :W i t h n o c o o r d i n a t i o n , h o w c o u l d t h e i n s u r g e n t sr e i n f o r c e e a c h o t h e r s ' a c t i o n s ?
T h e i n s u r g e n t s c o u l d t r a c k e a c h a t t a c k a n d , t oa d e g r e e , m e a s u r e i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s b y m o n i t o r i n g
t h e I r a q i , U . S . , a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l m e d i a . T h o s ea t t a c k s t h a t s u c c e e d e d w e r e q u i c k l y e m u l a t e d ;t h o s e t h a t f a i l e d c e a s e d t o b e u s e d . T h e i n s u r g e n t s
s h o w e d m a n y o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a s e l f -
o r g a n i z i n g n e t w o r k . E a c h a t t a c k i s d e s i g n e d t op r e v e n t a s t a b l e , d e m o c r a t i c g o v e r n m e n t f r o me m e r g i n g . N o t a l l a t t a c k s h a v e s u c c e e d e d , b u tt h e y h a v e k e p t U N p r e s e n c e t o a m i n i m u m a n dh a v e d r i v e n m a n y N G O s o u t o f t h e c o u n t r y .F u r t h e r , t h e c o a l i t i o n i s s h r i n k i n g , a n d t h e i n s u r -g e n c y h a s c l e a r l y a f f e c t e d t h e p r i c e o f o i l . A n d t h e
t h r e a t o f i n s t a b i l i t y s p r e a d i n g t o t h e r e s t o f t h eP e r s i a n G u l f i n c r e a s e s t h e u p w a r d p r e s s u r e o n o i l
p r i c e s .
T o c o m p l i c a t e m a t t e r s , f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n w a r -
f a r e w i l l i n c o r p o r a t e e l e m e n t s o f e a r l i e r g e n e r a -t i o n s o f w a r . E v e n a s t h e I s r a e l i s s t r u g g l e d w i t ht h e i n t i f a d a , t h e y h a d t o r e m a i n a w a r e t h a t m a j o rc o n v e n t i o n a l f o r c e s w e r e o n t h e i r b o r d e r . I nV i e t n a m , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d l a t e r S o u t h
V i e t n a m h a d t o d e a l w i t h a g g r e s s i v e , e f f e c t i v ef o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n g u e r r i l l a s w h i l e a l w a y s b e i n gp r e p a r e d t o d e a l w i t h m a j o r N o r t h V i e t n a m e s ec o n v e n t i o n a l f o r c e s . C l e a r l y , t h e n e w g e n e r a t i o no f w a r f a r e s e e k s t o p l a c e a n e n e m y o n t h e h o r n so f t h i s d i l e m m a . J u s t a s c l e a r l y , t h i s i s a n i n t e n -t i o n a l a p p r o a c h t h a t r e a c h e s a l l t h e w a y b a c k t o
M a o .
A c t i o n i n o n e o r a l l o f t h e f i e l d s a b o v e w i l l n o t
b e l i m i t e d t o t h e g e o g r a p h i c l o c a t i o n ( i f a n y ) o ft h e a n t a g o n i s t s b u t w i l l t a k e p l a c e w o r l d w i d e .F r o m N e w Y o r k t o B a l i a n d M a d r i d , a l - Q a e d a a n d
i t s a f f i l i a t e s h a v e f o r c e f u l l y i l l u s t r a t e d t h i s t o t h e i re n e m i e s . T h o u g h s o m e e l e m e n t s w i l l b e m o r e
a t t r a c t i v e a s t a r g e t s , n o e l e m e n t o f A m e r i c a n s o c i -e t y , n o m a t t e r w h e r e i t i s i n t h e w o r l d , i s o f f l i m -i t s t o a t t a c k . T h e B u s h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a c t i o n s i n
A f g h a n i s t a n a n d e l s e w h e r e a g a i n s t t h e a l - Q a e d an e t w o r k s h o w t h a t e f f e c t i v e c o u n t e r s m u s t a l s o b e
w o r l d w i d e .
7
T h e r a n g e o f p o s s i b l e f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n o p p o -n e n t s i s b r o a d . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o r e m e m b e r t h a ts u c h a n o p p o n e n t d o e s n o t n e e d a l a r g e c o m -m a n d a n d c o n t r o l s y s t e m . A t a t i m e w h e n U . S .
f o r c e s a r e p o u r i n g m o r e m o n e y a n d m a n p o w e ri n t o c o m m a n d a n d c o n t r o l , c o m m e r c i a l t e c h n o l o -
g y m a k e s w o r l d w i d e , s e c u r e c o m m u n i c a t i o n sa v a i l a b l e t o a n y o n e w i t h a l a p t o p a n d a c r e d i tc a r d . I t a l s o p r o v i d e s a c c e s s t o 1 - m e t e r - r e s o l u t i o n
s a t e l l i t e i m a g e r y , e x t e n s i v e i n f o r m a t i o n o n U . S .t r o o p m o v e m e n t s , i m m e d i a t e u p d a t e s o n n a t i o n a ld e b a t e s , a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i s c u s s i o n f o r u m s .
F i n a l l y , i t p r o v i d e s a w o r l d w i d e f i n a n c i a l n e t w o r k
t h a t i s f a i r l y s e c u r e . I n f a c t , w i t h t h e p r o l i f e r a t i o no f I n t e r n e t c a f e s , o n e n e e d s n e i t h e r t h e c r e d i t c a r dn o r t h e l a p t o p — o n l y a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h o w e -m a i l a n d a b r o w s e r w o r k a n d s o m e b a s i c h u m a ni n t e l l i g e n c e t r a d e c r a f t .
I d e a s a n d f u n d s c a n b e m o v e d t h r o u g h a v a r i -e t y o f m e t h o d s f r o m e - m a i l t o s u r f a c e m a i l t o p e r -
s o n a l c o u r i e r t o m e s s a g e s e m b e d d e d i n c l a s s i f i e da d v e r t i s e m e n t s . T h e o p p o n e n t w i l l t r y t o s u b -
m e r g e h i s c o m m u n i c a t i o n s i n t h e n o i s e o f t h ee v e r y d a y a c t i v i t y . H e w i l l u s e c o m m e r c i a l s o u r c e s
a n d v e h i c l e s t o d i s g u i s e t h e m o v e m e n t o f m a t e r i -
a l a n d f u n d s a s c o m m e r c e . H i s p e o p l e w i l l d ot h e i r b e s t t o m e r g e i n t o w h a t e v e r c i v i l s o c i e t y t h e y
f i n d t h e m s e l v e s i n . A s a r e s u l t , d e t e c t i n g t h e o p e r -a t i o n a l - l e v e l a c t i v i t i e s o f a s o p h i s t i c a t e d o p p o n e n t
w i l l b e e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y d i f f i c u l t .
T a c t i c a l C o n s i d e r a t i o n s
F o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n w a r f a r e t a k e s p l a c e i n t h ec o m p l e x e n v i r o n m e n t o f l o w - i n t e n s i t y c o n f l i c t .E v e r y p o t e n t i a l o p p o n e n t h a s o b s e r v e d t h e G u l fW a r , O p e r a t i o n I r a q i F r e e d o m , a n d o p e r a t i o n s i nA f g h a n i s t a n . T h e y u n d e r s t a n d t h a t i f t h e U n i t e dS t a t e s i s p r o v i d e d c l e a r t a r g e t s , n o m a t t e r h o ww e l l f o r t i f i e d , t h o s e t a r g e t s w i l l b e d e s t r o y e d . J u s t
a s c e r t a i n l y , t h e y h a v e s e e n t h e s u c c e s s o f t h eS o m a l i s a n d t h e S a n d i n i s t a s . T h e y h a v e a l s o s e e n
a n d a r e a b s o r b i n g t h e c o n t i n u i n g l e s s o n s o fC h e c h n y a , B o s n i a , A f g h a n i s t a n , a n d I r a q . T h e yw i l l n o t f i g h t w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l m e a n s .
I n a t t e m p t i n g t o c h a n g e t h e m i n d s o f k e y d e c i -s i o n m a k e r s , a n t a g o n i s t s w i l l u s e s e v e r a l t a c t i c a lp a t h s t o g e t t h e i r m e s s a g e t h r o u g h t o p r e s i d e n t s ,p r i m e m i n i s t e r s , c a b i n e t m e m b e r s , l e g i s l a t o r s , a n d
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e v e n v o t e r s . I m m e d i a t e , h i g h - i m p a c t m e s s a g e sw i l l p r o b a b l y c o m e v i a v i s u a l m e d i a — a n d t h em o r e d r a m a t i c a n d b l o o d y t h e i m a g e , t h e s t r o n g e r
t h e m e s s a g e . L o n g e r t e r m , l e s s i m m e d i a t e , b u t
m o r e t h o u g h t - p r o v o k i n g m e s s a g e s w i l l b e p a s s e dt h r o u g h b u s i n e s s , r e l i g i o u s , e c o n o m i c , a c a d e m i c ,
a r t i s t i c , a n d e v e n s o c i a l n e t w o r k s . W h i l e t h e m e s -
s a g e s w i l l b e b a s e d o n a s t r a t e g i c t h e m e , t h ed e l i v e r y w i l l h e b y t a c t i c a l a c t i o n s u c h a s g u i d e dt o u r s o f r e f u g e e c a m p s , e x c l u s i v e i n t e r v i e w s w i t h
i n s u r g e n t l e a d e r s , t a r g e t e d k i d n a p p i n g , b e h e a d -i n g s , c a r b o m b i n g s , a n d a s s a s s i n a t i o n s .
T h i s w a r f a r e w i l l i n v o l v e a m i x t u r e o f i n t e r n a -t i o n a l , t r a n s n a t i o n a i , n a t i o n a l , a n d s u b n a t i o n a la c t o r s . S i n c e t h e o p e r a t i o n a l p l a n n e r o f a f o u r t h -
g e n e r a t i o n c a m p a i g n m u s t u s e a l l t h e t o o l s a v a i l -a b l e , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s p r o b a b l y w i l l h a v e t o d e a lw i t h a c t o r s f r o m a l l t h e s e a r e n a s a t t h e t a c t i c a ll e v e l a s w e l l . E v e n m o r e c h a l l e n g i n g , s o m e w i l lb e v i o l e n t a c t o r s a n d o t h e r s n o n v i o l e n t . I n f a c t ,t h e t e r m n o n c o m b a t a n t a p p l i e s m u c h m o r e r e a d -i l y t o c o n v e n t i o n a l c o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n s t a t e s t h a nt o f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n w a r i n v o l v i n g s t a t e a n d n o n -
s t a t e a c t o r s . N o n v i o l e n t a c t o r s , w h i l e b e i n g l e g a l -
l y n o n c o m b a t a n t s , w i l l b e a c r i t i c a l p a r t o f t a c t i c a l
a c t i o n s . B y u s i n g c r o w d s , p r o t e s t e r s , m e d i a i n t e r -v i e w s , I n t e r n e t W e b s i t e s , a n d o t h e r n o n v i o l e n t
m e t h o d s , f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n w a r r i o r s c a n c r e a t et a c t i c a l d i l e m m a s f o r o p p o n e n t s . T a c t i c a l
r e s o u r c e s i n p o l i c e , i n t e l l i g e n c e , m i l i t a r y , p r o p a -g a n d a , a n d p o l i t i c a l s p h e r e s w i l l b e n e e d e d t od e a l w i t h t h e d i s t r a c t i o n s t h e y c r e a t e .
T a c t i c a l m i l i t a r y a c t i o n ( f o r e x a m p l e , t e r r o r i s t ,
g u e r r i l l a , o r , r a r e l y , c o n v e n t i o n a l ) w i l l b e t i e d t ot h e m e s s a g e a n d t a r g e t e d a t v a r i o u s g r o u p s . T h e
1 9 A u g u s t 2 0 0 3 b o m b i n g o f t h e U N h e a d q u a r t e r s
i n I r a q c o n v i n c e d t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t c o n t i n u i n g
t o o p e r a t e i n I r a q w o u l d b e t o o c o s t l y . T h e 1 9A u g u s t 2 0 0 4 b u r n i n g o f s o u t h e r n I r a q o i l b u i l d -i n g s h a d a n i m m e d i a t e e f f e c t o n t h e p e r - b a r r e lp r i c e o f o i l . T h e s e w e r e t w o t a c t i c a l a c t i o n s w i t hd i f f e r e n t m e s s a g e s f o r d i f f e r e n t t a r g e t a u d i e n c e s ,
y e t t h e y b o t h s u p p o r t t h e s t r a t e g i c g o a l o f i n c r e a s -i n g t h e c o s t t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f s t a y i n g i n I r a q .
W M D A t t a c k s
O n l y b y l o o k i n g a t c u r r e n t c o n f l i c t s a s f o u r t h -g e n e r a t i o n w a r f a r e e v e n t s c a n A m e r i c a ' s t r u e v u l -
8
n e r a h i l i t i e s t o a n a t t a c k w i t h w e a p o n s o f m a s sd e s t r u c t i o n ( W M D ) b e s e e n . E v e n a l i m i t e d b i o -l o g i c a l a t t a c k w i t h a c o n t a g i o u s a g e n t , s u c h a sp l a g u e , w i l l r e s u l t i n a s h u t d o w n o f m a j o r s e g -
m e n t s o f a i r t r a v e l , s h i p p i n g , a n d t r a d e . S m a l l p o xw i l l r e q u i r e a t o t a l q u a r a n t i n e o f t h e a f f e c t e d a r e a su n t i l t h e i n c u b a t i o n p e r i o d h a s p a s s e d . T h ep o t e n t i a l f o r b i l l i o n s o f d o l l a r s i n l o s s e s t o d i s r u p t -
e d t r a d e i s o b v i o u s , a s w e l l a s y e a r s o f c o n t i n u i n g
l o s s d u e t o s u b s e q u e n t l i t i g a t i o n .
W M D a t t a c k s m a y n o t f o c u s O f l p h y s i c a l
d e s t r u c t i o n b u t r a t h e r o n a r e a d e n i a l o r d i s r u p -t i o n . T h e a b i l i t y o f a s i n g l e p e r s o n t o s h u t d o w nS e n a t e o f f i c e b u i l d i n g s a n d p o s t o f f i c e s w i t h t w oa n t h r a x l e t t e r s i s a v i v i d e x a m p l e o f a n a r e a d e n i a l
w e a p o n . D i s r u p t i o n c a n e a s i l y h e m a d e e v e nm o r e w i d e s p r e a d . T h e u s e o f c o n t a i n e r i z e df r e i g h t t o d e l i v e r e i t h e r a W M D o r a h i g h - y i e l de x p l o s i v e w i l l h a v e m o r e f a r - r e a c h i n g a n d c o s t l ye f f e c t s o n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e n e t w o r k t h a n t h e
s h u t d o w n o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l a i r r o u t e s . S e c u r i t y f o ra i r l i n e r s a n d a i r f r e i g h t i s e a s y c o m p a r e d t o t h ep r o b l e m o f i n s p e c t i n g s e a b o r n e s h i p p i n g c o n t a i n -
e r s . Y e t c o n t a i n e r s a r e t h e b a s i c c o m p o n e n t f o rt h e m a j o r i t y o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e t o d a y , a n d t h eU n i t e d S t a t e s h a s n o c u r r e n t s y s t e m t o s e c u r e o ri n s p e c t t h e m . B y t a k i n g a d v a n t a g e o f t h i s v u l n e r -
a b i l i t y , t e r r o r i s t s c a n i m p o s e h u g e e c o n o m i c c o s t s
w i t h l i t t l e e f f o r t . T h e y d o n o t h a v e t o l i m i t t h e i r
a c t i o n s t o t h e c o n t a i n e r s b u t c a n a l s o u s e t h es h i p s t h e m s e l v e s . S h i p s f l y i n g f l a g s o f c o n v e n -i e n c e d o s o t o m i n i m i z e t h e a b i l i t y o f g o v e r n m e n t
e f f o r t s t o r e g u l a t e o r t a x t h e m . I t i s l o g i c a l t oa s s u m e t h e s a m e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i l l a p p e a l t o t e r -
r o r i s t s .
F i n a l l y , t e r r o r i s t s d o n o t e v e n h a v e t o p r o v i d et h e m a t e r i a l s f o r s i m p l e c h e m i c a l a t t a c k s . T h e1 9 8 4 c h e m i c a l p l a n t d i s a s t e r i n B h o p a l , I n d i a ,k i l l e d m o r e p e o p l e t h a n 9 / 1 1 a n d l e f t m o r e w i t hs e r i o u s l o n g - t e r m i n j u r i e s . W h i l e B h o p a l w a s a na c c i d e n t , i t p r e s e n t s a p r e c e d e n t f o r a d e v a s t a t i n gc h e m i c a l a t t a c k .
T h e e x i s t e n c e o f c h e m i c a l p l a n t s a n d t h em o v e m e n t o f t o x i c i n d u s t r i a l c h e m i c a l s n e e d e d t o
s u p p o r t t h e A m e r i c a n l i f e s t y l e e n s u r e t h e r a wm a t e r i a l f o r a c h e m i c a l a t t a c k i s a l w a y s p r e s e n t . I n
a d d i t i o n t o t h e w i d e l y r e c o g n i z e d p o t e n t i a l f o rc h e m i c a l a t t a c k , i t i s f a i r l y c e r t a i n t e r r o r i s t s a r et o d a y e x p l o r i n g h o w t o u s e l i q u i d n a t u r a l g a s
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t a n k e r s , f u e l t r u c k s , r a d i o a c t i v e w a s t e , a n d o t h e ra v a i l a b l e m a t e r i a l f o r f u t u r e a t t a c k s . T h e s e a r e j u s ta f e w o f t h e r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e t o a n i n t e l l i g e n t ,c r e a t i v e o p p o n e n t .
L o n g T i m e l i n e s
F o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n w a r f a r e t i m e l i n e s , o r g a n i z a -t i o n s , a n d o b j e c t i v e s a r e v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h o s e
o f c o n v e n t i o n a l w a r , O f p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e i st h e f a c t t h a t t i m e l i n e s a r e m u c h l o n g e r . F a i l u r e t ou n d e r s t a n d t h a t e s s e n t i a l f a c t i s w h y m a n yo b s e r v e r s d o n o t f u i l y a p p r e c i a t e t h e m a g n i t u d eo f t h e c h a l l e n g e p r e s e n t e d b y a f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o ne n e m y .
W h e n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a s t o f i g h t , i t p r e f e r s
t o w a g e s h o r t , w e l l - d e f i n e d w a r s . F o r t h e U n i t e dS t a t e s , a l o n g w a r i s f i v e y e a r s — w h i c h , i n f a c t ,w a s t h e d u r a t i o n o f m a j o r U . S . i n v o l v e m e n t i n
V i e t n a m ( 1 9 6 5 — 1 9 7 0 ) . T h e n a t i o n e n t e r e d w h e nt h e w a r w a s a l r e a d y u n d e r w a y a n d l e f t b e f o r e i t
w a s o v e r . E v e n t h e n , t h e U . S . p u b l i c t h o u g h t t h ec o u n t r y h a d b e e n a t w a r t o o l o n g .
B u t f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n w a r s a r e l o n g . T h eC h i n e s e C o m m u n i s t s f o u g h t f o r 2 8 y e a r s ; t h e
V i e t n a m e s e C o m m u n i s t s f o r 3 0 ; t h e S a n d i n i s t a sf o r 1 8 . T h e P a l e s t i n i a n s h a v e b e e n r e s i s t i n g I s r a e l i
o c c u p a t i o n f o r 3 7 y e a r s s o f a r — a n d s o m e w o u l da r g u e t h e y h a v e b e e n f i g h t i n g s i n c e 1 9 4 8 . T h e
C h e c h e n s h a v e b e e n f i g h t i n g o v e r 1 0 y e a r s — t h i st i m e . A I - Q a e d a h a s b e e n f i g h t i n g f o r t h e i r v i s i o no f t h e w o r l d f o r 2 0 y e a r s s i n c e t h e f o u n d i n g o fM a k t a b a l - K h i d a m a r i n 1 9 8 4 . N u m e r o u s o t h e ri n s u r g e n c i e s i n t h e w o r l d h a v e l a s t e d d e c a d e s .A c c o r d i n g l y , w h e n g e t t i n g i n v o l v e d i n t h i s t y p e o f
f i g h t , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s m u s t p l a n f o r a d e c a d e s -l o n g c o m m i t m e n t . F r o m a n A m e r i c a n p o i n t o fv i e w , d u r a t i o n m a y w e l l b e t h e s i n g l e m o s ti m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n w a r -
f a r e . L e a d e r s h i p m u s t m a i n t a i n t h e f o c u s o f e f f o r t
t h r o u g h n u m e r o u s e l e c t i o n s a n d e v e n c h a n g e s o fa d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o p r e v a i l i n s u c h a n e f f o r t .
T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s m u s t u n d e r s t a n d t h a t f o u r t h -g e n e r a t i o n o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e d i f f e r e n t . S i n c e M a o ,
t h e y h a v e f o c u s e d o n t h e l o n g - t e r m p o l i t i c a l v i a -b i l i t y o f t h e m o v e m e n t r a t h e r t h a n o n i t s s h o r t -t e r m t a c t i c a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s . T h e y d o n o t s e e t h e m -s e l v e s a s m i l i t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n s b u t r a t h e r a s w e b s
t h a t g e n e r a t e t h e p o l i t i c a l p o w e r c e n t r a l t o t h i s
9
t y p e o f w a r f a r e . T h u s , t h e s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e u n i -
f i e d b y i d e a s . T h e l e a d e r s h i p a n d t h e o r g a n i z a -t i o n s a r e n e t w o r k e d t o p r o v i d e f o r s u r v i v a b i l i t ya n d c o n t i n u i t y w h e n a t t a c k e d . A n d t h e l e a d e r s h i p
r e c o g n i z e s t h a t t h e i r m o s t i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n i s t os u s t a i n t h e i d e a a n d t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s , n o t s i m p l yt o w i n o n t h e b a t t l e f i e l d .
T h e s e o p p o n e n t s f o c u s o n t h e p o l i t i c a l a s p e c t so f t h e c o n f l i c t b e c a u s e t h e y a c c e p t t h a t w a r i s u l t i -
m a t e l y a p o l i t i c a l a c t . S i n c e t h e f i n a l o b j e c t i v e i s
c h a n g i n g t h e m i n d s o f t h e e n e m y ' s p o l i t i c a l l e a d -e r s h i p , t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e o b j e c t i v e s a r e a l l m i l e -s t o n e s f o c u s e d o n s h i f t i n g t h e o p i n i o n o f t h e v a r -i o u s t a r g e t a u d i e n c e s . T h e y k n o w t h a t t i m e i s o nt h e i r s i d e .
N o t e d m i l i t a r y s t r a t e g i s t H a r r y S u m m e r s
r e c o u n t e d h o w h e o n c e t o l d a N o r t h V i e t n a m e s ec o l o n e l t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a d n e v e r b e e nb e a t e n o n t h e b a t t l e f i e l d . T h e o f f i c e r r e p l i e d ," T h a t m a y b e s o , b u t i t i s a l s o i r r e l e v a n t . "B e c a u s e o f t h e l o n g t i m e l i n e s a n d i t s p o l i t i c a l
n a t u r e , t h e o b j e c t i v e s a r e d i f f e r e n t . F o u r t h - g e n e r -
a t i o n o p p o n e n t s d o n o t s e e k t h e d e f e a t o f t h ee n e m y f o r c e s . T h e y s e e k t h e e r o s i o n o f t h ee n e m y ' s p o l i t i c a l w i l l a n d c a n w i n e v e n i f t h eo p p o s i n g m i l i t a r y f o r c e i s l a r g e l y i n t a c t . T h e yf o c u s o n w i n n i n g w a r s , n o t b a t t l e s .
U . S . R e s p o n s e
F o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n o p p o n e n t s a r e n o t i n v i n c i -b l e . T h e y c a n b e b e a t e n , b u t o n l y b y c o h e r e n t ,p a t i e n t a c t i o n s t h a t e n c o m p a s s a l l a g e n c i e s o f t h eg o v e r n m e n t a n d e l e m e n t s o f t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r .
T h e i r w a r f a r e e n c o m p a s s e s t h e f i e l d s o f d i p l o m a -c y , d e f e n s e , i n t e l l i g e n c e , l a w e n f o r c e m e n t , a n de c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l d e v e l o p m e n t . A m e r i c a n
e f f o r t s m u s t b e o r g a n i z e d a s a n e t w o r k r a t h e r t h a n
i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l v e r t i c a l b u r e a u c r a c i e s o f F e d e r a l
d e p a r t m e n t s . T h i s i n t e r a g e n c y p r o c e s s w i l l h a v et o e x e r t i t s i n f l u e n c e f o r t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e w a r —
f r o m t h e i n i t i a t i o n o f p l a n n i n g t o t h e f i n a l w i t h -d r a w a l o f f o r c e s .
B e s i d e s d e a l i n g w i t h t h e l o n g t i m e l i n e s , d e v e l -o p i n g g e n u i n e i n t e r a g e n c y n e t w o r k s w i l l b e t h e
m o s t d i f f i c u l t U . S . p r o b l e m i n f i g h t i n g a f o u r t h -g e n e r a t i o n o p p o n e n t . T h i s w i l l r e q u i r e f u n d a m e n -
t a l c h a n g e s i n h o w n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y l e a d e r s h i pt r a i n s , d e v e l o p s , p r o m o t e s , d e p l o y s , a n d e m p l o y s
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p e r s o n n e l a c r o s s t h e F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t . T h ec u r r e n t s y s t e m , w h i c h i s b a s e d o n 1 9 t h - c e n t u r yb u r e a u c r a t i c t h e o r y , c a n n o t s u p p o r t 2 1 s t - c e n t u r yo p e r a t i o n s . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s m u s t
b e a b l e t o :• t r a i n p e r s o n n e l i n a g e n u i n e i n t e r a g e n c y
e n v i r o n m e n t . F r o m t h e c l a s s r o o m t o d a i l y o p e r a -t i o n s t o i n t e r a g e n c y t r a i n i n g e x e r c i s e s , p e r s o n n e lm u s t t h i n k a n d a c t a s p a r t o f a n e t w o r k r a t h e rt h a n a h i e r a r c h y .
• d e v e l o p p e r s o n n e l t h r o u g h t h e e q u i v a l e n t o fm i l i t a r y j o i n t t o u r s . A s i n t h e m i l i t a r y , t h e s e t o u r s
m u s t b e a n e s s e n t i a l s t e p f o r p r o m o t i o n .
• d e p l o y i n t e r a g e n c y p e r s o n n e l f r o m a l l s e g -m e n t s o f t h e U . S . G o v e r n m e n t o v e r s e a s f o r m u c h
l o n g e r t o u r s . T h e c u r r e n t 3 - t o 1 2 - m o n t h o v e r s e a st o u r s i n a c r i s i s c a n n o t w o r k i n f i g h t s l a s t i n g
d e c a d e s .
• o p e r a t e a s i n t e r a g e n c y e l e m e n t s d o w n t o t h et a c t i c a l l e v e l . T h i s m e a n s a b a n d o n i n g t h e a g e n c y -
s p e c i f i c s t o v e p i p e s t h a t l i n k o p e r a t i o n s o v e r s e a st o t h e i r U . S . h e a d q u a r t e r s . T h e B r i t i s h W a rC o m m i t t e e s y s t e m u s e d i n t h e M a l a y a e m e r g e n c yp r o v i d e s o n e m o d e l t h a t e l i m i n a t e d t h es t o v e p i p e s a n d e n s u r e d u n i f i e d e f f o r t a t e v e r yl e v e l o f g o v e r n m e n t . S t a r t i n g i n p e a c e t i m e , p e r -s o n n e l m u s t b e t r a i n e d t o b e e f f e c t i v e l i n k i n g i n t o
t h e i n t e r a g e n c y p r o c e s s , a n d t h o s e w h o d o s os h o u l d b e r e w a r d e d . T h e c u r r e n t p r o c e s s o fr e w a r d i n g t h o s e w h o w o r k e n t i r e l y w i t h i n a s p e -
c i f i c a g e n c y p r e v e n t s e f f e c t i v e n e t w o r k i n g .
• e l i m i n a t e t h e d e t a i l e d , b u r e a u c r a t i c p r o c e s s -e s t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e p e a c e t i m e g o v e r n m e n t a c t i o n s
( p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n t r a c t i n g a n d p u r c h a s i n g ) . P e o p l eh a v e t o b e t r u s t e d a n d h e l d a c c o u n t a b l e . L o n g e r
t o u r s o f d u t y w i l l b e e s s e n t i a l , b o t h t o e n s u r e t h a t
p e r s o n n e l u n d e r s t a n d t h e s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n w e l le n o u g h t o m a k e d e c i s i o n s a n d c a n l e g i t i m a t e l y b e
h e l d a c c o u n t a b l e f o r t h e i r a c t i o n s . T h e c u r r e n ts h o r t t o u r s m e a n n o o n e m a s t e r s h i s o r h e r j o b ,
t h e r e c o r d s a r e i n c o m p l e t e , a n d a c c o u n t a b i l i t yc a n n o t b e m a i n t a i n e d .
• d e v e l o p p r o c e d u r e s f o r f u l l y i n t e g r a t i n g t h er a n g e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , N G O s , a l l i e s ,
a n d s p e c i a l i s t s n e c e s s a r y t o s u c c e e d a g a i n s t a na d e p t , a g i l e i n s u r g e n t .
1 0
T h e s e a r e m a j o r c h a l l e n g e s , b u t a m o d e l e x i s t s
w i t h w h i c h t o w o r k . P r e s i d e n t i a l D e c i s i o n
D i r e c t i v e 5 6 p r o v i d e s a n e x c e l l e n t s t a r t i n g p o i n t . 2
B a s e d o n l e s s o n s l e a r n e d f r o m U . S . i n v o l v e m e n t
i n m u l t i p l e c r i s e s a n d c o m p l e x c o n t i n g e n c i e s d u r -i n g t h e 1 9 9 0 s , i t p r o v i d e s g u i d a n c e f o r b o t h t r a i n -
i n g a n d o p e r a t i o n s i n a n i n t e r a g e n c y e n v i r o n m e n tt h a t c a n b e a d a p t e d f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f w a g i n gf o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n w a r f a r e .
Y e t t h i s i s o n l y a s t a r t i n g p o i n t . I n t h e s a m ew a y t h a t t h e A r m e d F o r c e s h a d t o l e a r n t o f i g h t
j o i n t l y t o m a s t e r t h i r d - g e n e r a t i o n w a r , t h e e n t i r eg o v e r n m e n t m u s t l e a r n t o o p e r a t e i n a g e n u i n ei n t e r a g e n c y f a s h i o n t o m a s t e r f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o nc o n f l i c t . T h e r e a r e n o s i m p l e , o n e d e p a r t m e n t ,o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l s o l u t i o n s t o t h e s e w a r s . E v e n
w i t h a f u l l y f u n c t i o n i n g i n t e r a g e n c y p r o c e s s , t h ea s s u m p t i o n m u s t b e m a d e t h a t f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o nw a r s w i l l l a s t a d e c a d e o r m o r e .
C o n c l u s i o n
A s G e r m a n m i l i t a r y s t r a t e g i s t C a r l v o n
C l a u s e w i t z o n c e o b s e r v e d : " T h e f i r s t , t h e
s u p r e m e , t h e m o s t f a r - r e a c h i n g a c t o f j u d g m e n tt h a t t h e s t a t e s m a n a n d c o m m a n d e r h a v e t o m a k ei s t o e s t a b l i s h b y t h a t t e s t t h e k i n d o f w a r o nw h i c h t h e y a r e e m b a r k i n g ; n e i t h e r m i s t a k i n g i tf o r , n o r t r y i n g t o t u r n i t i n t o , s o m e t h i n g t h a t i s
a l i e n t o i t s n a t u r e . " 3 F o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n w a r , l i k e i t sp r e d e c e s s o r s , w i l l c o n t i n u e t o e v o l v e i n w a y s t h a t
m i r r o r g l o b a l s o c i e t y a s a w h o l e . A s t h e U n i t e dS t a t e s m o v e s a w a y f r o m a h i e r a r c h i c a l , i n d u s t r i a l -
b a s e d s o c i e t y t o a n e t w o r k e d , i n f o r m a t i o n - b a s e ds o c i e t y , i t s p o l i t i c a l , s o c i o e c o n o m i c , a n d t e c h n o -
l o g i c a l b a s e s w i l l a l s o e v o l v e .
W i t h t h i s e v o l u t i o n c o m e o p p o r t u n i t y a n d h a z -
a r d . T h e k e y t o p r o v i d i n g f o r s e c u r i t y l i e s i n r e c -o g n i z i n g t h e s e c h a n g e s f o r w h a t t h e y a r e . I n
u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e k i n d o f w a r b e i n g f o u g h t , t h eU n i t e d S t a t e s m u s t n o t a t t e m p t t o s h a p e i t i n t o
s o m e t h i n g i t i s n o t . O p p o n e n t s c a n n o t b e f o r c e di n t o a t h i r d - g e n e r a t i o n w a r t h a t m a x i m i z e sA m e r i c a n s t r e n g t h s ; t h e y w i l l f i g h t t h e f o u r t h - g e n -e r a t i o n w a r t h a t c h a l l e n g e s U . S . w e a k n e s s e s .C l a u s e w i t z ' s a d m o n i t i o n t o n a t i o n a l l e a d e r sr e m a i n s a s v a l i d a s e v e r , a n d i t m u s t g u i d e t h ep l a n n i n g f o r f u t u r e w a r s
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N o t e s
1 . H a r r y G . S u m m e r s , O n S t r a t e g y : A C r i t i c a l A n a l y s i so f t h e V i e t n a m W a r ( N o v a t o , C A : P r e s i d i o P r e s s , 1 9 8 2 ) ,
1 .2 . P r e s i d e n t i a l D e c i s i o n D i r e c t i v e 5 6 w a s d e v e l o p e d b yt h e C l i n t o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o m a n a g e c o m p l e x c o n t i n -g e n c y o p e r a t i o n s . A l t h o u g h c a n c e l e d b y t h e B u s ha d m i n i s t r a t i o n , i t s t i l l p r o v i d e s a w e l l - t h o u g h t - o u tm o d e l f o r i n s u r g e n c y o p e r a t i o n s .3 . C a r l v o n C l a u s e w i t z , O n W a r , t r a n s . P e t e r P a r e t a n d
1 1
M i c h a e l H o w a r d ( P r i n c e t o n : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t yP r e s s , 1 9 7 6 ) , 8 8 .
A b o u t t h e A u t h o rT h o m a s X . H a m m e s , C o l o n e l , U S M C ( R e t . ) , i s t h e a u t h o r o f T h e S l i n g
a n d t h e S t o n e : O n W a r f a r e i n t h e 2 1 s t C e n t u r y ( 2 0 0 4 ) , a n i n f l u e n t i a lb o o k o n f o u r t h - g e n e r a t i o n w a r f a r e , a s u b j e c t o n w h i c h h e h a s b e e n p u b -
l i s h i n g s i n c e 1 9 8 9 . A t t h e t i m e t h i s a r t i c l e w a s p u b l i s h e d , h e w a s a s e n i o r
m i l i t a r y f e l l o w a t t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r N a t i o n a l S t r a t e g i c S t u d i e s a t N a t i o n a l
D e f e n s e U n i v e r s i t y i n W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . I n h i s 3 0 y e a r s i n t h e M a r i n e
C o r p s , H a m m e s s e r v e d a t a l l l e v e l s i n t h e o p e r a t i n g f o r c e s a n d p a r t i c i p a t -
e d i n s t a b i l i z a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s i n S o m a l i a a n d I r a q .
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B a c k t o t h e S t r e e tw i t h o u t J o y :C o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c yL e s s o n s f r o m
V i e t n a m a n d O t h e rS m a l l W a r s
b y R o b e r t M C a s s i d y
P a r a m e t e r s , S u m m e r 2 0 0 4
" T h e d e p l o r a b l e e x p e r i e n c e i n V i e t n a m o v e r -s h a d o w s A m e r i c a n t h i n k i n g a b o u t g u e r r i l l a i n s u r -
g e n c y . "
— A n t h o n y J a m e s J o e s 1
" F o o l s s a y t h e y l e a r n f r o m e x p e r i e n c e ; I p r e f e r t ol e a r n f r o m t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f o t h e r s . "
O t t o v o n B i s m a r k 2
n 1 9 6 1 , B e r n a r d F a l l , a s c h o l a r a n d p r a c t i -t i o n e r o f w a r , p u b l i s h e d a b o o k e n t i t l e d T h eS t r e e t W i t h o u t J o y . T h e b o o k p r o v i d e d a
l u c i d a c c o u n t o f w h y t h e F r e n c h E x p e d i t i o n a r yC o r p s f a i l e d t o d e f e a t t h e V i e t M i n h d u r i n g t h eI n d o c h i n a W a r , a n d t h e b o o k ' s t i t l e d e r i v e d
f r o m t h e F r e n c h s o l d i e r s ' s a r d o n i c m o n i k e r f o rH i g h w a y 1 o n t h e c o a s t o f I n d o c h i n a —
" A m b u s h A l l e y , " o r t h e " S t r e e t w i t h o u t J o y . " I n1 9 6 7 , w h i l e p a t r o l l i n g w i t h U . S . M a r i n e s o n t h e
S t r e e t w i t h o u t J o y i n V i e t n a m , B e r n a r d F a l l w a sk i l l e d b y a n i m p r o v i s e d e x p l o s i v e m i n e d u r i n ga V i e t C o n g a m b u s h . I n 2 0 0 3 , a f t e r t h e f a l l o fB a g h d a d a n d f o l l o w i n g t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l p h a s eo f O p e r a t i o n I r a q i F r e e d o m , U . S . a n d C o a l i t i o n
f o r c e s o p e r a t i n g i n t h e S u n n i T r i a n g l e b e g a nf i g h t i n g a c o u n t e r - g u e r r i l l a t y p e w a r i n w h i c hm u c h o f t h e e n e m y i n s u r g e n t a c t i v i t y o c c u r r e da l o n g H i g h w a y 1 , a n o t h e r s t r e e t e x h i b i t i n g l i t t l ej o y . L e a r n i n g f r o m t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f o t h e r U . S .c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c i e s i s p r e f e r a b l e t o t h e a l t e r n a -t i v e .
1 3
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T h e U . S . m i l i t a r y h a s h a d a h o s t o f s u c c e s s f u le x p e r i e n c e s i n c o u n t e r g u e r r i l l a w a r , i n c l u d i n gs o m e d i s t i n c t s u c c e s s e s w i t h c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o ft h e V i e t n a m W a r . H o w e v e r , t h e p a r a d o x s t e m -
m i n g f r o m A m e r i c a ' s u n s u c c e s s f u l c r u s a d e i nt h e j u n g l e s o f V i e t n a m i s t h i s — b e c a u s e t h ee x p e r i e n c e w a s p e r c e i v e d a s a n a t h e m a t o t h e
m a i n s t r e a m A m e r i c a n m i l i t a r y , h a r d l e s s o n sl e a r n e d t h e r e a b o u t f i g h t i n g g u e r r i l l a s w e r e n e i -t h e r e m b e d d e d n o r p r e s e r v e d i n t h e U . S . A r m y ' s
i n s t i t u t i o n a l m e m o r y . T h e A m e r i c a n m i l i t a r yc u l t u r e ' s e f f o r t s t o e x p u n g e t h e s p e c t e r o fV i e t n a m , e m b o d i e d i n t h e m a n t r a " N o M o r eV i e t n a m s , " a l s o p r e v e n t e d t h e U . S . A r m y a s a n
i n s t i t u t i o n f r o m r e a l l y l e a r n i n g f r o m t h o s e l e s -s o n s . I n f a c t , e v e n t h e t e r m c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y
s e e m e d t o b e c o m e a r e v i l e d a n d u n w e l c o m ew o r d , o n e t h a t t h e d o c t r i n a l c o g n o s c e n t i o f t h e1 9 8 0 s c o n v e n i e n t l y t r a n s m o g r i f i e d i n t o " f o r e i g n
i n t e r n a l d e f e n s e . " E v e n t h o u g h m a n y l e s s o n se x i s t i n t h e U . S . m i l i t a r y ' s h i s t o r i c a l e x p e r i e n c e
w i t h s m a l l w a r s , t h e l e s s o n s f r o m t h e V i e t n a mW a r w e r e t h e m o s t v o l u m i n o u s . Y e t t h e s e l e s -
S o n s w e r e m o s t l i k e l y t h e l e a s t r e a d , b e c a u s et h e A r m y ' s i n t e l l e c t u a l r e b i r t h a f t e r V i e t n a m
f o c u s e d a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y o n a b i g c o n v e n t i o n -a l w a r i n E u r o p e — t h e s c e n a r i o p r e f e r r e d b y t h eU . S . m i l i t a r y c u l t u r e . 3
S i n c e t h e U . S . A r m y a n d i t s c o a l i t i o n p a r t n e r s
a r e c u r r e n t l y p r o s e c u t i n g c o u n t e r g u e r r i l l a w a r si n I r a q a n d A f g h a n i s t a n , i t i s u s e f u l t o r e v i s i t t h e
l e s s o n s f r o m V i e t n a m a n d o t h e r c o u n t e r i n s u r -g e n c i e s b e c a u s e t h e y a r e g e r m a n e t o t h e w a r so f t o d a y a n d t o m o r r o w . C a p t u r i n g a l l o r m a n yo f t h e s e l e s s o n s i s b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f t h i s a r t i -c l e a n d i s m o s t l i k e l y b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f a s i n -
g l e - v o l u m e b o o k . H o w e v e r , t h i s a r t i c l e a i m s t od i s t i l l s o m e o f t h e m o r e r e l e v a n t c o u n t e r i n s u r -g e n c y l e s s o n s f r o m t h e A m e r i c a n m i l i t a r y ' se x p e r i e n c e s d u r i n g V i e t n a m • a n d b e f o r e . A b i g -g e r g o a l o f t h i s a r t i c l e , h o w e v e r , i s t o h i g h l i g h ts o m e s a l i e n t s t u d i e s f o r p r o f e s s i o n a l r e a d i n g a st h e U . S . A r m y s t a r t s t o i n c u l c a t e a m i n d s e t t h a te m b r a c e s t h e c h a l l e n g e s o f c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c ya n d t o d e v e l o p a c u l t u r e t h a t l e a r n s f r o m p a s tl e s s o n s i n c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y . T h i s a n a l y s i s a l s oo f f e r s a b r i e f e x p l a n a t i o n o f U . S . m i l i t a r y c u l t u r ea n d t h e h i t h e r t o e m b e d d e d c u l t u r a l o b s t a c l e s t ol e a r n i n g h o w t o f i g h t g u e r r i l l a s . T o s i m p l i f y a n d
1 4
c l a r i f y a t t h e o u t s e t , t h e t e r m s c o u n t e r i n s u r -g e n c y , c o u n t e r g u e r r i l l a w a r f a r e , s m a l l w a r , a n d
a s y m m e t r i c c o n f l i c t a r e u s e d i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y . I ti s a f o r m o f w a r f a r e i n w h i c h e n e m i e s o f t h e
r e g i m e o r o c c u p y i n g f o r c e a i m t o u n d e r m i n et h e r e g i m e b y e m p l o y i n g c l a s s i c a l g u e r r i l l a t a c -t i c s . 4
T h e U . S . A r m y a n d t h e b r o a d e r A m e r i c a nm i l i t a r y a r e o n l y n o w , w e l l i n t o t h e s e c o n dd e c a d e a f t e r t h e e n d o f t h e C o l d W a r , w h o l e -h e a r t e d l y t r y i n g t o t r a n s f o r m t h e i r c u l t u r e , o rm i n d s e t . S e n i o r c i v i l i a n a n d m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s o ft h e d e f e n s e e s t a b l i s h m e n t r e a l i z e t h a t m i l i t a r yc u l t u r a l c h a n g e i s a p r e c o n d i t i o n f o r i n n o v a t i v ea n d a d a p t i v e a p p r o a c h e s t o m e e t t h e e x i g e n c i e so f a m o r e c o m p l e x s e c u r i t y l a n d s c a p e , o n e i n
w h i c h o u r a d v e r s a r i e s w i l l m o s t l i k e l y a d o p tu n o r t h o d o x s t r a t e g i e s a n d t a c t i c s t o u n d e r m i n eo u r t e c h n o l o g i c a l o v e r m a t c h i n t h e W e s t e r n ,o r t h o d o x , w a y o f w a r . M i l i t a r y c u l t u r e c a n g e n -e r a l l y b e d e f i n e d a s t h e e m b e d d e d b e l i e f s a n da t t i t u d e s w i t h i n a m i l i t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t
s h a p e t h a t o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s p r e f e r e n c e o n w h e na n d h o w t h e m i l i t a r y i n s t r u m e n t s h o u l d b eu s e d . B e c a u s e t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n a l b e l i e f s s o m e -t i m e s t e n d t o v a l u e c e r t a i n r o l e s a n d m a r g i n a l -i z e o t h e r s , m i l i t a r y c u l t u r e c a n i m p e d e i n n o v a -t i o n i n w a y s o f w a r f a r e t h a t l i e o u t s i d e t h a to r g a n i z a t i o n ' s v a l u e d , o r c o r e , r o l e s . 5
F o r m o s t o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y , t h e U . S . m i l i t a r yc u l t u r e ( n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e M a r i n e s ' w o r k i ns m a l l w a r s ) g e n e r a l l y e m b r a c e d t h e b i g c o n v e n -t i o n a l w a r p a r a d i g m a n d f u n d a m e n t a l l ye s c h e w e d s m a l l w a r s a n d i n s u r g e n c i e s . T h u s ,i n s t e a d o f l e a r n i n g f r o m o u r e x p e r i e n c e s i n
V i e t n a m , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , t h e M a r i n e C o r p s 'e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e B a n a n a W a r s , a n d t h e I n d i a nc a m p a i g n s , t h e U . S . A r m y f o r m o s t o f t h e l a s t1 0 0 y e a r s h a s v i e w e d t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s a se p h e m e r a l a n o m a l i e s a n d a b e r r a t i o n s — d i s t r a c -t i o n s f r o m p r e p a r i n g t o w i n b i g w a r s a g a i n s to t h e r b i g p o w e r s . A s a r e s u l t o f m a r g i n a l i z i n g
t h e c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c i e s a n d s m a l l w a r s t h a t i th a s s p e n t m o s t o f i t s e x i s t e n c e p r o s e c u t i n g , t h eU . S . m i l i t a r y ' s b i g - w a r c u l t u r a l p r e f e r e n c e s h a v ei m p e d e d i t f r o m f u l l y b e n e f i t i n g — s t u d y i n g , d i s -
t i l l i n g , a n d i n c o r p o r a t i n g i n t o d o c t r i n e — f r o mo u r s o m e w h a t e x t e n s i v e l e s s o n s i n s m a l l w a r s
a n d i n s u r g e n c i e s . T h i s a r t i c l e s t a r t s b y b r i e f l y
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e x a m i n i n g s o m e o f t h e s a l i e n t l e s s o n s f o r c o u n -t e r i n s u r g e n c y f r o m V i e t n a m a n d l i s t s s o m e o ft h e s o u r c e s f o r l e s s o n s f r o m t h a t w a r t h a t h a v eb e e n n e g l e c t e d o r f o r g o t t e n . T h i s a r t i c l e a l s o
e x a m i n e s s o m e s o u r c e s a n d l e s s o n s o f c o u n -t e r i n s u r g e n c i e s a n d s m a l l w a r s p r e d a t i n gV i e t n a m .
V i e t n a m — T h e " O t h e r W a r " a n dV a l u a b l e L e s s o n s
I f a n d w h e n m o s t A m e r i c a n s t h i n k a b o u tV i e t n a m , t h e y p r o b a b l y t h i n k o f G e n e r a l W i l l i a mC . W e s t m o r e l a n d , t h e A m e r i c a n i z a t i o n o f t h e w a rt h a t w a s e n g e n d e r e d b y t h e b i g - u n i t b a t t l e s o fa t t r i t i o n , a n d t h e T e t O f f e n s i v e o f 1 9 6 8 . H o w e v e r ,
t h e r e w a s a n o t h e r w a r — c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y a n dp a c i f i c a t i o n — w h e r e m a n y S p e c i a l F o r c e s ,
M a r i n e s , a n d o t h e r a d v i s e r s e m p l o y e d s m a l l - w a rm e t h o d s w i t h s o m e s u c c e s s . M o r e o v e r , w h e nG e n e r a l C r e i g h t o n A b r a m s b e c a m e t h e c o m -m a n d e r o f t h e w a r i n V i e t n a m i n 1 9 6 8 , h e p u t a ne n d t o t h e t w o - w a r a p p r o a c h b y a d o p t i n g a o n e -w a r f o c u s o n p a c i f i c a t i o n . A l t h o u g h t h i s c a m et o o l a t e t o r e g a i n t h e p o l i t i c a l s u p p o r t f o r t h e w a rt h a t w a s i r r e v o c a b l y s q u a n d e r e d d u r i n g t h e
W e s t m o r e l a n d y e a r s , A b r a m s ' u n i f i e d s t r a t e g y t oc l e a r a n d h o l d t h e c o u n t r y s i d e b y p a c i f y i n g a n d
s e c u r i n g t h e p o p u l a t i o n m e t w i t h m u c h s u c c e s s .A b r a m s b a s e d h i s a p p r o a c h o n a s t u d y p r e -
p a r e d b y t h e A r m y s t a f f i n 1 9 6 6 t h a t w a s e n t i -t l e d A P r o g r a m f o r t h e P a c i f i c a t i o n a n d L o n g -
T e r m D e v e l o p m e n t o f S o u t h V i e t n a m ( P R O V NS t u d y ) . T h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h e S p e c i a l F o r c e s i no r g a n i z i n g C i v i l i a n I r r e g u l a r D e f e n s e G r o u p s( C I D G ) , t h e M a r i n e s ' C o m b i n e d A c t i o n P r o g r a m( C A P ) , a n d A b r a m s ' P R O V N S t u d y - b a s e d e x p a n -
s i o n o f t h e C i v i l O p e r a t i o n s a n d R e v o l u t i o n a r y( l a t e r R u r a l ) D e v e l o p m e n t a n d S u p p o r t( C O R D S ) p a c i f i c a t i o n e f f o r t u n d e r M i l i t a r y
A s s i s t a n c e C o m m a n d V i e t n a m ( M A C V ) a l l o f f e r
s o m e v a l u a b l e l e s s o n s f o r c u r r e n t a n d f u t u r ec o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c i e s , 6
F o r m u c h o f t h e V i e t n a m W a r , t h e 5 t h S p e c i a lF o r c e s G r o u p t r a i n e d a n d l e d C I D G m o b i l es t r i k e f o r c e s a n d r e c o n n a i s s a n c e c o m p a n i e s t h a tc o m p r i s e d e t h n i c m i n o r i t y t r i b e s a n d g r o u p sf r o m t h e m o u n t a i n a n d b o r d e r r e g i o n s . T h e s e
1 5
s t r i k e f o r c e s e s s e n t i a l l y c o n d u c t e d r e c o n n a i s -s a n c e b y m e a n s o f s m a l l - u n i t p a t r o l s a n dd e f e n d e d t h e i r h o m e b a s e s i n t h e b o r d e r a r e a s ,d e n y i n g t h e m t o t h e V i e t C o n g a n d N o r t h
V i e t n a m e s e r e g u l a r u n i t s . W h a t ' s m o r e , d u r i n g1 9 6 6 — 6 7 A m e r i c a n f i e l d c o m m a n d e r s i n c r e a s -
i n g l y e m p l o y e d S p e c i a l F o r c e s - l e d " M i k e " u n i t si n l o n g - r a n g e r e c o n n a i s s a n c e m i s s i o n s o r a se c o n o m y - o f - f o r c e s e c u r i t y e l e m e n t s f o r r e g u l a ru n i t s . O t h e r C I D G - t y p e f o r c e s , c a l l e d m o b i l eg u e r r i l l a f o r c e s , r a i d e d e n e m y b a s e a r e a s a n de m p l o y e d h i t - a n d - r u n g u e r r i l l a t a c t i c s a g a i n s t
r e g u l a r e n e m y u n i t s . T h e S p e c i a l F o r c e s a l s or e c r u i t e d h e a v i l y a m o n g t h e N u n g t r i b e s f o r
" D e l t a , " " S i g m a , " a n d " O m e g a " u n i t s — S p e c i a lF o r c e s - l e d r e c o n n a i s s a n c e a n d r e a c t i o n f o r c e s .
T o b e s u r e , t h e C I D G p r o g r a m p r o v i d e d a s i g -n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e w a r e f f o r t . T h ea p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 , 5 0 0 s o l d i e r s a s s i g n e d t o t h e 5 t h
S p e c i a l F o r c e s G r o u p e s s e n t i a l l y r a i s e d a n d l e da n a r m y o f 5 0 , 0 0 0 t r i b a l f i g h t e r s t o o p e r a t e i ns o m e o f t h e m o s t d i f f i c u l t a n d d a n g e r o u s t e r r a i ni n V i e t n a m . T h e C I D G p a t r o l l i n g o f b o r d e ri n f i l t r a t i o n a r e a s p r o v i d e d r e l i a b l e t a c t i c a l i n t e l -l i g e n c e , a n d t h e u n i t s s e c u r e d p o p u l a t i o n s i n
a r e a s t h a t m i g h t h a v e b e e n o t h e r w i s e c o n c e d e dt o t h e e n e m y . 7
A n o t h e r p r o g r a m t h a t g r e a t l y i m p r o v e d t h eU . S . m i l i t a r y ' s c a p a c i t y t o s e c u r e t h e p o p u l a t i o n
a n d t o a c q u i r e b e t t e r t a c t i c a l i n t e l l i g e n c e w a st h e U . S . M a r i n e C o r p s ' c o m b i n e d A c t i o nP r o g r a m ( C A P ) . T h e C A P w a s a l o c a l i n n o v a t i o nw i t h p o t e n t i a l s t r a t e g i c i m p a c t — i t c o u p l e d aM a r i n e r i f l e s q u a d w i t h a p l a t o o n o f l o c a li n d i g e n o u s f o r c e s a n d p o s i t i o n e d t h i s c o m -b i n e d - a c t i o n p l a t o o n i n t h e v i l l a g e o f t h o s el o c a l f o r c e s . T h i s c o m b i n e d M a r i n e / i n d i g e n o u sp l a t o o n t r a i n e d , p a t r o l l e d , d e f e n d e d , a n d l i v e di n t h e v i l l a g e t o g e t h e r . T h e m i s s i o n o f t h e C A Pw a s t o d e s t r o y t h e V i e t C o n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r ew i t h i n t h e v i l l a g e o r h a m l e t a r e a o f r e s p o n s i b i l -i t y ; p r o t e c t p u b l i c s e c u r i t y a n d h e l p m a i n t a i nl a w a n d o r d e r ; p r o t e c t f r i e n d l y i n f r a s t r u c t u r e ;p r o t e c t b a s e s a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s w i t h i n t h ev i l l a g e s a n d h a m l e t s ; o r g a n i z e i n d i g e n o u s i n t e l -l i g e n c e n e t s ; p a r t i c i p a t e i n c i v i c a c t i o n ; a n dc o n d u c t p r o p a g a n d a a g a i n s t t h e V i e t C o n g .C i v i c a c t i o n p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n e f f o r t st o d e s t r o y t h e V i e t C o n g , a s i t a c q u i r e d i m p o r -
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t a n t i n t e l l i g e n c e a b o u t e n e m y a c t i v i t y f r o m t h el o c a l p o p u l a t i o n . B e c a u s e o f t h e c o m b i n e d -
a c t i o n p l a t o o n ' s p r o x i m i t y t o t h e p e o p l e a n db e c a u s e i t p r o t e c t e d t h e p e o p l e f r o m r e p r i s a l s ,
i t w a s i d e a l f o r g a i n i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e f r o m t h el o c a l s . T h e M a r i n e s ' e m p h a s i s o n p a c i f y i n g t h eh i g h l y p o p u l a t e d a r e a s p r e v e n t e d t h e g u e r r i l l a sf r o m c o e r c i n g t h e l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n i n t o p r o v i d -i n g r i c e , i n t e l l i g e n c e , a n d s a n c t u a r y t o t h e
e n e m y . T h e M a r i n e s w o u l d c l e a r a n d h o l d a v i l -l a g e i n t h i s w a y a n d t h e n e x p a n d t h e s e c u r e da r e a . T h e C A P u n i t s a c c o u n t e d f o r 7 . 6 p e r c e n t
o f t h e e n e m y k i l l e d w h i l e r e p r e s e n t i n g o n l y 1 . 5p e r c e n t o f t h e M a r i n e s i n V i e t n a m . T h e l e s s o n sf r o m C A P p r o v i d e o n e m o d e l f o r p r o t r a c t e d
c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c i e s , b e c a u s e t h e p r o g r a m
e m p l o y e d U . S . t r o o p s a n d l e a d e r s h i p i n a ne c o n o m y o f f o r c e w h i l e m a x i m i z i n g i n d i g e n o u st r o o p s . A m o d e s t i n v e s t m e n t o f U . S . f o r c e s a t
t h e v i l l a g e l e v e l c a n y i e l d m a j o r i m p r o v e m e n t si n l o c a l s e c u r i t y a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e . 8
A l t h o u g h C O R D S w a s i n t e g r a t e d u n d e rM A C V w h e n A b r a m s w a s s t i l l t h e D e p u t y
C o m m a n d e r i n 1 9 6 7 , i t w a s A b r a m s a n d W i l l i a m
C o l b y , a s t h e D i r e c t o r o f C O R D S , w h o e x p a n d -e d a n d i n v e s t e d C O R D S w i t h g o o d p e o p l e a n d
r e s o u r c e s . U n d e r t h e o n e - w a r s t r a t e g y , C O R D Sw a s e s t a b l i s h e d a s t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n u n d e rM A C V t o u n i f y a n d p r o v i d e s i n g l e o v e r s i g h t o f
t h e p a c i f i c a t i o n e f f o r t . A f t e r 1 9 6 8 , A b r a m s a n dC o l b y m a d e C O R D S a n d p a c i f i c a t i o n t h e m a i n
e f f o r t . T h e i n v i g o r a t e d c i v i l a n d r u r a l d e v e l o p -m e n t p r o g r a m p r o v i d e d i n c r e a s e d s u p p o r t ,a d v i s e r s , a n d f u n d i n g t o t h e p o l i c e a n d t e r r i t o -
r i a l f o r c e s ( r e g i o n a l f o r c e s a n d p o p u l a r f o r c e s ) .E s s e n t i a l l y , t h i s r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t a l l o w e d m i l -
i t a r y a n d c i v i l i a n U . S . A g e n c y f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a lD e v e l o p m e n t a d v i s e r s t o w o r k w i t h t h e i rV i e t n a m e s e c o u n t e r p a r t s a t t h e p r o v i n c e a n dv i l l a g e l e v e l t o i m p r o v e l o c a l s e c u r i t y a n d
d e v e l o p i n f r a s t r u c t u r e . I d e n t i f y i n g a n d e l i m i n a t -
i n g t h e V i e t C o n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e w a s a c r i t i c a lp a r t o f t h e n e w f o c u s o n p a c i f i c a t i o n , a n dC o l b y ' s a p p r o a c h — t h e A c c e l e r a t e d P a c i f i c a t i o nC a m p a i g n — i n c l u d e d t h e P h u o n g H o a n g p r o -g r a m , o r P h o e n i x . T h e p u r p o s e o f P h o e n i x w a st o n e u t r a l i z e t h e V i e t C o n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , a n da l t h o u g h t h e p r o g r a m r e c e i v e d s o m e n e g a t i v ea t t e n t i o n i n t h e i n s t a n c e s w h e n i t w a s a b u s e d ,
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i t s u s e o f f o r m e r V i e t C o n g a n d i n d i g e n o u sP r o v i s i o n a l R e c o n n a i s s a n c e U n i t s t o r o o t o u tt h e e n e m y ' s s h a d o w g o v e r n m e n t w a s v e r ye f f e c t i v e . T h e C O R D S ' A c c e l e r a t e d P a c i f i c a t i o n
C a m p a i g n f o c u s e d o n t e r r i t o r i a l s e c u r i t y , n e u -t r a l i z i n g V i e t C o n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , a n d s u p p o r t -i n g p r o g r a m s f o r s e l f - d e f e n s e a n d s e l f - g o v e r n -m e n t a t t h e l o c a l l e v e l . 9
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b e g a n i n N o v e m b e r 1 9 6 8 , a n d b y l a t e 1 9 7 0 t h eg o v e r n m e n t o f t h e R e p u b l i c o f V i e t n a m c o n -t r o l l e d m o s t o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e . T h e " o t h e rw a r " — p a c i f i c a t i o n — h a d e s s e n t i a l l y b e e n w o n ." F o u r m i l l i o n m e m b e r s o f t h e P e o p l e ' s S e l f -D e f e n s e F o r c e , a r m e d w i t h s o m e 6 0 0 , 0 0 0w e a p o n s " c o n s t i t u t e d a p o w e r f u l e x a m p l e o f
t h e c o m m i t m e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n i n s u p p o r t o ft h e R e p u b l i c o f V i e t n a m a n d i n o p p o s i t i o n t ot h e e n e m y . E x p a n d e d , b e t t e r a d v i s e d , a n d b e t -t e r a r m e d , t h e R e g i o n a l F o r c e s a n d P o p u l a rF o r c e s r e p r e s e n t e d t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t
i m p r o v e m e n t . U n d e r C O R D S , t h e s e f o r c e sb e c a m e c a p a b l e o f p r o v i d i n g c l o s e - i n s e c u r i t yf o r t h e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n . T h e H a m l e t E v a l u a t i o nS y s t e m , t h o u g h i m p e r f e c t a n d q u a n t i t a t i v e , i n d i -
c a t e d t h a t f r o m 1 9 6 9 t o 1 9 7 0 , 2 , 6 0 0 h a m l e t s( t h r e e m i l l i o n p e o p l e ) h a d b e e n s e c u r e d . O t h e rm o r e p r a c t i c a l m e a s u r e s o f t h e A c c e l e r a t e dP a c i f i c a t i o n C a m p a i g n ' s s u c c e s s w e r e a r e d u c -
t i o n i n t h e e x t o r t i o n o f t a x e s b y t h e V i e t C o n g ,a r e d u c t i o n i n r e c r u i t i n g b y t h e e n e m y i n S o u t hV i e t n a m , a n d a d e c r e a s e i n e n e m y f o o d p r o v i -s i o n s t a k e n f r o m t h e v i l l a g e r s .
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e M A C V a n d C O R D S p a c i f i -c a t i o n e f f o r t s , o t h e r f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t e d t o S o u t hV i e t n a m ' s c o n t r o l o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e . F i r s t , t h ee n e m y ' s T e t O f f e n s i v e i n J a n u a r y 1 9 6 8 a n dM i n i - T e t i n M a y 1 9 6 8 r e s u l t e d i n d e v a s t a t i n gl o s s e s t o V i e t C o n g f o r c e s i n t h e s o u t h , a l l o w -i n g M A C V / C O R D S t o i n t e n s i f y p a c i f i c a t i o n .
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m a s s m u r d e r i n H u e ) d u r i n g T e t s h o c k e d t h ec i v i l i a n p o p u l a t i o n o f S o u t h V i e t n a m , c r e a t i n g aw i l l i n g n e s s t o a c c e p t t h e m o r e a g g r e s s i v e c o n -s c r i p t i o n r e q u i r e d t o e x p a n d i n d i g e n o u s f o r c e s .L a s t , o n e c a n s u r m i s e t h a t H o C h i M i n h ' s d e a t hi n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 6 9 m a y h a v e h a d s o m e n e g a -t i v e e f f e c t o n t h e q u a l i t y a n d d i r e c t i o n o f t h eN o r t h V i e t n a m e s e a r m y ' s l e a d e r s h i p . 1 °
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I n a n d o f t h e m s e l v e s , t h e C I D G , C A P , a n dC O R D S p r o g r a m s m e t w i t h s u c c e s s i n p r o s e c u t -i n g k e y a s p e c t s o f t h e c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y i nV i e t n a m . E a c h p r o g r a m e x p a n d e d t h e q u a l i t y
a n d q u a n t i t y o f t h e f o r c e s c o n d u c t i n g p a c i f i c a -t i o n a n d c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y , i m p r o v e d t h ec a p a c i t y f o r d i s p e r s e d s m a l l - u n i t p a t r o l l i n g , a n dc o n s e q u e n t l y i m p r o v e d t h e s c o p e a n d c o n t e n to f a c t i o n a b l e i n t e l l i g e n c e . O n e c a n o n l y p o s t u -l a t e , c o u n t e r f a c t u a l l y , h o w t h e w a r m i g h t h a v eg o n e i f b o t h C A P a n d C I D G h a d b e e n h a r m o -n i z e d a n d u n i f i e d u n d e r C O R D S a n d M A C V ,w i t h C o l b y a n d A b r a m s a t t h e h e l m , b a c k i n
1 9 6 4 . I r o n i c a l l y , A b r a m s h a d b e e n o n t h e s h o r tl i s t o f t h o s e c o n s i d e r e d f o r t h e M A C V c o m m a n di n 1 9 6 4 . T h e l e s s o n s a n d s u c c e s s e s o f t h e s e p r o -g r a m s a r e s a l i e n t t o d a y b e c a u s e i n b o t h
A f g h a n i s t a n a n d I r a q , i m p r o v i n g t h e q u a n t i t ya n d c a p a b i l i t i e s o f i n d i g e n o u s f o r c e s , e n s u r i n gt h a t t h e r e i s a n i n t e g r a t e d a n d u n i f i e d c i v i l - m i l -i t a r y a p p r o a c h , a n d t h e s e c u r i t y o f t h e p o p u l a -t i o n a l l c o n t i n u e t o b e c e n t r a l g o a l s . ' 1
N o n e o f t h e s e V i e t n a m - e r a p r o g r a m s , h o w e v -
e r , w a s w i t h o u t p r o b l e m s . T h e C I D G p r o g r a mw a s p l a g u e d b y t w o p e r s i s t e n t f l a w s . F i r s t , c o n -t i n u o u s h o s t i l i t y b e t w e e n t h e S o u t h V i e t n a m e s ea n d t h e e t h n i c m i n o r i t y g r o u p s w h o c o m p r i s e dC I D G s t r i k e f o r c e s i m p e d e d t h e U . S . e f f o r t s t oh a v e R e p u b l i c o f V i e t n a m ( R V N ) S p e c i a l F o r c e s
t a k e o v e r t h e C I D G p r o g r a m . S e c o n d , p a r t l y a sa c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h a t , 5 t h S p e c i a l F o r c e sG r o u p f a i l e d t o d e v e l o p a n e f f e c t i v e i n d i g e n o u sU . S . c o u n t e r p a r t o r g a n i z a t i o n t o l e a d t h eC I D G — t h e R V N S p e c i a l F o r c e s p r o v e d i n e f f e c -t i v e i n t h i s r o l e . M o r e o v e r , U . S . M a r i n e s t h e m -s e l v e s w h o h a v e w r i t t e n s t u d i e s t h a t g e n e r a l l yl a u d t h e b e n e f i t s o f t h e C A P m o d e l a l s o r e v e a lt h a t t h e c o m b i n e d - a c t i o n p l a t o o n s w e r e n o t a l lc o m p l e t e l y e f f e c t i v e . I n s o m e i n s t a n c e s t h ee f f e c t s o f C A P " w e r e t r a n s i t o r y a t b e s t " b e c a u s et h e v i l l a g e r s b e c a m e d e p e n d e n t o n t h e M a r i n e sf o r s e c u r i t y . I n o t h e r i n s t a n c e s , e s p e c i a l l y
b e f o r e G e n e r a l A b r a m s u s h e r e d - i n a n e we m p h a s i s o n t r a i n i n g p o p u l a r f o r c e s , t h e l o c a lm i l i t i a ' s p o o r e q u i p m e n t a n d t r a i n i n g m a d et h e m m i s e r a b l y i n c a p a b l e o f d e f e n d i n g t h e v i l -l a g e s w i t h o u t t h e M a r i n e s . A s f o r C O R D S , t h eo n e m a j o r p r o b l e m w i t h r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t w a st h a t u n t i l 1 9 6 7 i t w a s n o t i n t e g r a t e d u n d e r
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p r o s p e c t o f a c t u a l l y a c h i e v i n g u n i t y o f e f f o r ta n d u n i t y o f p u r p o s e . A b r a m s ' i n f l u e n c er e s o l v e d t h i s b y a l l o w i n g M A C V t o o v e r s e e
C O R D S a s w e l l a s r e g u l a r m i l i t a r y f o r m a t i o n s . 1 2T h r e e w o r k s w r i t t e n d u r i n g o r a b o u t t h e
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G r e e n e ; t h e U . S . A r m y ' s 1 9 6 6 P R O V N S t u d y ;a n d L e w i s S o r l e y ' s A B e t t e r W a r , p u b l i s h e d i n
1 9 9 9 . T h e G u e r r i l l a a n d H o w t o F i g h t H i m i s ag r e a t s i n g l e - v o l u m e c o m p e n d i u m o n t h e n a t u r ea n d t h e o r y o f g u e r r i l l a w a r f a r e . T h e m o s t g e r -m a n e c h a p t e r t h e b o o k i s " T h e T h e o r y a n d t h eT h r e a t , " w h i c h i n c l u d e s a p r i m e r o n g u e r r i l l aw a r f a r e b y M a o ; a n a n a l y s i s o f M a o , t i m e ,s p a c e , a n d w i l l b y E d w a r d K a t z e n b a c h ; a n d as e c t i o n o n g u e r r i l l a w a r f a r e b y P e t e r P a r e t a n d
J o h n S h y . T h i s b o o k a l s o i n c l u d e s t w o s e c t i o n so n w h y t h e F r e n c h l o s t t h e f i r s t I n d o c h i n a W a r ,o n e w r i t t e n b y V o N g u y e n G i a p a n d t h e o t h e rb y B e r n a r d F a l l . T h e P R O V N S t u d y a n d A B e t t e r
W a r o f f e r v a l u a b l e i n s i g h t s o n p a c i f i c a t i o n a n dt h e c o m m a n d a n d c o n t r o l r e q u i r e d f o r i n t e g r a t -i n g t h e c i v i l a n d m i l i t a r y e f f o r t s i n c o u n t e r i n s u r -g e n c y . A B e t t e r W a r i s t h e s h o r t e r a n d m o r er e a d a b l e o f t h e t w o , b u t t h e e x e c u t i v e s u m m a -r y , t h e " r e s u m e , " a n d c h a p t e r f i v e o f t h e P R O V N
S t u d y m e r i t r e a d i n g b e c a u s e t h i s a n a l y s i sf o r m e d t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e a p p r o a c he x p l a i n e d i n A B e t t e r W a r .
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B e f o r e V i e t n a m , b o t h t h e A r m y a n d t h eM a r i n e C o r p s h a d m u c h e x p e r i e n c e f i g h t i n gg u e r r i l l a - s t y l e o p p o n e n t s . T h e A r m y s e e m e d t ol e a r n a n e w f o r e a c h c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y , w h i l et h e M a r i n e s c o d i f i e d t h e i r c o r p u s o f e x p e r i e n c e
i n t h e 1 9 4 0 S m a l l W a r s M a n u a l . I n f a c t , t h eM a r i n e s ' l e s s o n s f r o m l e a d i n g N i c a r a g u a nG u a r d i a N a c i o n a l i n d i g e n o u s p a t r o l s i n c o u n t e r -g u e r r i l l a o p e r a t i o n s a g a i n s t S a n d i n o ' s g u e r r i l l a sm a y v e r y w e l l h a v e s e r v e d a s t h e b a s i s f r o mw h i c h t o d e s i g n t h e i r C A P m o d e l i n V i e t n a m .N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e r e a r e a h o s t o f g o o d w o r k s
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a n d l e s s o n s f r o m t h e B a n a n a W a r s , f r o m t h eP h i l i p p i n e I n s u r r e c t i o n , a n d f r o m t h e I n d i a nW a r s . T h i s s e c t i o n e n c a p s u l a t e s s o m e o f t h e
c o m m o n l e s s o n s f r o m t h e s e w a r s a n d r e c o m -
m e n d s s o m e k e y b o o k s t h a t c o v e r t h e m . T h eH u k b u l a h a p R e b e l l i o n i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s f o l -l o w i n g W o r l d W a r I I i s e x c l u d e d b e c a u s e t h eU . S . r o l e t h e r e w a s e s s e n t i a l l y l i m i t e d t o p r o v i d -
i n g m o n e y a n d t h e a d v i c e o f E d w a r d L a n s d a l e .F r o m t h e M a r i n e s ' e x p e r i e n c e i n H a i t i , t h e
D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c , a n d N i c a r a g u a d u r i n g t h ef i r s t p a r t o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y , t h e y l e a r n e d t h a ts m a l l w a r s , u n l i k e c o n v e n t i o n a l w a r s , p r e s e n tn o d e f i n e d o r l i n e a r b a t t l e a r e a a n d t h e a t e r o fo p e r a t i o n s . W h i l e d e l a y i n t h e u s e o f f o r c e m a yb e i n t e r p r e t e d a s w e a k n e s s , t h e S m a l l W a r s
M a n u a l m a i n t a i n s , t h e b r u t a l u s e o f f o r c e i s n o ta p p r o p r i a t e e i t h e r . " I n s m a l l w a r s , t o l e r a n c e ,s y m p a t h y , a n d k i n d n e s s s h o u l d b e t h e k e y n o t et o o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e m a s s o f t h e p o p u -l a t i o n . " F o r s m a l l w a r s , t h e m a n u a l u r g e s U . S .f o r c e s t o e m p l o y a s m a n y i n d i g e n o u s t r o o p s a sp r a c t i c a l e a r l y o n t o c o n f e r p r o p e r r e s p o n s i b i l i -t y o n i n d i g e n o u s a g e n c i e s f o r r e s t o r i n g l a w a n do r d e r . M o r e o v e r , i t s t r e s s e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o ff o c u s i n g o n t h e s o c i a l , e c o n o m i c , a n d p o l i t i c a ld e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e p e o p l e m o r e t h a n o n s i m -p i e m a t e r i a l d e s t r u c t i o n . I t a l s o u n d e r s c o r e s t h ei m p o r t a n c e o f a g g r e s s i v e p a t r o l l i n g , p o p u l a t i o n
s e c u r i t y , a n d t h e d e n i a l o f s a n c t u a r y t o t h ei n s u r g e n t s . A n o v e r a r c h i n g p r i n c i p l e , t h o u g h , i sn o t t o f i g h t s m a l l w a r s w i t h b i g - w a rm e t h o d s — t h e g o a l i s t o g a i n r e s u l t s w i t h t h el e a s t a p p l i c a t i o n o f f o r c e a n d m i n i m u m l o s s o fc i v i l i a n ( n o n - c o m b a t a n t ) l i f e .
T h e 1 9 4 0 S m a l l W a r s M a n u a l a n d t h e d r a f to f i t s 2 0 0 4 a d d e n d u m , S m a l l W a r s , a r e t h e b e s ts o u r c e s f o r d i s t i l l i n g t h e M a r i n e s ' l e s s o n s f r o mt h e B a n a n a W a r s a n d b e y o n d . W h i l e t h e l o g i s t i -c a l a n d p h y s i c a l a s p e c t s o f t h e 1 9 4 0 m a n u a lh a v e b e c o m e o b s o l e t e , t h e p o r t i o n s t h a ta d d r e s s t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s a n d p r i n c i p l e s o fs m a l l w a r s a r e s t i l l q u i t e r e l e v a n t . O n e i n d i c a -t i o n o f t h i s m a n u a l ' s c o n t i n u e d r e l e v a n c e i s t h ef a c t t h a t t h e 2 0 0 4 d r a f t , S m a l l W a r s , i s n o ti n t e n d e d t o s u p p l a n t t h e e a r l i e r v e r s i o n b u t t oc o m p l e m e n t i t b y l i n k i n g i t t o t h e 2 1 s t c e n t u -r y . 1 3
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F i l i p i n o s . A n t h o n y J a m e s J o e s , a s c h o l a r o nA m e r i c a n a n d g u e r r i l l a w a r f a r e , s u c c i n c t l y
e x p l a i n s w h y :
T h e r e w e r e n o s c r e a m i n g j e t s a c c i d e n -t a l l y b o m b i n g h e l p l e s s v i l l a g e s , n o B - 5 2 s ,n o n a p a l m , n o a r t i l l e r y b a r r a g e s , n o c o l l a t -e r a l d a m a g e . I n s t e a d , t h e A m e r i c a n s c o n -
d u c t e d a d e c e n t r a l i z e d w a r o f s m a l lm o b i l e u n i t s a r m e d m a i n l y w i t h r i f l e s a n da i d e d b y n a t i v e F i l i p i n o s , h u n t i n g g u e r r i l -
l a s w h o w e r e i n c r e a s i n g l y i s o l a t e d b o t h b yt h e i n d i f f e r e n c e o r h o s t i l i t y o f m u c h o f t h e
p o p u l a t i o n a n d b y t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o fs c a t t e r e d p e a s a n t g r o u p s i n t o l a r g e r s e t t l e -
m e n t s . 1 4
D u r i n g t h e P h i l i p p i n e I n s u r r e c t i o n f r o m 1 8 9 9t o 1 9 0 2 , t h e U . S . m i l i t a r y l e a r n e d t o a v o i d b i g -u n i t s e a r c h a n d d e s t r o y m i s s i o n s b e c a u s e t h e yw e r e c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e ; t o m a x i m i z e t h ee m p l o y m e n t o f i n d i g e n o u s s c o u t s a n d p a r a m i l -
i t a r y f o r c e s t o i n c r e a s e a n d s u s t a i n d e c e n t r a l -i z e d p a t r o l l i n g ; t o m o b i l i z e p o p u l a r s u p p o r t b yf o c u s i n g o n t h e i m p r o v e m e n t o f s c h o o l s , h o s p i -t a l s , a n d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e ; a n d t o e n h a n c e r e g i m e
l e g i t i m a c y b y a l l o w i n g i n s u r g e n t s a n d f o r m e ri n s u r g e n t s t o o r g a n i z e a n t i - r e g i m e p o l i t i c a l p a r -t i e s . I n S a v a g e W a r s o f P e a c e , a n a w a r d - w i n n i n gs t u d y o n A m e r i c a ' s r o l e i n s m a l l w a r s , M a x B o o ta t t r i b u t e d A m e r i c a n s u c c e s s i n t h e P h i l i p p i n eI n s u r r e c t i o n t o a b a l a n c e d a n d s o u n d a p p l i c a -t i o n o f s t i c k s a n d c a r r o t s ; t h e U . S . m i l i t a r y u s e da g g r e s s i v e p a t r o l l i n g a n d f o r c e t o p u r s u e a n dc r u s h i n s u r g e n t s ; i t g e n e r a l l y t r e a t e d c a p t u r e dr e b e l s w e l l ; a n d i t g e n e r a t e d g o o d w i l l a m o n gt h e p o p u l a t i o n b y r u n n i n g s c h o o l s a n d h o s p i -t a l s , a n d b y i m p r o v i n g s a n i t a t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n t o
B o o t ' s b o o k , A m e r i c a a n d G u e r r i l l a W a r f a r e b yA n t h o n y J a m e s J o e s a n d A m e r i c a ' s F o r g o t t e nW a r s b y S a m C . S a r k e s i a n b o t h o f f e r i n s i g h t f u l
c h a p t e r s o n U . S . m i l i t a r y c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c ym e t h o d s i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . ' 5 S a r k e s i a n w r i t e s
T h e r e i s a n e e d t o l e a r n f r o m h i s t o r y , a n a -l y z e A m e r i c a n i n v o l v e m e n t a n d t h e n a t u r e
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o f l o w - i n t e n s i t y c o n f l i c t , a n d t r a n s l a t et h e s e i n t o s t r a t e g y a n d o p e r a t i o n a l d o c -
t r i n e s . W i t h o u t s o m e s e n s e o f h i s t o r i c a lc o n t i n u i t y , A m e r i c a n s a r e l i k e l y t o r e l e a r n
t h e l e s s o n s o f h i s t o r y e a c h t i m e t h e y a r ef a c e d w i t h a l o w i n t e n s i t y c o n f l i c t . 1 6
W h e n B r i g a d i e r G e n e r a l J a c k P e r s h i n gr e t u r n e d t o t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t o s e r v e a s m i l i t a r y
g o v e r n o r o f t h e M o r o P r o v i n c e b e t w e e n 1 9 0 9a n d 1 9 1 3 , h e a p p l i e d t h e l e s s o n s h e h a d l e a r n e da s a c a p t a i n d u r i n g t h e P h i l i p p i n e I n s u r r e c t i o nt o p a c i f y t h e M o r o s . H e e s t a b l i s h e d t h eP h i l i p p i n e C o n s t a b u l a r y , c o m p r i s i n g l o y a l
F i l i p i n o s f r o m t h e m a i n i s l a n d s a n d s e r v i n g a s ap o l i c e f o r c e , t o a s s i s t i n t h e c a m p a i g n t o p a c i f yt h e M o r o s . P e r s h i n g d i d n o t a t t e m p t t o a p p l y
m i l i t a r y f o r c e a l o n e t o s u p p r e s s t h e M o r o r e b e l -l i o n . " P e r s h i n g f e l t t h a t a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o fM o r o c u s t o m s a n d h a b i t s w a s e s s e n t i a l i n s u c -c e s s f u l l y d e a l i n g w i t h t h e m — a n d h e w e n t t oe x t r a o r d i n a r y l e n g t h s t o u n d e r s t a n d M o r o s o c i -e t y a n d c u l t u r e . " P e r s h i n g u n d e r s t o o d t h ei m p e r a t i v e o f h a v i n g A m e r i c a n f o r c e s i n v o l v e da t t h e g r a s s - r o o t s l e v e l . H e a l s o c o m p r e h e n d e dt h e s o c i a l - p o l i t i c a l a s p e c t s a n d k n e w t h a t m i l i -t a r y g o a l s s o m e t i m e s h a d t o b e s u b o r d i n a t e d t ot h e m . " H e s c a t t e r e d s m a l l d e t a c h m e n t s o f s o l -d i e r s t h r o u g h o u t t h e i n t e r i o r , t o g u a r a n t e e
p e a c e f u l e x i s t e n c e o f t h o s e t r i b e s t h a t w a n t e dt o r a i s e h e m p , p r o d u c e t i m b e r , o r f a r m . " T oi n f l u e n c e a n d w i n t h e p e o p l e , t h e r e h a d t o b ec o n t a c t b e t w e e n t h e m a n d h i s s o l d i e r s . D u r i n gh i s f i r s t t o u r t h e r e a s a c a p t a i n , h e w a s a l l o w e di n s i d e t h e " F o r b i d d e n K i n g d o m " a n d a s a nh o n o r n o t g r a n t e d t o a n y o t h e r w h i t e m a n , h ew a s m a d e a M o r o D a t u . 1 7
M o r e r e m o v e d i n t i m e a n d c o n t e x t , t h e
I n d i a n W a r s o f t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y n o n e t h e l e s sp r o v i d e s o m e l e s s o n s f o r c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y .T h e s e l e s s o n s a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e o v e r a r -c h i n g f u n d a m e n t a l s f o r f i g h t i n g s m a l l w a r s a r e
i n d e e d t i m e l e s s . W i t h l i t t l e p r e s e r v e d i n s t i t u -t i o n a l m e m o r y a n d l e s s c o d i f i e d d o c t r i n e f o rc o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y , t h e l a t e - l 9 t h - c e n t u r y U . S .A r m y h a d t o a d a p t o n t h e f l y t o I n d i a n t a c t i c s .A l o o s e b o d y o f p r i n c i p l e s e m e r g e d f r o m t h eI n d i a n W a r s : t o e n s u r e t h e c l o s e c i v i l - m i l i t a r yc o o r d i n a t i o n o f t h e p a c i f i c a t i o n e f f o r t , t o p r o -
1 9
v i d e f i r m b u t f a i r a n d p a t e r n a l i s t i c g o v e r n a n c e ,a n d t o r e f o r m t h e e c o n o m i c a n d e d u c a t i o n a ls p h e r e s . G o o d t r e a t m e n t o f p r i s o n e r s , a t t e n t i o nt o t h e I n d i a n s ' g r i e v a n c e s , a n d t h e a v o i d a n c e o f
k i l l i n g w o m e n a n d c h i l d r e n ( l e a r n e d b y e r r o r )w e r e a l s o r e g a r d e d a s f u n d a m e n t a l t o a n y l o n g -t e r m s o l u t i o n . A d d i t i o n a l l y , G e n e r a l G e o r g eC r o o k d e v e l o p e d t h e t a c t i c o f i n s e r t i n g s m a l lt e a m s f r o m f r i e n d l y A p a c h e t r i b e s i n t o t h e s a n c -t u a r i e s o f i n s u r g e n t A p a c h e s t o n e u t r a l i z e t h e m ,t o p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y u n h i n g e t h e m , a n d t o s a pt h e i r w i l l . T h i s t e c h n i q u e s u b s e q u e n t l y e m e r g e di n o n e f o r m o r a n o t h e r i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , d u r -i n g t h e B a n a n a W a r s , a n d d u r i n g t h e V i e t n a mW a r . 1 8
O n e o f t h e b e t t e r b o o k s o n t h e U . S . A r m y ' sr o l e i n c o u n t e r g u e r r i l l a w a r f a r e a g a i n s t t h eI n d i a n s i s A n d r e w J . B i r t l e ' s U . S . A r m yC o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y a n d C o n t i n g e n c y O p e r -a t i o n s D o c t r i n e , 1 8 6 0 — 1 9 4 1 . I t i n c l u d e s s o m ei n t e r e s t i n g a n d r e l e v a n t s e c t i o n s e n t i t l e d" I n d i a n W a r f a r e a n d M i l i t a r y T h o u g h t , " " U . S .
A r m y C o u n t e r - g u e r r i l l a O p e r a t i o n s o n t h eW e s t e r n F r o n t i e r , " a n d " T h e A r m y a n d I n d i a nP a c i f i c a t i o n . " B i r t l e d e s c r i b e s o n e o f t h e f e wm a n u a l s p u b l i s h e d d u r i n g t h e e r a o n h o w t oo p e r a t e o n t h e P l a i n s , T h e P r a i r i e T r a v e l e r , a s" p e r h a p s t h e s i n g l e m o s t i m p o r t a n t w o r k o n t h ec o n d u c t o f f r o n t i e r e x p e d i t i o n s p u b l i s h e d u n d e r
t h e a e g i s o f t h e W a r D e p a r t m e n t . " C a p t a i nR a n d o l p h M a r c y ' s T h e P r a i r i e T r a v e l e r w a s a" h o w - t o " m a n u a l f o r p a c k i n g , t r a v e l i n g , t r a c k -i n g , a n d b i v o u a c k i n g o n t h e P l a i n s . M o r ei m p o r t a n t , i t w a s a l s o a p r i m e r o n f i g h t i n g t h eI n d i a n s .
I n f o r m u l a t i n g p r i n c i p l e s f o r p a c i f i c a t i o n ,
M a r c y ' l o o k e d a t h i s o w n e x p e r i e n c e s o n t h ef r o n t i e r a s w e l l a s t h e F r e n c h a n d T u r k i s h e x p e -r i e n c e s c o n d u c t i n g p a c i f i c a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s i nN o r t h A f r i c a t o a r r i v e a t t h r e e l e s s o n s : o v e r - d i s -p e r s i o n s t r i p s t h e c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n t f o r c e o f i n i -t i a t i v e , i n c r e a s e s i t s v u l n e r a b i l i t y , a n d s a p s i t s
m o r a l e ; m o b i l i t y i s a n i m p e r a t i v e ( m o u n t i n gi n f a n t r y o n m u l e s w a s o n e w a y o f i n c r e a s i n gm o b i l i t y d u r i n g t h a t e r a ) ; a n d t h e b e s t w a y t oc o u n t e r a n e l u s i v e g u e r r i l l a w a s t o e m p l o ym o b i l e m o u n t e d f o r c e s a t n i g h t t o s u r p r i s e t h ee n e m y a t d a w n . H o w e v e r , T h e P r a i r i e T r a v e l e rc o n v e y s o n e c e n t r a l m e s s a g e t h a t i s s t i l l s a l i e n t
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N o t e s
1 A n t h o n y J a m e s J o e s , A m e r i c a a n d G u e r r i l l a W a r f a r e( L e x i n g t o n : U n i v . P r e s s o f K e n t u c k y , 2 0 0 0 ) , 3 2 5 .2 . C i t e d i n S a m u e l B . G r i f f i t h I I , " G u e r r i l l a , P a r t I , "M a r i n e C o r p s G a z e l i e , J u l y 1 9 5 0 , 4 3 .3 . F o r a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h i s r e b i r t h , s e e R o b e r t M .C a s s i d y , " P r o p h e t s o r P r a e t o r i a n s : T h e U p t o n i a nP a r a d o x a n d t h e P o w e l l C o r o l l a r y , " P a r a m e t e r s , 3 3( A u t u m n 2 0 0 3 ) , 1 3 2 — 3 3 .4 . F o r a l e n g t h i e r e x p l a n a t i o n o f c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y ,s m a l l w a r , o r a s y m m e t r i c c o n f l i c t , s e e R o b e r t M .C a s s i d y , " W h y G r e a t P o w e r s F i g h t S m a l l W a r s B a d l y , "M i l i t a r y R e v i e w , 8 2 : 4 3 ( S e p t e m b e r — O c t o b e r 2 0 0 2 ) . F o ra d e f i n i t i o n o f g u e r r i l l a i n s u r g e n c y , s e e J o e s , 3 3 3 .5 . F o r a s h o r t d i s c u s s i o n o n m i l i t a r y c u l t u r e a n d b i g -w a r p r e f e r e n c e s , s e e R o b e r t M . C a s s i d y , R u s s i a i nA f g h a n i s t a n a n d C h e c h n y a : M i l i t a r y S t r a t e g i c C u l t u r ea n d t h e P a r a d o x e s o f A s y m m e t r i c C o n f l i c t ( C a r l i s l e , P a . :U . S . A r m y W a r C o l l e g e , S t r a t e g i c S t u d i e s I n s t i t u t e ,
2 0 0 3 ) , 8 , 5 4 - 6 0 .6 . U . S . D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e A r m y , A P r o g r a m f o r t h eP a c f i c a 1 i o n a n d L o n g - T e r m D e v e l o p m e n t o f S o u t h
V i e t n a m ( W a s h i n g t o n : D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e A r m y , 1 9 6 6 ) ,1 — 9 ; a n d L e w i s S o r l e y , A B e t t e r W a r ( N e w Y o r k :
H a r c o u r t B r a c e , 1 9 9 9 ) , 1 0 — 1 2 5 . S o m e a n a l y s i s i n t h i sa r t i c l e d e r i v e s f r o m a b r i e f i n g p r o d u c e d b y t h eU S A R E U R C o m m a n d i n g G e n e r a l ' s I n i t i a t i v e s G r o u p( C I G ) . T h e b r i e f i n g w a s d i s t r i b u t e d t o U S A R E U R u n i t si n I r a q i n D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 3 .7 . J e f f r e y J . C l a r k e , A d v i c e a n d S u p p o r t : T h e F i n a l Y e a r s( W a s h i n g t o n : U . S . A r m y C e n t e r o f M i l i t a r y H i s t o r y ,
1 9 8 8 ) , 1 9 6 — 2 0 7 .
8 . F r a n k P e l l i , " I n s u r g e n c y , C o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y , a n d t h eM a r i n e s i n V i e t n a m , " u n p u b l i s h e d p a p e r , U S M CC o m m a n d a n d S t a f f C o l l e g e , Q u a n t i c o , V a . , 1 9 9 0 ,
1 3 — 1 6 ; a n d B r o o k s R . B r e w i n g t o n , " C o m b i n e d A c t i o nP l a t o o n s : A S t r a t e g y f o r P e a c e E n f o r c e m e n t , " u n p u b -l i s h e d p a p e r , U S M C C o m m a n d a n d S t a f f C o l l e g e ,
Q u a n t i c o , V a . , 1 9 9 6 , 1 3 — 1 9 .
9 . S o r l e y , 2 2 — 2 3 , 6 4 — 6 7 .
1 0 . I b i d . , 6 4 — . 6 7 , 7 2 — 7 3 , 2 1 7 — 2 4 .
1 1 . I b i d . , 1 .
1 2 . C l a r k e , 2 0 7 ; K e i t h F . K o p e t s , " T h e C o m b i n e d A c t i o n
P r o g r a m : V i e t n a m , " M i l i t a r y R e v i e w , 8 2 : 7 8 — 7 9
( J u l y — A u g u s t 2 0 0 2 ) .
1 3 . U . S . M a r i n e C o r p s , S m a l l W a r s M a n u a l( W a s h i n g t o n : G P O , 1 9 4 0 ) , 1 - 1 t o 1 - 3 1 ; M a r i n e C o r p s
C o m b a t D e v e l o p m e n t C o m m a n d , S m a l l W a r s ( D r a f t )( Q u a n t i c o , V a . : U . S . M a r i n e C o r p s , 2 0 0 4 ) , i i i — i v ; a n d
M a x B o o t , " A C e n t u r y o f S m a l l W a r s S h o w s T h e y C a n
b e W o n , " N e w Y o r k T i m e s W e e k i n R e v i e w , 6 J u l y 2 0 0 3 .
1 4 . J o e s , 1 2 0 — 2 3 .
1 5 . M a x B o o t , S a v a g e W a r s o f P e a c e . . S m a l l W a r s a n dt h e R i s e o f A m e r i c a n P o w e r ( N e w Y o r k : B a s i c B o o k s ,2 0 0 3 ) , 1 2 6 .1 6 . S a m C . S a r k e s i a n , A m e r i c a ' s F o r g o t t e n W a r s : T h eC o u n t e r r e v o l u t i o n a r y P a s t a n d L e s s o n s f o r t h e F u t u r e
a n d g e r m a n e t o d a y : i t u r g e s s o l d i e r s t o b e a d a p -t i v e b y c o u p l i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l d i s c i p l i n e w i t ht h e s e l f - r e l i a n c e , i n d i v i d u a l i t y , a n d r a p i d m o b i l -i t y o f t h e i n s u r g e n t . 1 9
A M i n d s e t f o r W i n n i n g t h e" W a r o f t h e F l e a "
I n T h e W a r o f t h e F l e a : G u e r r i l l a W a r f a r e i nT h e o r y a n d P r a c t i c e , a u t h o r R o b e r t T a b e r
w r o t e :
A n a l o g i c a l l y , t h e g u e r r i l l a f i g h t s t h e w a r o ft h e f l e a , a n d h i s m i l i t a r y e n e m y s u f f e r s t h ed o g ' s d i s a d v a n t a g e s : t o o m u c h t o d e f e n d ;t o o s m a l l , u b i q u i t o u s , a n d a g i l e a n e n e m yt o c o m e t o g r i p s w i t h . I f t h e w a r c o n t i n u e s
l o n g e n o u g h — t h i s i s t h e t h e o r y — t h e d o gs u c c u m b s t o e x h a u s t i o n a n d a n e m i a w i t h -o u t e v e r h a v i n g f o u n d a n y t h i n g o n w h i c ht o c l o s e i t s j a w s o r t o r a k e w i t h i t s c l a w s . 2 0
T h e " w a r o f t h e f l e a " i s h a r d e r t h a n f i g h t i n ga g a i n s t e n e m i e s w h o o p t , i m p r u d e n t l y , t o f i g h tt h e U . S . m i l i t a r y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c o n v e n t i o n a lp a r a d i g m i t h a s h i s t o r i c a l l y p r e f e r r e d a n d i nw h i c h i t i s u n e q u a l e d . O u r c u r r e n t a n d f u t u r e
a d v e r s a r i e s i n t h e p r o t r a c t e d w a r o n t e r r o r a r e
f i g h t i n g — a n d w i l l c o n t i n u e t o f i g h t — t h e " w a r
o f t h e f l e a . " E m p l o y i n g h i t - a n d - r u n a m b u s h e s ,
t h e y s t r i v e t o t u r n C o a l i t i o n l i n e s o f c o m m u n i -c a t i o n a n d f r i e n d l y r e g i m e k e y r o a d s i n t o
" s t r e e t s w i t h o u t j o y . " H o w e v e r , t h e l e s s o n s f r o mp r e v i o u s U . S . m i l i t a r y s u c c e s s e s i n f i g h t i n g t h e
e l u s i v e g u e r r i l l a s h o w t h a t w i t h t h e r i g h t m i n d -s e t a n d w i t h s o m e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e a f o r e m e n -t i o n e d m e t h o d s , t h e w a r o f t h e f l e a i s i n f a c tw i n n a b l e .
T h e U . S . A r m y i s a d a p t i n g i n c o n t a c t , l e a r n -i n g a n d c a p t u r i n g l e s s o n s a n e w f o r b e a t i n g t h e
g u e r r i l l a . A s i t t r a n s f o r m s a n d d e v e l o p s a m i n d -s e t t h a t p l a c e s m u c h m o r e e m p h a s i s o n s t a b i l i -
t y o p e r a t i o n s a n d c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y , t h e b o o k sl i s t e d i n t h i s a r t i c l e a r e o n e s t h a t s h o u l d a p p e a r
o n r e a d i n g l i s t s a n d i n t h e c u r r i c u l a o f p r o f e s -s i o n a l s c h o o l s , b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e b a s i c c o u r s -
e s .
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( W e s t p o r t , C o n n . G r e e n w o o d P r e s s , 1 9 8 4 ) , 2 4 5 .1 7 . I b i d . , 1 7 8 — 8 0 .
1 8 . A n d r e w J . B i r t l e , U S . A r m y C o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y a n dC o n t i n g e n c y O p e r a t i o n s D o c t r i n e , 1 8 6 0 - 1 9 4 1( W a s h i n g t o n : U . S . A r m y C e n t e r o f M i l i t a r y H i s t o r y ,
1 9 8 8 ) , 5 5 — 9 2 .1 9 . I b i d . , 6 4 — 6 6 .
2 0 . R o b e r t T a b e r , T h e W a r o f t h e F l e a : G u e r r i l l aW a r f a r e i n T h e o r y a n d P r a c t i c e ( N e w Y o r k : L y l e S t u a r t ,
1 9 6 5 ) , 2 7 — 2 8 .
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A b o u t t h e A u t h o rR o b e r t M . C a s s i d y , L i e u t e n a n t C o l o n e l , U S A , h o l d s a d o c t o r a t e f r o m t h e
F l e t c h e r S c h o o l o f L a w a n d D i p l o m a c y . H e h a s s e r v e d i n v a r i o u s l e a d e r -
s h i p a n d s t a f f p o s i t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g S 3 , 4 t h A v i a t i o n B r i g a d e , 4 t h I n f a n t r y
D i v i s i o n ( M e c h a n i z e d ) , i n O p e r a t i o n I r a q i F r e e d o m , a n d a s t r o o p c o m -
m a n d e r , 1 - 1 7 C a v a l r y , 8 2 d A i r b o m e D i v i s i o n . C a s s i d y h a s p u b l i s h e d
n u m e r o u s a r t i c l e s a n d t w o b o o k s , P e a c e k e e p i n g i n t h e A b y s s : B r i t i s h a n d
A m e r i c a n D o c t r i n e a n d P r a c t i c e a f t e r T h e C o l d W a r ( 2 0 0 4 ) , a n d
C o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y a n d T h e G l o b a l W a r o n T e r r o r . M i l i t a r y C u l t u r e
a n d I r r e g u l a r W a r ( 2 0 0 6 ) .
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