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Transit Oriented Development and its effectsExploring relationships between TOD, accessibility and labour productivity in Beijing, ChinaLyu, G.

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Download date: 28 Jul 2020

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BY GUOWEI LYU

Transit Oriented Development

Explor ing re lat ionships between TOD, access ib i l i ty, and labour product iv i ty in Bei j ing, China

TOD

AN

D ITS EFFECTS

GU

OW

EI LYU

Transit O

riented D

evelop

ment an

d its effects B

y Gu

ow

ei Lyu

Transit Oriented Development and its effects

Exploring relationships between TOD, accessibility and labour

productivity in Beijing, China

ACADEMISCH PROEFSCHRIFT

ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor

aan de Universiteit van Amsterdam

op gezag van de Rector Magnificus

prof. dr. ir. K.I.J. Maex

ten overstaan van een door het College voor Promoties

ingestelde commissie,

in het openbaar te verdedigen in de Agnietenkapel

op maandag 17 juni 2019, te 14.00 uur

door

Guowei Lyu

geboren te Chongqing

Promotiecommissie:

Promotores:

Prof. dr. ir. L. Bertolini Universiteit van Amsterdam

Prof. dr. K. Pfeffer Universiteit Twente

Overige leden:

Prof. dr. S. Musterd Universiteit van Amsterdam

Prof. dr. R.C. Kloosterman Universiteit van Amsterdam

Dr. M.C.G. te Brömmelstroet Universiteit van Amsterdam

Prof. dr. ir. M.F.A.M. van Maarseveen Universiteit Twente

Dr. W.W.Y.G.Z. Tan Institutt for byggfag, Norway

Faculteit: Faculteit der Maatschappij- en Gedragswetenschappen

This research has benefited from the financial support of the China

Scholarship Council (CSC NO: 201406040059).

ISBN/EAN: 978-94-028-1527-6

Colofon

© 2019 Guowei Lyu

Cover design：Guowei Lyu

I

Table of Contents Word of thanks ................................................................................................................ i

Summary .......................................................................................................................... I

Samenvatting ................................................................................................................. III

Chapter 1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Motivation ..................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Identifying and debating the potential effects of TOD .................................. 2

1.2.1 Identifying the potential effects of TOD .................................................... 2

1.2.2 Debating the potential effects of TOD ...................................................... 2

1.3 TOD studies in China ...................................................................................... 4

1.3.1 Why study TOD in China ............................................................................ 4

1.3.2 Previous TOD studies in the Chinese context ............................................ 5

1.4 Knowledge gaps and research questions ...................................................... 7

1.5 Introduction of the selected case city: Beijing .............................................. 9

1.6 Outline of the thesis .................................................................................... 11

References of Chapter 1 ........................................................................................... 14

Appendix of Chapter 1 .............................................................................................. 20

Chapter 2 Developing a TOD typology for Beijing metro station areas ........................ 27

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 27

2.2 Theoretical background ............................................................................... 29

2.2.1 The node-place model ............................................................................. 30

2.2.2 Additional dimension ‘oriented’ and the extended node-place model .. 31

2.3 Methodology ............................................................................................... 32

2.3.1 TOD indicators and their selection .......................................................... 33

2.3.2 TOD areas and description of data set for classification ......................... 36

2.3.3 Producing clusters of metro station areas .............................................. 40

II

2.4 Results and discussion ................................................................................. 43

2.4.1 Six types of metro station areas .............................................................. 43

2.4.2 Some potential uses of the TOD typology ............................................... 46

2.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................... 46

References of Chapter 2 ........................................................................................... 49

Appendix of Chapter 2 .............................................................................................. 53

Chapter 3 How does Transit Oriented Development contribute to station area

accessibility? A study in Beijing ..................................................................................... 60

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 60

3.2 Theoretical background ............................................................................... 63

3.3 Measuring accessibility and TOD components of station areas .................. 63

3.3.1 Measuring accessibility of station areas ...................................................... 63

3.3.2 Identifying and measuring specific TOD components related to

accessibility .......................................................................................................... 68

3.4 Relating the specific components of TOD to station area accessibility ....... 71

3.5 Potential policy implications........................................................................ 75

3.6 Conclusion and discussion ........................................................................... 76

References of Chapter 3 ........................................................................................... 79

Chapter 4 Is labour productivity higher in transit oriented development areas? A study

of Beijing ....................................................................................................................... 83

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 83

4.2 Theoretical background ............................................................................... 84

4.3 The context of Beijing .................................................................................. 85

4.4 Methodology ............................................................................................... 86

4.4.1 Measuring labour productivity of areas .................................................. 86

4.4.2 ‘Hot-’ and ‘cold’ spot analysis of labour productivities of areas (grid cells)

89

III

4.4.3 Identifying three types of urban areas and assessing TOD characteristics

91

4.4.4 Relating TOD to labour productivity ....................................................... 96

4.5 Conclusion and discussion ......................................................................... 100

References of Chapter 4 ......................................................................................... 103

Chapter 5 Conclusion and Discussion ......................................................................... 107

5.1 Findings and contributions ........................................................................ 107

5.2 Limitations of the study ............................................................................. 110

5.3 Potential future research directions .......................................................... 111

References of Chapter 5 ......................................................................................... 113

i

Word of thanks

Thank God for guiding me to pursue a doctoral study and research in Amsterdam.

Thank my promoters Prof. Luca Bertolini and Prof. Karin Pfeffer for guiding me,

supervising me, helping me go through and conquer so many difficulties in my PhD

trajectory.

Thank my family, my wife Qi Zhao, my daughter Zhaoxin Lyu, my parents Fanghong

Lyu and Falian Wen, my parents in law Shanling Zhao and Li Li. They give me financial

and spiritual supports. Without their supports, I even cannot finish this wonderful PhD

trajectory. In particular, I thank my wife Qi Zhao, I got to know her in the second year

of my PhD, and we got married in the third year, had the first born Zhaoxin in the

fourth year. That is a really big change happened in my PhD life. Her support and hope

(that I become a scholar and do what I am interested in) never change. I thank her

support.

I thank China Scholarship Council, University of Amsterdam, and Dutch Government.

This PhD research is benefited from their financial supports. I thank my supervisors in

my Master and Bachelor, Prof. Wenxin Zhang, and Prof. Shangyi Zhou at Beijing

Normal University. They recommended me to apply the scholarship from China

Scholarship Council. They are my first teachers in my research trajectory. Thank

University of Amsterdam, I love this university and the Netherlands. I will recommend

my kids to study and pursue their lives in this country. I really enjoyed the life in the

Netherlands. Indeed, China, from my view, needs to learn from the Netherlands on

many aspects (e.g., education, research environment and their supporting strategies).

I am grateful to be in the Netherlands for four years in my young age.

I thank my PhD committee members and the Dean of the faculty.

I thank many persons who offered their kind helps to me in my PhD life. They are: Dr.

Xu Hou, who introduced Luca and the Netherlands to me; Dr. Yang Song, who offered

her help when I, as a person who first go abroad, just arrived in the Netherlands;

Puikang Chan, my project manager, who gave a lot of helps in my PhD trajectory; Joan

Schrijvers, who offered her kind help to me in finding proper housing in Amsterdam;

ii

Barbara, Lawa, who offered her administration help in my PhD trajectory; Dr. Ori

Rubin, who helped to check my PhD thesis several times, and offered his professional

review at the initial stage of my thesis; Arend Jonkman, who helped me edit the Dutch

summary of the thesis and other help in my PhD trajectory; Nikola Stalevski, the

language editor for my PhD thesis, thank him for his work; and the colleagues, e.g.,

Andrew Switzer, Federico Savini (offer me the first drinking toast in Amsterdam),

Beatriz Pineda Revilla, Edda Bild, Ching Wen Yang, Aslan Zorlu (helped to check the

chapter of labour productivity), Sara Ö zogul, Jing Zhou, Qiong He, Ramesh Pokharel,

George Liu, Samuel Nello Deakin and other colleagues.

I also thank some friends in the Netherlands, e.g., Beibei Weng, as well as her family,

Si Wen, Yuan Gao, Xingliang Qi, and the friends in China, e.g., Dr. Yingchun Huang, Dr.

Dong Yadong, etc.

I

Summary

Many cities all over the world are facing similar problems, such as road congestion, air

pollution, urban sprawl, and increasing scarcity of available urban land. Transit

Oriented Development (TOD) is widely recognised as an urban planning strategy that

can address these problems (Cervero et al., 2004; Curtis et al., 2009; Handy, 2002;

Renne, 2009). TOD is often advocated as a generic, ubiquitously applicable concept

that integrates urban transport and land use systems, by combining a high level of

public transport connection with high-density, mixed-use, cycling- and pedestrian-

friendly developments, centred around a transit station (Calthorpe, 1993). There is

already a significant body of knowledge on the concept and principles of TOD as well

as the perceived effects to date (e.g., Bertolini et al., 2012; Cervero et al., 2004;

Chorus and Bertolini, 2016; Curtis et al., 2009; Joshi et al., 2017; Knowles, 2012; Loo et

al., 2010; Mu and De Jong, 2016; Pojani and Stead, 2014; Yang and Lew, 2009; Zhang

and Liu, 2007). However, the specificities of the Chinese context (e.g., the scale and

pace of the urbanisation and motorisation process as well as the institutional

arrangements around land development and transport provision) demand a more

context-specific elaboration of TOD and what it can and does achieve. This thesis

evaluated and applied theories, concepts, and methods from urban planning,

geography, transport studies, and spatial economics to analyse the case of TOD in

Beijing, China. It evaluated the TOD characteristics of metro station areas in Beijing

and developed a TOD typology for those areas. Furthermore, the thesis explored the

relationship between TOD and the effects that TOD actually delivered. The effects

analysed in this thesis included the accessibility to jobs and inhabitants in an area (as a

primary/direct TOD effect), and the labour productivity of an area (as an example of a

secondary/indirect TOD effect). The thesis provides insights for urban planning and

policy in the Chinese context and elaborates a series of methodologies useful for

potential future application in other contexts.

Chapter 1 reviewed the international and Chinese TOD literature, identified

knowledge gaps and research questions, and outlined the components of the thesis.

The following chapters (Chapter 2, Chapter 3, and Chapter 4) filled in the identified

knowledge gaps and provided actionable insights that can feed into urban planning

practices in the Chinese context as well as methodologies that can also be applied in

other contexts.

II

Chapter 2 developed a context-based TOD typology for metro station areas in a

city (Beijing). The author extended the node-place model, first developed by Bertolini

(1996, 1999), to a model that charts ‘Transit’ (node), ‘Oriented’ (association between

node and place) and ‘Development’ (place) characteristics of metro station areas.

Chapter 2 provided a systematic and context-specific methodology for developing a

TOD typology of metro station areas for a city, with potential for application in other

geographic contexts.

Chapter 3 studied how specific components of TOD (e.g., transport components,

such as the position of the station in the city and the transit network, the frequency of

transit service, and land use components, such as densification and diversification of

uses or pedestrian-friendly urban design) are related to accessibility and the relative

importance of each component for enhancing accessibility. The results of Chapter 3

highlighted that a station area’s location relative to the city centre and the specific

land use patterns around all the stations within the targeted station’s one-hour travel

catchment were relatively more important than increasing the targeted station’s

transit performance. The outcomes of Chapter 3 provided insights for developing

area-specific and targeted strategies to enhance a station area’s accessibility

regarding jobs and inhabitants in the context of Beijing.

Chapter 4 assessed the values and the clustering of labour productivities in

different area types across different types of industries and explored the relationships

between specific TOD characteristics and the clustering of labour productivities in

certain industry sectors. It found that within the majority of industry sectors, the

distribution of labour productivity had no significant association with TOD. However,

the results suggested that within certain tertiary industry sectors (i.e., wholesale and

retail; accommodation and catering; and culture, sports, and entertainment) labour

productivity was significantly higher in a more transit oriented developed area. The

chapter further identified which specific TOD components were related to the

clustering of labour productivities in certain industry sectors and the extent of the

effect. For example, it found that the densification and diversification of land uses

around a station area or along the transit network are relatively more important than

improving the transport connection of an area. The outcomes of Chapter 4 provided

insights for developing targeted strategies to foster the clustering of labour

productivities in certain industries of a given station area in Beijing.

Finally, Chapter 5 closes the thesis by summarising findings and contributions,

reflecting on the limits of the study, and discussing potential directions for future

research efforts.

III

Samenvatting

Transit Oriented Development (TOD) integreert systemen voor stedelijk vervoer

en landgebruik, door middel van het combineren van relatief hoogwaardige

transportverbindingen, een hoge dichtheid, multifunctionaliteit en fietsers- en

voetgangersvriendelijke ontwikkeling rond een openbaarvervoersknooppunt

(Bertolini and Spit, 1998; Cervero, 1998; Cervero et al., 2004; Curtis et al., 2009). Het is

een gangbare strategie om stedelijke wildgroei te beteugelen, de kwaliteit van een

plek te verbeteren en verschillende (stedelijke) problemen aan te pakken, zoals

toenemende schaarste aan beschikbare binnenstedelijke ontwikkellocaties,

vervoerscongestie, opwarming van de aarde en luchtvervuiling. Er is al een

aanzienlijke hoeveelheid wetenschappelijke kennis beschikbaar over wat TOD inhoud

en wat hiervan de (potentiële) praktische voordelen zijn. Echter, de specifieke

kenmerken van de Chinese context (bijv. de omvang en snelheid van de

verstedelijking en motorisering, de institutionele regelingen over landgebruik en de

openbaarvervoersdiensten) vragen om een context-specifiek onderzoek naar de

potentie en gerealiseerde uitkomsten van TOD. In dit proefschrift is TOD daarom

onderzocht binnen de specifieke Chinese context, met hoofdstad Peking als casus.

Hierbij is gebruik gemaakt van theorieën, concepten en methoden uit de planologie,

geografie, transportonderzoek en ruimtelijke economie. Voor verschillende

metrostationsgebieden in Peking is onderzocht in hoeverre deze voldoen aan

verschillende eigenschappen van TOD en is vervolgens een TOD-typologie ontwikkeld

voor deze gebieden. Vervolgens is in het proefschrift de relatie tussen TOD en de

voordelen van TOD bestudeerd. Ten eerste is het effect op de verbeterde

bereikbaarheid van werk en bewoners verkend (als het primaire, directe voordeel van

TOD). Ten tweede is de relatief hogere arbeidsproductiviteit van een gebied

onderzocht (als een voorbeeld van een secundair, indirect voordeel van TOD). Het

proefschrift biedt inzichten die de stadsplanning in de Chinese context kunnen

voeden. Daarnaast is in het proefschrift een reeks methodologieën ontwikkeld die in

de toekomst ook in andere geografische contexten kunnen worden toegepast.