Val d'Arno - Ten Lectures on the Tuscan Art - Ruskin

7/31/2019 Val d'Arno - Ten Lectures on the Tuscan Art - Ruskin

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Title:Vald'Arno

Author:JohnRuskin

ReleaseDate:July,2005[EBook#8523][Yes,wearemorethanoneyearaheadofschedule][ThisfilewasfirstpostedonJuly19,2003]

Edition:10

Language:English

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***STARTOFTHEPROJECTGUTENBERGEBOOKVALD'ARNO***

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VALD'ARNO

BY

JOHNRUSKIN,M.A.


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LECTUREI.NICHOLASTHEPISANLECTUREII.JOHNTHEPISANLECTUREIII.SHIELDANDAPRONLECTUREIV.PARTEDPERPALELECTUREV.PAXVOBISCUMLECTUREVI.MARBLECOUCHANTLECTUREVII.MARBLERAMPANTLECTUREVIII.FRANCHISELECTUREIX.THETYRRHENESEALECTUREX.FLEURDELYSAPPENDIX

LISTOFPLATES.

THEANCIENTSHORESOFARNO

I.THEPISANLATONAII.NICCOLAPISANO'SPULPIT

III.THEFOUNTAINOFPERUGIAIV.NORMANIMAGERYV.DOOROFTHEBAPTISTERY.PISAVI.THESTORYOFST.JOHN.ADVENTVII."""""DEPARTUREVIII."THECHARGETOADAM"GIOVANNIPISANOIX.""""MODERNITALIANX.THENATIVITY.GIOVANNIPISANOXI.""MODERNITALIANXII.THEANNUNCIATIONANDVISITATION

VALD'ARNO

TENLECTURES

ON

THETUSCANARTDIRECTLYANTECEDENTTOTHEFLORENTINEYEAROFVICTORIES

GIVENBEFORETHEUNIVERSITYOFOXFORDINMICHAELMASTERM,1873

LECTUREI.

NICHOLASTHEPISAN.

1.Onthisday,ofthismonth,the20thofOctober,sixhundredandtwenty-threeyearsago,themerchantsandtradesmenofFlorencemet


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beforethechurchofSantaCroce;marchedthroughthecitytothepalaceoftheirPodesta;deposedtheirPodesta;setoverthemselves,inhisplace,aknightbelongingtoaninferiorcity;calledhim"CaptainofthePeople;"appointedunderhimaSignoryoftwelveAncientschosenfromamongthemselves;hungabellforhimonthetoweroftheLion,thathemightringitatneed,andgavehimtheflagofFlorencetobear,halfwhite,andhalfred.

ThefirstblowstruckuponthebellinthattoweroftheLionbeganthetollingforthepassingawayofthefeudalsystem,andbeganthejoy-peal,orcarillon,forwhateverdeservesjoy,inthatofourmodernliberties,whetherofactionoroftrade.

2.WithinthespaceofourOxfordtermfromthatday,namely,onthe13thofDecemberinthesameyear,1250,died,atFerentino,inApulia,thesecondFrederick,EmperorofGermany;thesecondalsoofthetwogreatlightswhichinhislifetime,accordingtoDante'sastronomy,ruledtheworld,--whoselightbeingquenched,"thelandwhichwasoncetheresidenceofcourtesyandvalour,becamethehauntofallmenwhoareashamedtobenearthegood,ortospeaktothem."

"InsulpaesechadiceeporigasoleavaloreecortesiatrovarsiprimachefederigoBavessibriga,

orpuosicuramenteindipassarsiperqualuuchelasciassipervergognadiragionarcobuoni,eappressarsi."PURO.,Cant.16.

3.The"PaesecheAdiceePoriga"isofcourseLombardy;andmighthavebeenenoughdistinguishedbythenameofitsprincipalriver.ButDantehasanespecialreasonfornamingtheAdige.ItisalwaysbythevalleyoftheAdigethatthepoweroftheGermanCaesarsdescendsonItaly;andthatbattlementedbridge,whichdoubtlessmanyofyouremember,thrownovertheAdigeatVerona,wassobuiltthattheGermanridersmighthavesecureandconstantaccesstothecity.Inwhichcity

theyhadtheirfirststrongholdinItaly,aidedthereinbythegreatfamilyoftheMontecchi,Montacutes,Mont-aigu-s,orMontagues;lords,socalled,ofthemountainpeaks;infeudwiththefamilyoftheCappelletti,--hatted,or,moreproperly,scarlet-hatted,persons.Andthisaccidentofnomenclature,assistedbyyourpresentfamiliarknowledgeoftherealcontestsofthesharpmountainswiththeflatcaps,orpetasoi,ofcloud,(locallygivingMontPilateitstitle,"Pileatus,")mayinmanypointscuriouslyillustrateforyouthatcontestofFredericktheSecondwithInnocenttheFourth,whichinthegoodofitandtheevilalike,representstoalltimethewarofthesolid,rational,andearthlyauthorityoftheKing,andState,withthemoreorlessspectral,hooded,imaginative,andnubiformauthorityofthePope,andChurch.

4.Itwillbedesirablealsothatyouclearlylearnthematerialrelations,governingspiritualones,--asoftheAlpstotheirclouds,sooftheplainstotheirrivers.Andoftheserivers,chieflynotetherelationtoeachother,first,oftheAdigeandPo;thenoftheArnoandTiber.FortheAdige,representingamongtheriversandfountainsofwatersthechannelofImperial,astheTiberofthePapalpower,andthestrengthoftheCoronetbeingfoundedonthewhitepeaksthatlookdownuponHapsburgandHohenzollern,asthatoftheScarletCapinthemarshoftheCampagna,"quotenuisinsiccoaquadestituisset,"the


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studyofthepoliciesandartsofthecitiesfoundedinthetwogreatvalleysofLombardyandTuscany,sofarastheywereaffectedbytheirbiastotheEmperor,ortheChurch,willarrangeitselfinyourmindsatonceinasymmetryasclearasitwillbe,inourfuturework,secureandsuggestive.

5."Tenuis,insicco."Howliterallythewordsapply,astothenativestreams,sototheearlystatesorestablishingsofthegreatcitiesoftheworld.AndyouwillfindthatthepolicyoftheCoronet,withitstower-building;thepolicyoftheHood,withitsdome-building;andthepolicyofthebarebrow,withitscot-building,--thethreemainassociationsofhumanenergytowhichweowethearchitectureofourearth,(incontradistinctiontothedensandcavesofit,)--arecuriouslyandeternallygovernedbymentallaws,correspondingtothephysicaloneswhichareordainedfortherocks,theclouds,andthestreams.

Thetower,whichmanyofyousowellrememberthedailysightof,inyouryouth,abovethe"windingshore"ofThames,--thetoweruponthehillofLondon;thedomewhichstillrisesaboveitsfoulandterrestrialclouds;andthewallsofthiscityitself,whichhasbeen"alma,"nourishingingentleness,totheyouthofEngland,becausedefendedfromexternalhostilitybythedifficultlyfordablestreamsofitsplain,mayperhaps,inafewyearsmore,besweptawayasheapsof

uselessstone;buttherocks,andclouds,andriversofourcountrywillyet,oneday,restoretoitthegloryoflaw,ofreligion,andoflife.

6.Iamabouttoaskyoutoreadthehieroglyphsuponthearchitectureofadeadnation,incharactergreatlyresemblingourown,--inlawsandincommercegreatlyinfluencingourown;--inarts,still,fromhergrave,tutressofthepresentworld.Iknowthatitwillbeexpectedofmetoexplainthemeritsofherarts,withoutreferencetothewisdomofherlaws;andtodescribetheresultsofboth,withoutinvestigatingthefeelingswhichregulatedeither.Icannotdothis;butIwillatonceendthesenecessarilyvague,andperhapspremature,generalizations;andonlyaskyoutostudysomeportionsofthelife

andworkoftwomen,fatherandson,citizensofthecityinwhichtheenergiesofthisgreatpeoplewereatfirstconcentrated;andtodeducefromthatstudytheconclusions,orfollowouttheinquiries,whichitmaynaturallysuggest.

7.ItisthemodernfashiontodespiseVasari.Heisindeeddespicable,whetherashistorianorcritic,--notleastinhisadmirationofMichaelAngelo;nevertheless,herecordsthetraditionsandopinionsofhisday;andtheseyoumustaccuratelyknow,beforeyoucanwiselycorrect.Iwilltakeleave,therefore,tobeginto-daywithasentencefromVasari,whichmanyofyouhaveoftenheardquoted,butofwhich,perhaps,fewhaveenoughobservedthevalue.

"NiccolaPisanofindinghimselfundercertainGreeksculptorswhowerecarvingthefiguresandotherintaglioornamentsofthecathedralofPisa,andofthetempleofSt.John,andtherebeing,amongmanyspoilsofmarbles,broughtbythePisanfleet,[1]someancienttombs,therewasoneamongtheothersmostfair,onwhichwassculpturedthehuntingofMeleager."[2]

[Footnote1:"Armata."Theproperwordforalandarmyis"esercito."]

[Footnote2:Vol.i.,p.60,ofMrs.Foster'sEnglishtranslation,to


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whichIshallalwaysrefer,inorderthatEnglishstudentsmaycomparethecontextiftheywish.ButthepiecesofEnglishwhichIgivearemyowndirecttranslation,varying,itwillbefound,often,fromMrs.Foster's,inminute,butnotunimportant,particulars.]

Getthemeaningandcontentsofthispassagewellintoyourminds.Inthegistofit,itistrue,andverynotable.

8.Youareinmidthirteenthcentury;1200-1300.TheGreeknationhasbeendeadinheartupwardsofathousandyears;itsreligiondead,forsixhundred.Butthroughthewreckofitsfaith,anddeathinitsheart,theskillofitshands,andthecunningofitsdesign,instinctivelylinger.InthecenturiesofChristianpower,theChristiansarestillunabletobuildbutunderGreekmasters,andbypillageofGreekshrines;andtheirbestworkmanisonlyanapprenticetothe'Graeculiesurientes'whoarecarvingthetempleofSt.John.

9.Thinkofit.HerehastheNewTestamentbeendeclaredfor1200years.Nospiritofwisdom,asyet,hasbeengiventoitsworkmen,exceptthatwhichhasdescendedfromtheMarsHillonwhichSt.Paulstoodcontemptuousinpity.NoBezaleelarises,tobuildnewtabernacles,unlesshehasbeentaughtbyDaedalus.

10.Itisnecessary,therefore,foryoufirsttoknowpreciselythe

manneroftheseGreekmastersintheirdecayedpower;themannerwhichVasaricalls,onlyasentencebefore,"ThatoldGreekmanner,blundering,disproportioned,"--Goffa,esproporzionata.

"Goffa,"theverywordwhichMichaelAngelousesofPerugino.Behold,theChristiansdespisingtheDunceGreeks,astheInfidelmodernistsdespisetheDunceChristians.[1]

[Footnote1:Compare"AriadneFloreutina,"Sec.46.]

11.Isketchedforyou,whenIwaslastatPisa,afewarchesoftheapseoftheduomo,andasmallportionofthesculptureofthefontoftheTempleofSt.John.Ihaveplacedtheminyourrudimentaryseries,

asexamplesof"quellavecchiamanieraGreca,goffaesproporzionata."Myownjudgmentrespectingthemis,--anditisajudgmentfoundedonknowledgewhichyoumay,ifyouchoose,sharewithme,afterworkingwithme,--thatnoarchitectureonthisgrandscale,sodelicatelyskilfulinexecution,orsodaintilydisposedinproportion,existselsewhereintheworld.

12.IsVasarientirelywrongthen?

No,onlyhalfwrong,butveryfatallyhalfwrong.ThereareGreeks,andGreeks.

Thisheadwiththeinlaiddarkirisinitseyes,fromthefontofSt.

John,isaspureasthesculptureofearlyGreece,ahundredyearsbeforePhidias;anditissodelicate,thathavingdrawnwithequalcarethisandthebestworkoftheLombardiatVenice(inthechurchoftheMiracoli),Ifoundthistopossessthemoresubtlequalitiesofdesign.Andyet,inthecloistersofSt.JohnLateranatRome,youhaveGreekwork,ifnotcontemporarywiththisatPisa,yetoccupyingaparallelplaceinthehistoryofarchitecture,whichisabortive,andmonstrousbeyondthepowerofanywordstodescribe.VasariknewnodifferencebetweenthesetwokindsofGreekwork.Nordoyourmodernarchitects.Todiscernthedifferencebetweenthesculptureofthefont


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ofPisa,andthespandrilsoftheLaterancloister,requiresthoroughtrainingofthehandinthefinestmethodsofdraughtsmanship;and,secondly,trainedhabitofreadingthemythologyandethicsofdesign.Isimplyassureyouofthefactatpresent;andifyouwork,youmayhavesightandsenseofit.

13.ThereareGreeks,andGreeks,then,inthetwelfthcentury,differingasmuchfromeachotherasvice,inallages,mustdifferfromvirtue.ButinVasari'ssighttheyarealike;inours,theymustbeso,asfarasregardsourpresentpurpose.Asmenofaschool,theyaretobesummedunderthegeneralnameof'Byzantines;'theirworkallalikeshowingspecificcharactersofattenuate,rigid,andinmanyrespectsoffensivelyunbeautiful,design,towhichVasari'sepithetsof"goffa,esproporzionata"arenaturallyappliedbyallpersonstrainedonlyinmodernprinciples.Undermasters,then,ofthisByzantinerace,NiccolaisworkingatPisa.

14.AmongthespoilsbroughtbyherfleetsfromGreece,isasarcophagus,withMeleager'shuntonit,wrought"conbellissimamaniera,"saysVasari.

Youmayseethatsarcophagus--anyofyouwhogotoPisa;--touchit,foritisonalevelwithyourhand;studyit,asNiccolastudiedit,toyourmind'scontent.Withintenyardsofit,standequally

accessiblepiecesofNiccola'sownworkandofhisson's.Withinfiftyyardsofit,standstheByzantinefontofthechapelofSt.John.Spendbutthegoodhoursofasingledayquietlybythesethreepiecesofmarble,andyoumaylearnmorethaningeneralanyofyoubringhomefromanentiretourinItaly.ButhowmanyofyoueveryetwentintothattempleofSt.John,knowingwhattolookfor;orspentasmuchtimeintheCampoSantoofPisa,asyoudoinMr.Ryman'sshoponarainyday?

15.Thesarcophagusisnot,however,(withVasari'spardon)in'bellissimamaniera'byanymeans.ButitisintheclassicalGreekmannerinsteadoftheByzantineGreekmanner.Youhavetolearnthedifferencebetweenthese.

NowIhaveexplainedtoyousufficiently,in"AratraPentelici,"whattheclassicalGreekmanneris.Themannerandmatterofitbeingeasilysummed--asthoseofnaturalandunaffectedlife;--nudelifewhennudityisrightandpure;nototherwise.ToNiccola,thedifferencebetweenthisnaturalGreekschool,andtheByzantine,wasasthedifferencebetweenthebullofThuriumandofDelhi,(seePlate19of"AratraPentelici").

Instantlyhefollowedthenaturalfact,andbecametheFatherofSculpturetoItaly.

16.Arewe,then,alsotobestrongbyfollowingthenaturalfact?

Yes,assuredly.Thatisthebeginningandendofallmyteachingtoyou.Butthenoblenaturalfact,nottheignoble.Youaretostudymen;notlicenorentozoa.Andyouaretostudythesoulsofmenintheirbodies,nottheirbodiesonly.Mulready'sdrawingsfromthenudearemoredegradedandbestialthantheworstgrotesquesoftheByzantineoreventheIndianimagemakers.AndyourmodernmobofEnglishandAmericantourists,followingalamplighterthroughtheVaticantohavepinklightthrownforthemontheApolloBelvidere,arefartherfromcapacityofunderstandingGreekart,thantheparishcharityboy,


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makingaghostoutofaturnip,withacandleinside.

17.Niccolafollowedthefacts,then.HeistheMasterofNaturalisminItaly.AndIhavedrawnforyouhislionessandcubs,tofixthatinyourminds.Andbesideit,IputtheLionofSt.Mark's,thatyoumayseeexactlythekindofchangehemade.TheLionofSt.Mark's(allbuthiswings,whichhavebeenmadeandfastenedoninthefifteenthcentury),isinthecentralByzantinemanner;afinedecorativepieceofwork,descendingintruegenealogyfromtheLionofNemea,andthecrestedskinofhimthatclothestheheadoftheHeraclesofCamarina.IthasalltherichnessofGreekDaedalwork,--nay,ithasfireandlifebeyondmuchGreekDaedalwork;butinsofarasitisnon-natural,symbolic,decorative,andnotlikeanactuallion,itwouldbefeltbyNiccolaPisanotobeimperfect.Andinsteadofthisdecorativeevangelicalpreacherofalion,withstaringeyes,anditspawonagospel,hecarvesyouaquitebrutalandmaternallioness,withaffectionateeyes,andpawsetonhercub.

18.Fixthatinyourminds,then.NiccolaPisanoistheMasterofNaturalisminItaly,--thereforeelsewhere;ofNaturalism,andallthatfollows.Generallyoftruth,common-sense,simplicity,vitality,--andofallthese,withconsummatepower.Amantobeenquiredabout,isnothe?andwillitnotmakeadifferencetoyouwhetheryoulook,whenyoutravelinItaly,inhisroughearlymarblesforthisfountainoflife,

oronlyglanceatthembecauseyourMurray'sGuidetellsyou,--andthinkthem"oddoldthings"?

19.Wemustlookforamomentmoreatoneoddoldthing--thesarcophaguswhichwashistutor.UponitiscarvedthehuntingofMeleager;anditwasmade,orbytraditionreceivedas,thetombofthemotheroftheCountessMatilda.Imustnotletyoupassbyitwithoutnoticingtwocuriouscoincidencesintheseparticulars.First,intheGreeksubjectwhichisgivenNiccolatoread.

Theboar,remember,isDiana'senemy.ItissentuponthefieldsofCalydoninpunishmentoftherefusaloftheCalydonianstosacrificetoher.'Youhaverefused_me_,'shesaid;'youwillnothaveArtemis

Laphria,ForagerDiana,torangeinyourfields.YoushallhavetheForagerSwine,instead.'

MeleagerandAtalantaareDiana'sservants,--servantsofallorder,purity,duesequenceofseason,andtime.TheorbedarchitectureofTuscany,withitssculpturesofthesuccessionofthelabouringmonths,ascomparedwiththerudevaultsandmonstrousimaginationsofthepast,wasagainthevictoryofMeleager.

20.Secondly,takewhatvaluethereisinthetraditionthatthissarcophaguswasmadethetombofthemotherofthe

[Illustration:PLATEI:--THEPISANLATONA.AngleofPanelofthe

Adoration,inNiccola'sPulpit.]

CountessMatilda.Ifyoulooktothefourteenthchapterofthethirdvolumeof"ModernPainters,"youwillfindthemythiccharacteroftheCountessMatilda,asDanteemployeditexplainedatsomelength.SheistherepresentativeofNaturalScienceasopposedtoTheological.

21.Chancecoincidencesmerely,these;butfullofteachingforus,lookingbackuponthepast.ToNiccola,thepieceofmarblewas,primarily,andperhapsexclusively,anexampleoffreechiselling,and


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humanityoftreatment.Whatelseitwastohim,--whatthespiritsofAtalantaandMatildacouldbestowonhim,dependedonwhathewashimself.OfwhichVasaritellsyounothing.Notwhetherhewasgentlemanorclown--richorpoor--soldierorsailor.Washenever,then,inthosefleetsthatbroughtthemarblesbackfromtheravagedIslesofGreece?washeatfirstonlyalabourer'sboyamongthescaffoldingsofthePisanapse,--hisapronloadedwithdust--andnomanpraisinghimforhisspeech?Roughhewas,assuredly;probablypoor;fierceandenergetic,beyondeventhestrainofPisa,--justandkind,beyondthecustomofhisage,knowingtheJudgmentandLoveofGod:andaworkman,withallhissoulandstrength,allhisdays.

22.Youhearthefameofhimasofasculptoronly.Itisrightthatyoushould;foreverygreatarchitectmustbeasculptor,andberenowned,assuch,morethanbyhisbuilding.ButNiccolaPisanohadevenmoreinfluenceonItalyasabuilderthanasacarver.

ForItaly,atthismoment,wantedbuildersmorethancarvers;andachangewaspassingthroughherlife,ofwhichexternaledificewasanecessarysign.IcomplainedofyoujustnowthatyouneverlookedattheByzantinefontinthetempleofSt.John.Thesacristangenerallywillnotletyou.Hetakesyoutoaparticularspotonthefloor,andsingsamusicalchord.Thechordreturnsinprolongedechofromthechapelroof,asifthebuildingwereallonesonorousmarblebell.

Whichindeeditis;andtravellersarealwaysgreatlyamusedatbeingallowedtoringthisbell;butitneveroccurstothemtoaskhowitcametoberingable:--howthattintinnabulateroofdiffersfromthedomeofthePantheon,expandsintothedomeofFlorence,ordeclinesintothewhisperinggalleryofSt.Paul's.

23.Whenyouhavehadfullsatisfactionofthetintinnabulateroof,youareledbythesacristanandMurraytoNiccolaPisano'spulpit;which,ifyouhavesparetimetoexamineit,youfindtohavesixsides,tobedecoratedwithtabletsofsculpture,likethesidesofthesarcophagus,andtobesustainedonsevenpillars,threeofwhicharethemselvescarriedonthebacksofasmanyanimals.

AllthisarrangementhadbeencontrivedbeforeNiccola'stime,andexecutedagainandagain.Butbehold!betweenthecapitalsofthepillarsandthesculpturedtabletsthereareinterposedfivecuspedarches,thehollowbeneaththepulpitshowingdarkthroughtheirfoils.Youhaveseensuchcuspedarchesbefore,youthink?

Yes,gentlemen,_you_have;butthePisanshad_not_.Andthatintermediatelayerofthepulpitmeans--thechange,inaword,forallEurope,fromtheParthenontoAmiensCathedral.ForItalyitmeanstheriseofherGothicdynasty;itmeanstheduomoofMilaninsteadofthetempleofPaestum.

24.IsaytheduomoofMilan,onlytoputthechangewellbeforeyoureyes,becauseyouallknowthatbuildingsowell.TheduomoofMilanisofentirelybadandbarbarousGothic,butthepassionofpinnacleandfretisinit,visiblytoyou,morethaninotherbuildings.ItwillthereforeservetoshowbestwhatfulnessofchangethispulpitofNiccolaPisanosignifies.

Initthereisnopassionofpinnaclenoroffret.Youseetheedgesofit,insteadofbeingbossed,orknopped,orcrocketed,aremouldingsofseverestline.Novaulting,noclusteredshafts,notraceries,no


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fantasies,noperpendicularflightsofaspiration.Steadypillars,eachofonepolishedblock;usefulcapitals,onetrefoiledarchbetweenthem;yourpanelaboveit;thereonyourstoryofthefounderofChristianity.Thewholestandinguponbeasts,theybeingindeedthefoundationofus,(whichNiccolaknewfarbetterthanMr.Darwin);EagletocarryyourGospelmessage--Doveyouthinkitoughttobe?

[Illustration:PLATEII.--NICCOLAPISANO'SPULPIT.]

Eagle,saysNiccola,andnotassymbolofSt.JohnEvangelistonly,butbehold!withpreybetweenitsclaws.FortheGospel,itisNiccola'sopinion,isnotaltogetheramessagethatyoumaydowhateveryoulike,andgostraighttoheaven.Finally,aslabofmarble,cuthollowalittletobearyourbook;spaceenoughforyoutospeakfromatease,--andhereisyourfirstarchitectureofGothicChristianity!

25.IndignantthunderofdissentfromGermandoctors,--clamourfromFrenchsavants.'What!andourTreves,andourStrasburg,andourPoictiers,andourChartres!Andyoucall_this_thingthefirstarchitectureofChristianity!'Yes,myFrenchandGermanfriends,veryfinethebuildingsyouhavementionedare;andIamboldtosayIlovethemfarbetterthanyoudo,foryouwillrunarailroadthroughanyofthemanydaythatyoucanturnapennybyit.Ithankyoualso,Germans,inthenameofourLadyofStrasburg,foryourbulletsand

fire;andIthankyou,Frenchmen,inthenameofourLadyofRouen,foryournewhaberdashers'shopsintheGothictown;--meanwhilehavepatiencewithmealittle,andletmegoon.

26.Nopassionoffretwork,orpinnaclewhatever,Isaid,isinthisPisanpulpit.Thetrefoiledarchitself,pleasantasitis,seemsforcedalittle;outofperfectharmonywiththerest(seePlateII.).Unnatural,perhaps,toNiccola?

Altogetherunnaturaltohim,itis;suchathingneverwouldhavecomeintohishead,unlesssomeonehadshownithim.Oncegotintohishead,heputsittogooduse;perhapsevenhewillletthissomebodyelseputpinnaclesandcrocketsintohishead,oratleast,intohis

son's,inalittlewhile.Pinnacles,--crockets,--itmaybe,eventraceries.Theground-tierofthebaptisteryisround-arched,andhasnopinnacles;butlookatitsfirststory.TheclerestoryoftheDuomoofPisahasnotraceries,butlookatthecloisterofitsCampoSanto.

27.Ipauseatthewords;--fortheyintroduceanewgroupofthoughts,whichpresentlywemusttracefarther.

TheHolyField;--fieldofburial.The"caveofMachpelahwhichisbeforeMamre,"ofthePisans."TheretheyburiedAbraham,andSarahhiswife;theretheyburiedIsaac,andRebekahhiswife;andthereIburiedLeah."

Howdoyouthinksuchafieldbecomesholy,--howseparated,astheresting-placeoflovingkindred,fromthatotherfieldofblood,boughttoburystrangersin?

Whenyouhavefinallysucceeded,byyourgospelofmammon,inmakingallthemenofyourownnationnotonlystrangerstoeachother,butenemies;andwhenyoureverychurchyardbecomesthereforeafieldofthestranger,thekneelinghamletwillvainlydrinkthechaliceofGodinthemidstofthem.Thefieldwillbeunholy.Nocloistersofnoblehistorycaneverbebuiltroundsuchanone.


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28.ButtheveryearthofthisatPisawasholy,asyouknow.That"armata"oftheTuscancitybroughthomenotonlymarbleandivory,fortreasure;butearth,--afleet'sburden,--fromtheplacewheretherewashealingofsoul'sleprosy:andtheirfieldbecameaplaceofholytombs,preparedforitsofficewithearthfromthelandmadeholybyonetomb;whichalltheknighthoodofChristendomhadbeenpouringoutitslifetowin.

29.ItoldyoujustnowthatthissculptureofNiccola'swasthebeginningofChristianarchitecture.HowdoyoujudgethatChristianarchitectureinthedeepestmeaningofittodifferfromallother?

Allothernoblearchitectureisforthegloryoflivinggodsandmen;butthisisforthegloryofdeath,inGodandman.Cathedral,cloister,ortomb,--shrineforthebodyofChrist,orforthebodiesofthesaints.Allalikesignifyingdeathtothisworld;--life,otherthanofthisworld.

Observe,Iamnotsayinghowfarthisfeeling,beitfaith,orbeitimagination,istrueorfalse;--IonlydesireyoutonotethatthepowerofallChristianworkbeginsinthenicheofthecatacombanddepthofthesarcophagus,andistotheenddefinableasarchitectureofthetomb.

30.Notaltogether,andundereverycondition,sanctionedindoingsuchhonourtothedeadbytheMasterofit.NoteverygraveisbyHiscommandtobeworshipped.Gravestheremaybe--toolittleguarded,yetdishonourable;--"yeareasgravesthatappearnot,andthementhatwalkoverthemarenotawareofthem."Andgravestoomuchguarded,yetdishonourable,"whichindeedappearbeautifuloutwardly,butarewithinfullofalluncleanness."Orgraves,themselveshonourable,yetwhichitmaybe,inus,acrimetoadorn."Fortheyindeedkilledthem,andyebuildtheirsepulchres."

Questions,these,collateral;ortobeexaminedinduetime;forthepresentitisenoughforustoknowthatallChristianarchitecture,as

such,hasbeenhithertoessentiallyoftombs.

Ithasbeenthought,gentlemen,thatthereisafineGothicrevivalinyourstreetsofOxford,becauseyouhaveaGothicdoortoyourCountyBank:

Remember,atallevents,itwasotherkindofburiedtreasure,andbearingotherinterest,whichNiccolaPisano'sGothicwassettoguard.

LECTUREII.

JOHNTHEPISAN.

31.Iclosedmylastlecturewiththestatement,onwhichIdesiredtogiveyoutimeforreflection,thatChristianarchitecturewas,initschiefenergy,theadornmentoftombs,--havingthepassionatefunctionofdoinghonourtothedead.

Butthereisanethic,orsimplydidacticandinstructivearchitecture,thedecorationofwhichyouwillfindtobenormallyrepresentativeof


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thevirtueswhicharecommonaliketoChristianandGreek.Andthereisanaturaltendencytoadoptsuchdecoration,andthemodesofdesignfittedforit,incivilbuildings.[1]

[Footnote:"Theseseveralroomswereindicatedbysymbolanddevice:Victoryforthesoldier,Hopefortheexile,theMusesforthepoets,Mercuryfortheartists,Paradiseforthepreacher."--(SagaciusGazata,ofthePalaceofCanGrande.ItranslateonlySismondi'squotation.)]

32._Civil_,or_civic_,Isay,asopposedtomilitary.Butagainobserve,therearetwokindsofmilitarybuilding.One,therobber'scastle,orstronghold,outofwhichheissuestopillage;theother,thehonestman'scastle,orstronghold,intowhichheretreatsfrompillage.Theyaremuchlikeeachotherinexternalforms;--butInjustice,orUnrighteousness,sitsinthegateoftheone,veiledwithforestbranches,(seeGiotto'spaintingofhim);andJusticeorRighteousness_enters_bythegateoftheother,overstrewnforestbranches.Now,forexampleofthissecondkindofmilitaryarchitecture,lookatCarlyle'saccountofHenrytheFowler,[1]andofhisbuildingmilitarytowns,orburgs,toprotecthispeasantry.Insuchfunctionyouhavethefirstandproperideaofawalledtown,--aplaceintowhichthepacificcountrypeoplecanretireforsafety,astheAtheniansintheSpartanwar.Yourfortressofthiskindisareligiousandcivilfortress,orburg,defendedbyburgers,trainedto

defensivewar.Keepalwaysthisideaofthepropernatureofafortifiedcity:--Itswallsmeanprotection,--itsgateshospitalityandtriumph.Inthelanguagefamiliartoyou,spokenofthechiefofcities:"ItswallsaretobeSalvation,anditsgatestobePraise."AndrecollectalwaystheinscriptionoverthenorthgateofSiena:"CormagistibiSenapandit."--"Morethanhergates,Sienaopensherhearttoyou."

[Footnote1:"Frederick,"vol.i.]

33.WhennextyouenterLondonbyanyofthegreatlines,Ishouldlikeyoutoconsider,asyouapproachthecity,whatthefeelingsoftheheartofLondonarelikelytobeonyourapproach,andatwhatpartof

therailroadstationaninscription,explainingsuchstateofherheart,mightbemostfitlyinscribed.OryouwouldstillbetterunderstandthedifferencebetweenancientandmodernprinciplesofarchitecturebytakingacabtotheElephantandCastle,andthencewalkingtoLondonBridgebywhatisinfactthegreatsouthernentranceofLondon.Theonlygatereceivingyouis,however,thearchthrownovertheroadtocarrytheSouth-EasternRailwayitself;andtheonlyexhibitioneitherofSalvationorPraiseisinthecheapclothes'shopsoneachside;andespeciallyinonecolossalhaberdasher'sshop,overwhichyoumayseetheBritishflagwaving(inimitationofWindsorCastle)whenthemasteroftheshopisathome.34.Nexttoprotectionfromexternalhostility,thetwonecessitiesinacityareoffoodandwatersupply;--thelatteressentiallyconstant.Youcanstorefoodand

forage,butwatermustflowfreely.HencetheFountainandtheMercatobecomethecentresofcivilarchitecture.

Premisingthusmuch,IwillaskyoutolookoncemoreatthiscloisteroftheCampoSantoofPisa.

35.Onfirstenteringtheplace,itsquiet,itssolemnity,theperspectiveofitsaisles,andtheconspicuousgraceandprecisionofitstraceries,combinetogiveyouthesensationofhavingenteredatrueGothiccloister.Andifyouwalkroundithastily,and,glancing


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onlyatafrescoortwo,andtheconfusedtombserectedagainstthem,returntotheuncloisteredsunlightofthepiazza,youmayquiteeasilycarryawaywithyou,andeverafterwardsretain,thenotionthattheCampoSantoofPisaisthesamekindofthingasthecloisterofWestminsterAbbey.

36.Iwillbegyoutolookatthebuilding,thusphotographed,moreattentively.The"long-drawnaisle"ishere,indeed,--butwhereisthe"frettedvault"?

Atimberroof,simpleasthatofacountrybarn,andofwhichonlythehorizontalbeamscatchtheeye,connectsanentirelyplainoutsidewallwithaninteriorone,piercedbyround-headedopenings;inwhichareinsertedpiecesofcomplextracery,asforeigninconceptiontotherestoftheworkasifthePisanarmatahadgoneuptheRhineinsteadoftoCrete,pillagedSouthGermany,andcutthesepiecesoftraceryoutofthewindowsofsomechurchinanadvancedstageoffantasticdesignatNurembergorFrankfort.

37.Ifyoubegintoquestion,hereupon,whowastheItalianrobber,whetherofmarbleorthought,andlooktoyourVasari,youfindthebuildingattributedtoJohnthePisan;[1]--andyousupposethesontohavebeensopleasedbyhisfather'sadoptionofGothicformsthathemustneedsborrowthem,inthismanner,readymade,fromtheGermans,

andthrustthemintohisroundarches,orwhereverelsetheywouldgo.

[Footnote1:Thepresenttraceriesareoffifteenthcenturywork,foundedonGiovanni'sdesign.]

Wewilllookatsomethingmoreofhiswork,however,beforedrawingsuchconclusion.

38.InthecentresofthegreatsquaresofSienaandPerugia,rose,obedienttoengineers'art,twoperennialfountainsWithoutengineers'art,theglenswhichcleavethesand-rockofSienaflowwithliving

water;andstill,iftherebeahellfortheforgerinItaly,he

remembersthereinthesweetgrottoandgreenwaveofFonteBranda.Butontheverysummitofthetwohills,crestedbytheirgreatcivicfortresses,andinthecentresoftheircircuitofwalls,rosethetwoguidedwells;eachinbasinofgoodlymarble,sculptured--atPerugia,byJohnofPisa,atSiena,byJamesofQuercia.

39.Itisoneofthebitterestregretsofmylife(andIhavemanywhichsomemenwouldfinddifficulttobear,)thatIneversaw,exceptwhenIwasayouth,andthenwithsealedeyes,JacopodellaQuercia'sfountain.[1]TheSienese,alittlewhilesince,toreitdown,andputupamodelofitbyamoderncarver.Inlikemanner,perhaps,youwillsomedayknocktheElginmarblestopieces,andcommissionanAcademiciantoputupnewones,--theSienesedoingworsethanthat(as

iftheAthenianswere_themselves_tobreaktheirPhidias'work).

[Footnote1:IobservethatCharlesDickenshadthefortunedeniedtome."Themarket-place,orgreatPiazza,isalargesquare,withagreatbroken-nosedfountaininit."("PicturesfromItaly.")]

ButthefountainofJohnofPisa,thoughmuchinjured,andgluedtogetherwithasphalt,isstillinitsplace.

40.IwillnowreadtoyouwhatVasarifirstsaysofhim,andit.(I.


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67.)"Nicholashad,amongothersons,onecalledJohn,who,becausehealwaysfollowedhisfather,and,underhisdiscipline,intended(benthimselfto,withawill,)sculptureandarchitecture,inafewyearsbecamenotonlyequaltohisfather,butinsomethingssuperiortohim;whereforeNicholas,beingnowold,retiredhimselfintoPisa,andlivingquietlythere,leftthegovernmentofeverythingtohisson.Accordingly,whenPopeUrbanIV.diedinPerugia,sendingwasmadeforJohn,who,goingthere,madethetombofthatPopeofmarble,thewhich,togetherwiththatofPopeMartinIV.,wasafterwardsthrowndown,whenthePerugians

[Illustration:PLATEIII.--THEFOUNTAINOFPERUGIA.]

enlargedtheirvescovado;sothatonlyafewrelicsareseensprinkledaboutthechurch.AndthePerugians,havingatthesametimebroughtfromthemountainofPacciano,twomilesdistantfromthecity,throughcanalsoflead,amostabundantwater,bymeansoftheinventionandindustryofafriaroftheorderofSt.Silvester,itwasgiventoJohnthePisantomakealltheornamentsofthisfountain,aswellofbronzeasofmarble.Onwhichhesethandtoit,andmadetherethreeordersofvases,twoofmarbleandoneofbronze.Thefirstisputupontwelvedegreesoftwelve-facedsteps;thesecondisuponsomecolumnswhichputituponalevelwiththefirstone;"(thatis,inthemiddleofit,)"andthethird,whichisofbronze,restsuponthreefigureswhich

haveinthemiddleofthemsomegriffins,ofbronzetoo,whichpourwateroutoneveryside."

41.Manythingswehavetonoteinthispassage,butfirstIwillshowyouthebestpictureIcanofthethingitself.

ThebestIcan;thethingitselfbeinghalfdestroyed,andwhatremainssobeautifulthatnoonecannowquiterightlydrawit;butMr.ArthurSevern,(thesonofKeats'sMr.Severn,)waswithme,lookingreverentlyatthoseremains,lastsummer,andhasmade,withhelpfromthesun,thissketchforyou(PlateIII.);entirelytrueandeffectiveasfarashistimeallowed.

Halfdestroyed,ormore,Isaiditwas,--Timedoinggrievousworkonit,andmenworse.YouheardVasarisayingofit,thatitstoodontwelvedegreesoftwelve-facedsteps.These--worn,doubtless,intolittlemorethanaruggedslope--havebeenreplacedbythemodernswithfourcircularsteps,andanironrailing;[1]thebas-reliefshavebeencarriedofffromthepanelsofthesecondvase,anditsfairmarblelipschokedwithasphalt:--ofwhatremains,youhaveherearoughbuttrueimage.

[Footnote1:InMr.Severn'ssketch,theformoftheoriginalfoundationisapproximatelyrestored.]

InwhichyouseethereisnotatraceofGothicfeelingordesignof

anysort.Nocrockets,nopinnacles,nofoils,novaultings,no

grotesquesinsculpture.Panelsbetweenpillars,panelscarriedonpillars,sculpturesinthosepanelsliketheMetopesoftheParthenon;aGreekvaseinthemiddle,andgriffinsinthemiddleofthat.Hereisyourfont,notatallofSaintJohn,butofprofaneandcivil-engineeringJohn.Thisis_his_mannerofbaptismofthetownofPerugia.

42.Thusearly,itseems,theantagonismofprofaneGreekto


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ecclesiasticalGothicdeclaresitself.ItseemsasifinPerugia,asinLondon,youhadthefountainsinTrafalgarSquareagainstQueenElinor'sCross;ortheviaductandrailwaystationcontendingwiththeGothicchapel,whichthemasterofthelargemanufactoryclosebyhaserected,becausehethinkspinnaclesandcrocketshaveapiousinfluence;andwillpreventhisworkmenfromaskingforshorterhours,ormorewages.

43.It_seems_only;theantagonismisquiteofanotherkind,--or,rather,ofmanyotherkinds.Butnoteatoncehowcompleteitis--howutterlythisGreekfountainofPerugia,andtheroundarchesofPisa,areopposedtotheschoolofdesignwhichgavethetrefoilstoNiccola'spulpit,andthetraceriestoGiovanni'sCampoSanto.

Theantagonism,Isay,isofanotherkindthanours;butdeepandwide;andtoexplainit,Imustpassforatimetoapparentlyirrelevanttopics.

Youweresurprised,Ihope,(ifyouwereattentiveenoughtocatchthepointsinwhatIjustnowreadfromVasari,)atmyventuringtobringbeforeyou,justafterIhadbeenusingviolentlanguageagainsttheSieneseforbreakinguptheworkofQuercia,thatincidentalsentencegivingaccountofthemuchmoredisrespectfuldestruction,bythePerugians,ofthetombsofPopeUrbanIV.,andMartinIV.

SendingwasmadeforJohn,yousee,first,whenPopeUrbanIV.diedinPerugia--whosetombwastobecarvedbyJohn;theGreekfountainbeingasecondarybusiness.Butthetombwassowelldestroyed,afterwards,thatonlyafewrelicsremainedscatteredhereandthere.

Thetomb,Ihavenottheleastdoubt,wasGothic;--andthebreakingofittopieceswasnotinordertorestoreitafterwards,thatalivingarchitectmightgetthejobofrestoration.HereisastoneoutofoneofGiovanniPisano'sloveliestGothicbuildings,whichImyselfsawwithmyowneyesdashedout,thatamodernbuildermightbepaidforputtinginanother.ButPopeUrban'stombwasnotdestroyedtosuchend.Therewasnoqualmofthebelly,drivingthehammer,--qualmofthe

conscienceprobably;atallevents,adeeperorloftierantagonismthanoneonpointsoftaste,oreconomy.

44.YouobservedthatIdescribedthisGreekprofanemannerofdesignasproperlybelongingto_civil_buildings,asopposednotonlytoecclesiasticalbuildings,buttomilitaryones.Justice,orRighteousness,andVeracity,arethecharactersofGreekart.These_may_beopposedtoreligion,whenreligionbecomesfantastic;butthey_must_beopposedtowar,whenwarbecomesunjust.Andif,perchance,fantasticreligionandunjustwarhappentogohandinhand,yourGreekartistislikelytousehishammeragainstthemspitefullyenough.

45.Hishammer,orhisGreekfire.Hearnowthisexampleofthe

engineeringingenuitiesofourPisanpapa,inhisyoungerdays.

"TheFlorentineshavingbegun,inNiccola'stime,tothrowdownmanytowers,whichhadbeenbuiltinabarbarousmannerthroughthewholecity;eitherthatthepeoplemightbelesshurt,bytheirmeans,inthefightsthatoftentookplacebetweentheGuelphsandGhibellines,orelsethattheremightbegreatersecurityfortheState,itappearedtothemthatitwouldbeverydifficulttoruintheToweroftheDeath-watch,whichwasintheplaceofSt.John,becauseithaditswallsbuiltwithsuchagripinthemthatthestonescouldnotbestirred


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withthepickaxe,andalsobecauseitwasoftheloftiest;whereuponNicholas,causingthetowertobecut,atthefootofit,allthelengthofoneofitssides;andclosingupthecut,ashemadeit,withshort(wooden)under-props,aboutayardlong,andsettingfiretothem,whenthepropswereburned,thetowerfell,andbrokeitselfnearlyalltopieces:whichwasheldathingsoingeniousandsousefulforsuchaffairs,thatithassincepassedintoacustom,sothatwhenitisneedful,inthiseasiestmanner,anyedificemaybethrowndown."

46.'Whenitisneedful.'Yes;butwhenisthat?IfinsteadofthetowersoftheDeath-watchinthecity,onecouldruinthetowersoftheDeath-watchofevilprideandeviltreasureinmen'shearts,therewouldbeneedenoughforsuchworkbothinFlorenceandLondon.Butthewallsofthosespiritualtowershavestillstronger'grip'inthem,andarefireproofwithavengeance.

"Lemuremepareandieferrofosse,...eelmidixe,ilfuocoeternoChentrolaffoca,ledimostrarosse."

ButthetowersinFlorence,shatteredtofragmentsbythisingeniousengineer,andthetombsinPerugia,whichhissonwillcarve,onlythattheyalsomaybesowelldestroyedthatonlyafewrelicsremain,

scatteredupanddownthechurch,--arethese,also,onlytheirontowers,andthered-hottombs,ofthecityofDis?

Letussee.

47.Inordertounderstandtherelationofthetradesmenandworkingmen,includingeminentlytheartist,tothegenerallifeofthethirteenthcentury,ImustlaybeforeyoutheclearestelementarychartsIcanofthecoursewhichthefatesofItalywerenowappointingforher.

Myfirstchartmustbegeographical.Iwantyoutohaveaclearlydissectedandcloselyfittednotionofthenaturalboundariesofher

states,andtheirrelationstosurroundingones.Layholdfirst,firmly,ofyourconceptionofthevalleysofthePoandtheArno,runningcountertoeachother--openingeastandopeningwest,--Veniceattheendoftheone,Pisaattheendoftheother.

48.Thesetwovalleys--theheartsofLombardyandEtruria--virtuallycontainthelifeofItaly.Theyareentirelydifferentincharacter:Lombardy,essentiallyluxuriousandworldly,atthistimerudeinart,butactive;Etruria,religious,intenselyimaginative,andinheritingrefinedformsofartfrombeforethedaysofPorsenna.

49.Southofthese,inmid-Italy,youhaveRomagna,--thevalleyoftheTiber.Inthatvalley,decayedRome,withherlustofempire

inextinguishable;--noinheritanceofimaginativeart,norpowerofit;draggingherownruinshourlyintomorefantasticruin,anddefilingherfaithhourlywithmorefantasticguilt.

SouthofRomagna,youhavethekingdomsofCalabriaandSicily,---MagnaGraecia,andSyracuse,indecay;----strangespiritualfirefromtheSaraceniceaststilllightingthevolcanicland,itselflaidallinashes.

50.ConceiveItalythenalwaysinthesefourmasses:Lombardy,Etruria,


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Romagna,Calabria.

Nowshehasthreegreatexternalpowerstodealwith:thewestern,France--thenorthern,Germany--theeastern,Arabia.OnherrighttheFrank;onherlefttheSaracen;aboveher,theTeuton.Androughly,theFrenchareareligiouschivalry;theGermansaprofanechivalry;theSaracensaninfidelchivalry.WhatisbestofeachisbenefitingItaly;whatisworst,afflictingher.Andinthetimeweareoccupiedwith,allareafflictingher.

WhatCharlemagne,Barbarossa,orSaladindidtoteachher,youcantraceonlybycarefullestthought.Butinthisthirteenthcenturyallthesethreepowersareadversetoher,astoeachother.Mapthemethodsoftheiradversitythus:---

51.Germany,(profanechivalry,)isvitallyadversetothePopes;endeavouringtoestablishimperialandknightlypoweragainsttheirs.Itisfiercely,butfrankly,covetousofItalianterritory,seizesallitcanofLombardyandCalabria,andwithanyhelpprocurableeitherfromrobberChristiansorrobberSaracens,strives,inanawkwardmanner,andbyopenforce,tomakeitselfmasterofRome,andallItaly.

52.France,allsurgeandfoamofpiouschivalry,liftsherselfinfitfulrageofdevotion,ofavarice,andofpride.Sheisthenaturalallyofthechurch;makesherownmonkstheproudestofthePopes;raisesAvignonintoanotherRome;praysandpillagesinsatiably;pipespastoralsongsofinnocence,andinventsgrotesquevariationsofcrime;givesgracetotherudenessofEngland,andvenomtothecunningofItaly.Sheisachimeraamongnations,andoneknowsnotwhethertoadmiremostthevalourofGuiscard,thevirtueofSt.Louisorthevillanyofhisbrother.

53.TheEasternpowers--Greek,Israelite,Saracen--areatoncetheenemiesoftheWestern,theirprey,andtheirtutors.

Theybringthemmethodsofornamentandofmerchandise,andstimulateinthemtheworstconditionsofpugnacity,bigotry,andrapine.Thatisthebroadgeographicalandpoliticalrelationofraces.Next,youmustconsidertheconditionsoftheirtime.

54.Itoldyou,inmysecondlectureonEngraving,thatbeforethetwelfthcenturythenationsweretoosavagetobeChristian,andafterthefifteenthtoocarnaltobeChristian.

ThedelicacyofsensationandrefinementsofimaginationnecessarytounderstandChristianitybelongtothemidperiodwhenmenrisenfromalifeofbrutalhardshiparenotyetfallentooneofbrutalluxury.YoucanneithercomprehendthecharacterofChristwhileyouarechopping

flintsfortools,andgnawingrawbonesforfood;norwhenyouhaveceasedtodoanythingwitheithertoolsorhands,anddineongildedcapons.InDante'slines,beginning

"IsawBellincionBertiwalkabroadInleatherngirdle,withaclaspofbone,"

youhavetheexpressionofhissenseoftheincreasingluxuryoftheage,alreadysappingitsfaith.ButwhenBellincionBertiwalkedabroad


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inskinsnotyetmadeintoleather,andwiththebonesofhisdinnerinaheapathisdoor,insteadofbeingcutintogirdleclasps,hewasjustasfarfromcapacityofbeingaChristian.

55.Thefollowingpassage,fromCarlyle's"Chartism,"expressesbetterthananyoneelsehasdone,orislikelytodoit,thenatureofthisChristianera,(extendingfromthetwelfthtothesixteenthcentury,)inEngland,--thelikebeingentirelytrueofitelsewhere:--

"Inthosepastsilentcenturies,amongthosesilentclasses,muchhadbeengoingon.NotonlyhadreddeerintheNewandotherforestsbeengotpreservedandshot;andtreacheries[1]ofSimondeMontfort,warsofRedandWhiteRoses,battlesofCrecy,battlesofBosworth,andmanyotherbattles,beengottransactedandadjusted;butEnglandwholly,notwithoutsoretoilandachingbonestothemillionsofsiresandthemillionsofsonsofeighteengenerations,hadbeengotdrainedandtilled,coveredwithyellowharvests,beautifulandrichinpossessions.Themud-woodenCaestersandChestershadbecomesteepled,tile-roofed,compacttowns.SheffieldhadtakentothemanufactureofSheffieldwhittles.Worsteadcouldfromwoolspinyarn,andknitorweavethesameintostockingsorbreechesformen.Englandhadpropertyvaluabletotheauctioneer;buttheaccumulatemanufacturing,commercial,economicskillwhichlayimpalpablywarehousedinEnglishhandsandheads,whatauctioneercouldestimate?

[Footnote1:Perhapsnotaltogetherso,anymorethanOliver'sdearpapaCarlyle.Wemayhavetoread_him_also,otherwisethantheBritishpopulacehaveyetread,someday.]

"HardlyanEnglishmantobemetwithbutcoulddosomething;somecunningerthingthanbreakhisfellow-creature'sheadwithbattle-axes.Thesevenincorporatedtrades,withtheirmillionguild-brethren,withtheirhammers,theirshuttles,andtools,whatanarmy,--fittoconquerthatlandofEngland,aswesay,andholditconquered!Nay,strangestofall,theEnglishpeoplehadacquiredthefacultyandhabitofthinking,--evenofbelieving;individualconsciencehadunfoldeditselfamongthem;--Conscience,andIntelligenceitshandmaid.[1]Ideasof

innumerablekindswerecirculatingamongthesemen;witnessoneShakspeare,awool-comber,poacherorwhateverelse,atStratford,inWarwickshire,whohappenedtowritebooks!--thefinesthumanfigure,asIapprehend,thatNaturehashithertoseenfittomakeofourwidelyTeutonicclay.Saxon,Norman,Celt,orSarmat,Ifindnohumansoulsobeautiful,thesefifteenhundredknownyears;--oursuprememodernEuropeanman.HimEnglandhadcontrivedtorealize:weretherenotideas?

[Footnote1:ObserveCarlyle'sorderofsequence.PerceptiveReasonistheHandmaidofConscience,notConsciencehers.Ifyouresolvetodoright,youwillsoondowisely;butresolveonlytodowisely,andyouwillneverdoright.]

"IdeaspoeticandalsoPuritanic,thathadtoseekutteranceinthenotablestway!EnglandhadgotherShakspeare,butwasnowabouttogetherMiltonandOliverCromwell.This,too,wewillcallanewexpansion,hardasitmightbetoarticulateandadjust;this,thatamancouldactuallyhaveaconscienceforhisownbehoof,andnotforhispriest'sonly;thathispriest,behewhohemight,wouldhenceforthhavetotakethatfactalongwithhim."

56.Youobserve,inthispassage,accountisgivenyouoftwothings--


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(A)ofthedevelopmentofapowerfulclassoftradesmenandartists;and,(B)ofthedevelopmentofanindividualconscience.

Inthesavagetimesyouhadsimplythehunter,digger,androbber;nowyouhavealsothemanufacturerandsalesman.Theideasofingenuitywiththehand,offairnessinexchange,haveoccurredtous.Wecandosomethingnowwithourfingers,aswellaswithourfists;andifwewantourneighbours'goods,wewillnotsimplycarrythemoff,asofold,butofferhimsomeofoursinexchange.

57.Again;whereasbeforewewerecontenttoletourpriestsdoforusalltheycould,bygesticulating,dressing,sacrificing,orbeatingofdrumsandblowingoftrumpets;andalsodirectourstepsinthewayoflife,withoutanydoubtonourpartoftheirownperfectacquaintancewithit,--wehavenowgottodosomethingforourselves--tothinksomethingforourselves;andthushavearrivedinstraitsofconsciencewhich,solongasweendeavourtosteerthroughthemhonestly,willbetousindeedaquitesecurewayoflife,andofalllivingwisdom.

58.NowthecentreofthisnewfreedomofthoughtisinGermany;andthepowerofitisshownfirst,asItoldyouinmyopeninglecture,inthegreatstruggleofFrederickII.withRome.AndGermanfreedomofthoughthadcertainlymadesomeprogress,whenithadmanagedtoreducethePopetodisguisehimselfasasoldier,rideoutofRomeby

moonlight,andgallophisthirty-fourmilestotheseasidebefore

[Illustration:PLATEIV.--NORMANIMAGERY.]

summerdawn.Here,clearly,isquiteanewstateofthingsfortheHolyFatherofChristendomtoconsider,duringsuchwholesomehorse-exercise.

59.Again;therefinementsofnewartarerepresentedbyFrance--centrallybySt.LouiswithhisSainteChapelle.Happily,Iamabletolayonyourtableto-day--havingplaceditthreeyearsagoinyoureducationalseries--aleafofaPsalter,executedforSt.Louishimself.Heandhisartistsarescarcelyoutoftheirsavagelifeyet,

andhavenonotionofadorningthePsalmsbetterthanbypicturesoflong-neckedcranes,long-earedrabbits,long-tailedlions,andredandwhitegoblinsputtingtheirtonguesout.[1]Butinrefinementoftouch,inbeautyofcolour,inthehumanfacultiesoforderandgrace,theyarelongsince,evidently,pasttheflintandbonestage,--refinedenough,now,--subtleenough,now,tolearnanythingthatisprettyandfine,whetherintheologyoranyothermatter.

[Footnote1:Icannotgototheexpenseofengravingthismostsubtleexample;butPlateIV.showstheaverageconditionsoftemperandimaginationinreligiousornamentalworkofthetime.]

60.Lastly,thenewprincipleofExchangeisrepresentedbyLombardy

andVenice,tosuchpurposethatyourMerchantandJewofVenice,andyourLombardofLombardStreet,retainsomeconsiderableinfluenceonyourminds,eventothisday.

Andintheexactmidstofallsuchtransition,behold,EtruriawithherPisans--herFlorentines,--receiving,resisting,andreigningoverall:pillagingtheSaracensoftheirmarbles--bindingtheFrenchbishopsinsilverchains;--shatteringthetowersofGermantyrannyintosmallpieces,--buildingwithstrangejewellerythebelfrytowerfornewly-conceivedChristianity;--and,insacredpicture,andsacredsong,


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reachingtheheight,amongnations,mostpassionate,andmostpure.

Imustclosemylecturewithoutindulgingmyselfyet,byadditionofdetail;requestingyou,beforewenextmeet,tofixthesegeneraloutlinesinyourminds,sothat,withoutdisturbingtheirdistinctness,ImaytraceinthesequeltherelationsofItalianArttothesepoliticalandreligiouspowers;anddeterminewithwhatforceofpassionatesympathy,orfidelityofresignedobedience,thePisanartists,fatherandson,executedtheindignationofFlorenceandfulfilledthepietyofOrvieto.

LECTUREIII.

SHIELDANDAPRON.

61.Ilaidbeforeyou,inmylastlecture,firstlinesofthechartofItalianhistoryinthethirteenthcentury,whichIhopegraduallytofillwithcolour,andenrich,tosuchdegreeasmaybesufficientforallcomfortableuse.ButIindicated,asthemorespecialsubjectofourimmediatestudy,thenascentpowerofliberalthought,andliberal

art,overdeadtraditionandrudeworkmanship.

To-dayImustaskyoutoexamineingreaterdetailtheexactrelationofthisliberalarttotheilliberalelementswhichsurroundedit.

62.Youdonotoftenhearmeusethatword"Liberal"inanyfavourablesense.Idosonow,becauseIuseitalsoinaverynarrowandexactsense.Imeanthatthethirteenthcenturyis,inItaly'syearoflife,her17thofMarch.Inthelightofit,sheassumeshertogavirilis;anditissacredtohergodLiber.

63.Tohergod_Liber_,--observe:notDionusos,stilllessBacchus,butherownancientandsimpledeity.Andifyouhavereadwithsomecare

thestatementIgaveyou,withCarlyle'shelp,ofthemomentandmannerofherchangefromsavagenesstodexterity,andfromrudenesstorefinementoflife,youwillhear,familiarasthelinesaretoyou,theinvocationinthefirstGeorgicwithanewsenseofitsmeaning:--

"Vos,OclarissimamundiLumina,labentemcoeloquaeducitisannum,Liber,etalmaCeres;vestrosimuneretellusChaoniampinguiglandemmutavitarista,Poculaqu'inventisAcheloiamiscuituvis,Muneravestracano."

Thesegifts,innocent,rich,fulloflife,exquisitelybeautifulinorderandgraceofgrowth,Ihavethoughtbesttosymbolizetoyou,intheseriesoftypesofthepoweroftheGreekgods,placedinyoureducationalseries,bytheblossomofthewildstrawberry;whichinrisingfromitstrineclusteroftrineleaves,--itselfasbeautifulasawhiterose,andalwayssingleonitsstalk,likeanearofcorn,yetwithasucceedingblossomatitsside,andbearingafruitwhichisasdistinctlyagroupofseedsasanearofcornitself,andyetisthepleasantesttotasteofallthepleasantthingspreparedbynatureforthefoodofmen,[1]--mayaccuratelysymbolize,andhelpyouto


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remember,theconditionsofthisliberalanddelightful,yetentirelymodestandorderly,art,andthought.

[Footnote1:Iamsorrytopackmysentencestogetherinthisconfusedway.ButIhavemuchtosay;andcannotalwaysstoptopolishoradjustitasIusedtodo.]

64.Youwillfindinthefourthofmyinaugurallectures,atthe98thparagraph,thisstatement,--muchdeniedbymodernartistsandauthors,butneverthelessquiteunexceptionallytrue,--thattheentirevitalityofartdependsuponitshavingforobjecteitherto_stateatruething_,or_adornaserviceableone_.ThetwofunctionsofartinItaly,inthisentirelyliberalandvirescentphaseofit,--virginart,wemaycallit,retainingthemostliteralsenseofthewordsvirgaandvirgo,--aretomanifestthedoctrinesofareligionwhichnow,forthefirsttime,menhadsoulenoughtounderstand;andtoadornedificesordress,withwhichthecompletedpolitenessofdailylifemightbeinvested,itsconveniencecompleted,anditsdecorousandhonourablepridesatisfied.

65.Thatpridewas,amongthemenwhogaveitscharactertothecentury,inhonourablenessofprivateconduct,andusefulmagnificenceofpublicart.Notofprivateordomesticart:observethisveryparticularly.

"Suchwasthesimplicityofprivatemanners,"--(IamnowquotingSismondi,butwiththefullestratificationthatmyknowledgeenablesmetogive,)--"andtheeconomyoftherichestcitizens,thatifacityenjoyedreposeonlyforafewyears,itdoubleditsrevenues,andfounditself,inasort,encumberedwithitsriches.ThePisansknewneitheroftheluxuryofthetable,northatoffurniture,northatofanumberofservants;yettheyweresovereignsofthewholeofSardinia,Corsica,andElba,hadcoloniesatSt.Jeand'AcreandConstantinople,andtheirmerchantsinthosecitiescarriedonthemostextendedcommercewiththeSaracensandGreeks."[1]

[Footnote1:Sismondi;Frenchtranslation,Brussels,1838;vol.ii.,p.

275.]

66."Andinthattime,"(InowgiveyoumyowntranslationofGiovanniVillani,)"thecitizensofFlorencelivedsober,andoncoarsemeats,andatlittlecost;andhadmanycustomsandplayfulnesseswhichwerebluntandrude;andtheydressedthemselvesandtheirwiveswithcoarsecloth;manyworemerelyskins,withnolining,and_all_hadonlyleathernbuskins;[1]andtheFlorentineladies,plainshoesandstockingswithnoornaments;andthebestofthemwerecontentwithaclosegownofcoarsescarletofCyprus,orcamletgirdedwithanold-fashionedclasp-girdle;andamantleoverall,linedwithvaire,withahoodabove;andthat,theythrewovertheirheads.Thewomenoflowerrankweredressedinthesamemanner,withcoarsegreenCambraycloth;

fiftypoundswastheordinarybride'sdowry,andahundredorahundredandfiftywouldinthosetimeshavebeenheldbrilliant,('isfolgorata,'dazzling,withsenseofdissipationorextravagance;)andmostmaidensweretwentyormorebeforetheymarried.OfsuchgrosscustomswerethentheFlorentines;butofgoodfaith,andloyalamongthemselvesandintheirstate;andintheircoarselife,andpoverty,didmoreandbraverthingsthanaredoneinourdayswithmorerefinementandriches."

[Footnote1:Ifindthisnoteforexpansiononthemarginofmy


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lecture,buthadnotimetoworkitout:--'Thislowerclassshouldbeeitherbarefoot,orhavestrongshoes--woodenclogsgood.PrettyBoulognesabotwithpurplestockings.WaterlooRoad--littlegirlwithherhairincurlpapers,--acoralnecklaceroundherneck--theneckbare--andherbootsofthinstuff,wornout,withhertoescomingthrough,andragshangingfromherheels,--aprofoundlyaccuratetypeofEnglishnationalandpoliticallife.Yourhairincurlpapers--borrowingtongsfromeveryforeignnation,topinchyouintomanners.Therichostentatiouslywearingcoralaboutthebareneck;andthepoor--coldasthestonesandindecent.']

67.Idetainyouamomentatthewords"scarletofCyprus,orcamlet."

Observethatcamelot(camelet)from_kamaelotae_,camel'sskin,isastuffmadeofsilkandcamel'shairoriginally,afterwardsofsilkandwool.AtFlorence,thecamel'shairwouldalwayshavereferencetotheBaptist,who,asyouknow,inLippi'spicture,wearsthecamel'sskinitself,madeintoaFlorentinedress,suchasVillanihasjustdescribed,"coltassellosopra,"withthehoodabove.Doyouseehowimportanttheword"Capulet"isbecomingtous,initsmainidea?

68.Notinprivatenordomesticart,therefore,Irepeattoyou,butinusefulmagnificenceofpublicart,thesecitizensexpressedtheirpride:--andthatpublicartdivideditselfintotwobranches--civil,

occupieduponethicsubjectsofsculptureandpainting;andreligious,occupieduponscripturalortraditionalhistories,intreatmentofwhich,nevertheless,thenascentpowerandliberalityofthoughtwereapparent,notonlyincontinualamplificationandillustrationofscripturalstorybytheartist'sowninvention,butintheacceptanceofprofanemythology,aspartoftheScripture,ortradition,givenbyDivineinspiration.

69.Nevertheless,fortheprovisionofthingsnecessaryindomesticlife,theredevelopeditself,togetherwiththegroupofinventiveartistsexercisingthesenoblerfunctions,avastbodyofcraftsmen,and,literally,_man_ufacturers,workersbyhand,whoassociatedthemselves,aschance,tradition,ortheaccessibilityofmaterial

directed,intownswhichthenceforwardoccupiedaleadingpositionincommerce,asproducersofastapleofexcellent,orperhapsinimitable,quality;andthelinenorcambricofCambray,thelaceofMechlin,thewoolofWorstead,andthesteelofMilan,impliedthetranquilandhereditaryskillofmultitudes,livinginwealthyindustry,andhumblehonour.

70.Amongtheseartisans,theweaver,theironsmith,thegoldsmith,thecarpenter,andthemasonnecessarilytooktheprincipalrank,andontheiroccupationsthemorerefinedartswerewholesomelybased,sothatthefivebusinessesmaybemorecompletelyexpressedthus:

Theweaverandembroiderer,

Theironsmithandarmourer,Thegoldsmithandjeweller,Thecarpenterandengineer,Thestonecutterandpainter.

YouhaveonlyoncetoturnovertheleavesofLionardo'ssketchbook,intheAmbrosianLibrary,toseehowcarpentryisconnectedwithengineering,--thearchitectwasalwaysastonecutter,andthestonecutternotoftenpracticallyseparate,asyet,fromthepainter,


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andneversoingeneralconceptionoffunction.Yourecollect,atamuchlaterperiod,Kent'sdescriptionofCornwall'ssteward:

"KENT.Youcowardlyrascal!--naturedisclaimsinthee,atailormadethee!

CORNWALL.Thouartastrangefellow--atailormakeaman?

KENT.Ay,sir;astonecutter,orapainter,couldnothavemadehimsoill;thoughtheyhadbeenbuttwohoursatthetrade."

71.Youmayconsiderthenthisgroupofartizanswiththemerchants,asnowformingineachtownanimportantTiersEtat,orThirdStateofthepeople,occupiedinservice,first,oftheecclesiastics,whoinmonasticbodiesinhabitedthecloistersroundeachchurch;and,secondly,oftheknights,who,withtheirretainers,occupied,eachfamilytheirownfort,inallieddefenceoftheirappertainingstreets.

72.AThirdEstate,indeed;butadversealiketoboththeothers,toMontagueastoCapulet,whentheybecomedisturbersofthepublicpeace;andhavingaprideofitsown,--hereditarystill,butconsistingintheinheritanceofskillandknowledgeratherthanofblood,--whichexpressedthesenseofsuchinheritancebytakingitsnamehabituallyfromthemasterratherthanthesire;andwhich,initsnatural

antagonismtodignitieswononlybyviolence,orrecordedonlybyheraldry,youmaythinkofgenerallyastheracewhosebearingistheApron,insteadoftheshield.

73.When,however,thesetwo,orinperfectsubdivisionthree,bodiesofmen,livedinharmony,--theknightsremainingtruetotheState,theclergytotheirfaith,andtheworkmentotheircraft,--conditionsofnationalforcewerearrivedat,underwhichallthegreatartofthemiddleageswasaccomplished.Theprideoftheknights,theavariceofthepriests,andthegradualabasementofcharacterinthecraftsman,changinghimfromacitizenabletowieldeithertoolsinpeaceorweaponsinwar,toadulltradesman,forcedtopaymercenarytroopstodefendhisshopdoor,arethedirectcausesofcommonruintowardsthe

closeofthesixteenthcentury.

74.Butthedeepunderlyingcauseofthedeclineinnationalcharacteritself,wastheexhaustionoftheChristianfaith.Noneofitspracticalclaimswereavouchedeitherbyreasonorexperience;andtheimaginationgrewwearyofsustainingthemindespiteofboth.Mencouldnot,astheirpowersofreflectionbecamedeveloped,steadilyconceivethatthesinsofalifemightbedoneawaywith,byfinishingitwithMary'snameonthelips;norcouldtraditionofmiracleforeverresistthepersonaldiscovery,madebyeachrudedisciplebyhimself,thathemightpraytoallthesaintsforatwelvemonthtogether,andyetnotgetwhatheaskedfor.

75.TheReformationsucceededinproclaimingthatexistingChristianitywasalie;butsubstitutednotheoryofitwhichcouldbemorerationallyorcrediblysustained;andeversince,thereligionofeducatedpersonsthroughoutEuropehasbeendishonestorineffectual;itisonlyamongthelabouringpeasantrythatthegraceofapureCatholicism,andthepatientsimplicitiesofthePuritan,maintaintheirimaginativedignity,orasserttheirpracticaluse.

76.Theexistenceofthenoblerarts,however,involvestheharmoniouslifeandvitalfaithofthethreeclasseswhomwehavejust


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distinguished;andthatconditionexists,moreorlessdisturbed,indeed,bythevicesinherentineachclass,yet,onthewhole,energeticallyandproductively,duringthetwelfth,thirteenth,fourteenth,andfifteenthcenturies.ButourpresentsubjectbeingArchitectureonly,Iwilllimityourattentionaltogethertothestateofsocietyinthegreatageofarchitecture,thethirteenthcentury.Agreatageinallways;butmostnotablysointhecorrespondenceitpresented,uptoajustandhonourablepoint,withtheutilitarianenergyofourowndays.

77.Theincreaseofwealth,thesafetyofindustry,andtheconceptionofmoreconvenientfurnitureoflife,towhichwemustattributetheriseoftheentireartistclass,wereaccompanied,inthatcentury,bymuchenlargementintheconceptionofusefulpublicworks:and--notby_private_enterprise,--thatidlepersonsmightgetdividendsoutofthepublicpocket,--butby_public_enterprise,--eachcitizenpayingdownatoncehisshareofwhatwasnecessarytoaccomplishthebenefittotheState,--greatarchitecturalandengineeringeffortsweremadeforthecommonservice.Common,observe;butnot,inourpresentsense,republican.OneofthemostludicroussentenceseverwrittenintheblindnessofpartyspiritisthatofSismondi,inwhichhedeclares,thinkingofthesepublicworksonly,that'thearchitectureofthethirteenthcenturyisentirelyrepublican.'Thearchitectureofthethirteenthcenturyis,inthemassofit,simplybaronialor

ecclesiastical;itisofcastles,palaces,orchurches;butitistruethatsplendidcivicworkswerealsoaccomplishedbythevigourofthenewlyrisenpopularpower.

"ThecanalnamedNaviglioGraude,whichbringsthewatersoftheTicinotoMilan,traversingadistanceofthirtymiles,wasundertakenin1179,recommendedin1257,and,soonafter,happilyterminated;initstillconsiststhewealthofavastextentofLombardy.AtthesametimethetownofMilanrebuiltitswalls,whichwerethreemilesround,andhadsixteenmarblegates,ofmagnificencewhichmighthavegracedthecapitalofallItaly.TheGenovese,in1276and1283,builttheirtwosplendiddocks,andthegreatwalloftheirquay;andin1295finishedthenobleaqueductwhichbringspureandabundantwatersto

theircityfromagreatdistanceamongtheirmountains.ThereisnotasingletowninItalywhichatthesametimedidnotundertakeworksofthiskind;andwhiletheselargerundertakingswereinprogress,stonebridgeswerebuiltacrosstherivers,thestreetsandpiazzaswerepavedwithlargeslabsofstone,andeveryfreegovernmentrecognizedthedutyofprovidingfortheconvenienceofthecitizens."[1]

[Footnote1:Simondi,volii.chap.10.]

78.Thenecessaryconsequenceofthisenthusiasminusefulbuilding,wastheformationofavastbodyofcraftsmenandarchitects;correspondinginimportancetothatwhichtherailway,withitsassociatedindustry,hasdevelopedinmoderntimes,butentirely

differentinpersonalcharacter,andrelationtothebodypolitic.

Theirpersonalcharacterwasfoundedontheaccurateknowledgeoftheirbusinessinallrespects;theeaseandpleasureofunaffectedinvention;andthetruesenseofpowertodoeverythingbetterthanithadeverbeenyetdone,coupledwithgeneralcontentmentinlife,andinitsvigourandskill.

Itisimpossibletooverratethedifferencebetweensuchaconditionofmind,andthatofthemodernartist,whoeitherdoesnotknowhis


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businessatall,orknowsitonlytorecognizehisowninferioritytoeveryformerworkmanofdistinction.

79.Again:thepoliticalrelationoftheseartificerstotheStatewasthatofacasteentirelyseparatefromthenoblesse;[1]paidfortheirdailyworkwhatwasjust,andcompetingwitheachothertosupplythebestarticletheycouldforthemoney.Anditis,again,impossibletooverratethedifferencebetweensuchasocialcondition,andthatoftheartistsofto-day,strugglingtooccupyapositionofequalityinwealthwiththenoblesse,--paidirregularandmonstrouspricesbyanentirelyignorantandselfishpublic;andcompetingwitheachothertosupplytheworstarticletheycanforthemoney.

[Footnote1:ThegivingofknighthoodtoJacopodellaQuerciaforhislifelongservicetoSienawasnottheelevationofadexterousworkman,butgracetoafaithfulcitizen.]

Ineversawanythingsoimpudentonthewallsofanyexhibition,inanycountry,aslastyearinLondon.Itwasadaubprofessingtobea"harmonyinpinkandwhite"(orsomesuchnonsense;)absoluterubbish,andwhichhadtakenaboutaquarterofanhourtoscrawlordaub--ithadnopretencetobecalledpainting.Thepriceaskedforitwastwohundredandfiftyguineas.

80.Inordertocompleteyourbroadviewoftheelementsofsocialpowerinthethirteenthcentury,youhavenowfarthertounderstandthepositionofthecountrypeople,whomaintainedbytheirlabourthesethreeclasses,whoseactionyoucandiscern,andwhosehistoryyoucanread;while,ofthosewhomaintainedthem,thereisnohistory,exceptoftheannualravageoftheirfieldsbycontendingcitiesornobles;--and,finally,thatofthehigherbodyofmerchants,whoseinfluencewasalreadybeginningtocounterpoisetheprestigeofnoblesseinFlorence,andwhothemselvesconstitutednosmallportionofthenoblesseofVenice.

Thefood-producingcountrywasforthemostpartstillpossessedbythenobles;somebytheecclesiastics;butaportion,Idonotknowhow

large,wasinthehandsofpeasantproprietors,ofwhomSismondigivesthis,tomymind,completelypleasantandsatisfactory,though,tohis,verypainful,account:--

"Theytooknointerestinpublicaffairs;theyhadassembliesoftheircommuneatthevillageinwhichthechurchoftheirparishwassituated,andtowhichtheyretreatedtodefendthemselvesincaseofwar;theyhadalsomagistratesoftheirownchoice;butalltheirinterestsappearedtothemenclosedinthecircleoftheirowncommonality;theydidnotmeddlewithgeneralpolitics,andhelditfortheirpointofhonourtoremainfaithful,throughallrevolutions,totheStateofwhichtheyformedapart,obeying,withouthesitation,itschiefs,whoevertheywere,andbywhatevertitletheyoccupiedtheir

places."

81.Oftheinferioragriculturallabourers,employedonthefarmsofthenoblesandricherecclesiastics,Ifindnowhereduenotice,nordoesanyhistorianseriouslyexaminetheirmanneroflife.Liabletoeveryformofrobberyandoppression,Iyetregardtheirstateasnotonlymorallybutphysicallyhappierthanthatofriotoussoldiery,orthelowerclassofartizans,andasthesafeguardofeverycivilizednation,throughallitsworstvicissitudesoffollyandcrime.Naturehasmercifullyappointedthatseedmustbesown,andsheepfolded,


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whateverlancesbreak,orreligionsfail;andatthishour,whilethestreetsofFlorenceandVeronaarefullofidlepoliticians,loudoftongue,uselessofhandandtreacherousofheart,therestillmaybeseenintheirmarket-places,standing,eachbyhisheapofpulseormaize,thegrey-hairedlabourers,silent,serviceable,honourable,keepingfaith,untouchedbychange,totheircountryandtoHeaven.[1]

[Footnote1:Compare"SesameandLilies,"sec.38,p.58.(P.86ofthesmalleditionof1882.)

82.Itisextremelydifficulttodetermineinwhatdegreethefeelingsorintelligenceofthisclassinfluencedthearchitecturaldesignofthethirteenthcentury;--howfarafieldthecathedraltowerwasintendedtogivedelight,andtowhatsimplicityofrusticconceptionQuerciaorGhibertiappealedbythefascinationoftheirScripturehistory.Youmayatleastconceive,atthisdate,ahealthyanimationinallmen'sminds,andthechildrenofthevineyardandsheepcotecrowdingthecityonitsfestadays,andreceivingimpulsetobusier,ifnotnobler,education,initssplendour.[1]

[Footnote1:Ofdetachedabbeys,seenoteonEducationofJoanofArc,"SesameandLilies,"sec.82,p.106.(P.158ofthesmalleditionof1882.)]

83.Thegreatclassofthemerchantsismoredifficulttodefine;butyoumayregardthemgenerallyastheexamplesofwhatevermodesoflifemightbeconsistentwithpeaceandjustice,intheeconomyoftransfer,asopposedtothemilitarylicenseofpillage.

Theyrepresentthegradualascendancyofforesight,prudence,andorderinsociety,andthefirstideasofadvantageousnationalintercourse.Theirbodyisthereforecomposedofthemostintelligentandtemperatenaturesofthetime,--unitingthemselves,notdirectlyforthepurposeofmakingmoney,buttoobtainstabilityforequalinstitutions,securityofproperty,andpacificrelationswithneighbouringstates.Theirguildsformtheonlyrepresentativesoftruenationalcouncil,unaffected,asthelandedproprietorswere,bymerelylocal

circumstancesandaccidents.

84.Thestrengthofthisorder,whenitsownconductwasupright,anditsoppositiontothemilitarybodywasnotinavariciouscowardice,butintheresolvetocompeljusticeandtosecurepeace,canonlybeunderstoodbyyouafteranexaminationofthegreatchangesinthegovernmentofFlorenceduringthethirteenthcentury,which,amongotherminorachievementsinterestingtous,ledtothatdestructionoftheToweroftheDeath-watch,soingeniouslyaccomplishedbyNiccolaPisano.Thischange,anditsresults,willbethesubjectofmynextlecture.Imustto-daysum,andinsomefartherdegreemakeclear,thefactsalreadylaidbeforeyou.

85.WehaveseenthattheinhabitantsofeverygreatItalianstatemaybedivided,andthatverystringently,intothefiveclassesofknights,priests,merchants,artists,andpeasants.Nodistinctionexistsbetweenartistandartizan,exceptthatofhighergeniusorbetterconduct;thebestartistisassuredlyalsothebestartizan;andthesimplestworkmanuseshisinventionandemotionaswellashisfingers.Theentirebodyofartistsisundertheorders(asshopmenareundertheordersoftheircustomers),oftheknights,priests,andmerchants,--theknightsforthemostpartdemandingonlyfinegoldsmiths'work,stoutarmour,andrudearchitecture;thepriests


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commandingboththefinestarchitectureandpainting,andtherichestkindsofdecorativedressandjewellery,--whilethemerchantsdirectedworksofpublicuse,andwerethebestjudgesofartisticskill.ThecompetitionfortheBaptisterygatesofFlorenceisbeforetheguildofmerchants;noristheirawarddisputed,eveninthought,byanyofthecandidates.

86.ThisissurelyafacttobetakenmuchtoheartbyourpresentcommunitiesofLiverpoolandManchester.Theyprobablysuppose,intheirmodesty,thatlordsandclergymenaretheproperjudgesofart,andmerchantscanonly,inthemodernphrase,'knowwhattheylike,'orfollowhumblytheguidanceoftheirgolden-crestedorflat-cappedsuperiors.Butinthegreatagesofart,neitherknightnorpopeshowssignsoftruepowerofcriticism.Theartistscrouchbeforethem,orquarrelwiththem,accordingtotheirowntempers.Tothemerchantstheysubmitsilently,astojustandcapablejudges.Andlookwhatmentheseare,whosubmit.Donatello,Ghiberti,Quercia,Luca!Ifmenlikethesesubmittothemerchant,whoshallrebel?

87.Butthestillfranker,andsurer,judgmentofinnocentpleasurewasawardedthembyallclassesalike:andtheinterestofthepublicwasthe_final_ruleofright,--thatpublicbeingalwayseagertosee,andearnesttolearn.Forthestoriestoldbytheirartistsformed,theyfullybelieved,aBookofLife;andeverymanofrealgeniustookup

hisfunctionofillustratingtheschemeofhumanmoralityandsalvation,asnaturally,andfaithfully,asanEnglishmotherofto-daygivingherchildrentheirfirstlessonsintheBible.Inthisendeavourtoteachtheyalmostunawarestaughtthemselves;thequestion"HowshallIrepresentthismostclearly?"becametothemselves,presently,"Howwasthismostlikelytohavehappened?"andhabitsoffreshandaccuratethoughtthusquicklyenlivenedtheformalitiesoftheGreekpictorialtheology;formalitiesthemselvesbeneficent,becauserestrainingbytheirseverityandmysterythewantonnessofthenewerlife.FoolishmoderncriticshaveseennothingintheByzantineschoolbutabarbarismtobeconqueredandforgotten.Butthatschoolbroughttotheart-scholarsofthethirteenthcentury,lawswhichhadbeenserviceabletoPhidias,andsymbolswhichhadbeenbeautifultoHomer:

andmethodsandhabitsofpictorialscholarshipwhichgavearefinementofmannertotheworkofthesimplestcraftsman,andbecameaneducationtothehigherartistswhichnodisciplineofliteraturecannowbestow,developedthemselvesintheefforttodecipher,andtheimpulsetore-interpret,theEleusiniandivinityofByzantinetradition.

88.ThewordsIhavejustused,"pictorialscholarship,"and"pictorialtheology,"remindmehowstrangeitmustappeartoyouthatinthissketchoftheintellectualstateofItalyinthethirteenthcenturyIhavetakennonoteofliteratureitself,norofthefineartofMusicwithwhichitwasassociatedinminstrelsy.Thecorruptionofthemeaningoftheword"clerk,"from"achosenperson"to"alearnedone,"

partlyindicatesthepositionofliteratureinthewarbetweenthegoldencrestandscarletcap;butinthehigherranks,literatureandmusicbecamethegraceofthenoble'slife,ortheoccupationofthemonk's,withoutforminganyseparateclass,orexercisinganymateriallyvisiblepoliticalpower.Masonsorbutchersmightestablishagovernment,--butnevertroubadours:andthoughagoodknightheldhiseducationtobeimperfectunlesshecouldwriteasonnetandsingit,hedidnotesteemhiscastletobeatthemercyofthe"editor"ofamanuscript.Hemightindeedowehislifetothefidelityofaminstrel,orbeguidedinhispolicybythewitofaclown;buthewasnotthe


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slaveofsensualmusic,orvulgarliterature,andneverallowedhisSaturdayreviewertoappearattablewithoutthecock'scomb.

89.Ontheotherhand,whatwasnoblestinthoughtorsayingwasinthosetimesaslittleattendedtoasitisnow.Idonotfeelsurethat,eveninaftertimes,thepoemofDantehashadanypoliticaleffectonItaly;butatallevents,inhislife,evenatVerona,wherehewastreatedmostkindly,hehadnothalfsomuchinfluencewithCanGrandeastheroughCountofCastelbarco,notoneofwhosewordswaseverwritten,ornowremains;andwhoseportrait,bynomeansthatofamanofliterarygenius,almostdisfigures,byitsplainness,theotherwisegraveandperfectbeautyofhistomb.

LECTUREIV.

PARTEDPERPALE.

90.ThechartofItalianintellectandpolicywhichIhaveendeavouredtoputintoforminthelastthreelectures,may,Ihope,havegivenyouaclearideaofthesubordinate,yetpartlyantagonistic,positionwhichtheartist,ormerchant,--whominmypresentlectureIshall

classtogether,--occupied,withrespecttothenobleandpriest.Asanhonestlabourer,hewasopposedtotheviolenceofpillage,andtothefollyofpride:asanhonestthinker,hewaslikelytodiscoveranylatentabsurdityinthestorieshehadtorepresentintheirnearestlikelihood;andtobehimselfmovedstronglybythetruemeaningofeventswhichhewasstrivingtomakeocularlymanifest.Thepainterterrifiedhimselfwithhisownfiends,andreprovedorcomfortedhimselfbythelipsofhisownsaints,farmoreprofoundlythananyverbalpreacher;andthus,whetherascraftsmanorinventor,waslikelytobeforemostindefendingthelawsofhiscity,ordirectingitsreformation.

91.Thecontestofthecraftsmanwiththepillagingsoldieris

typicallyrepresentedbythewaroftheLombardLeaguewithFrederickII.;andthatofthecraftsmanwiththehypocriticalpriest,bythewarofthePisanswithGregoryIX.(1241).ButinthepresentlectureIwishonlytofixyourattentionontherevolutionsinFlorence,whichindicated,thusearly,thealreadyestablishedascendancyofthemoralforceswhichweretoputanendtoopenrobber-soldiership;andatleasttocompeltheassertionofsomehigherprincipleinwar,ifnot,asinsomedistantdaymaybepossible,thecessationofwaritself.

ThemostimportantoftheserevolutionswasvirtuallythatofwhichIbeforespoketoyou,takingplaceinmid-thirteenthcentury,intheyearl250,--averymemorableoneforChristendom,andtheverycrisisofvitalchangeinitsmethodsofeconomy,andconceptionsofart.

92.Observe,first,theexactrelationsatthattimeofChristianandProfaneChivalry.St.Louis,inthewinterof1248-9,layintheisleofCyprus,withhiscrusadingarmy.HehadtrustedtoProvidenceforprovisions;andhisarmywasstarving.TheprofaneGermanemperor,FrederickII.,wasatwarwithVenice,butgaveasafe-conducttotheVenetianships,whichenabledthemtocarryfoodtoCyprus,andtosaveSt.Louisandhiscrusaders.Frederickhadbeenforhalfhislifeexcommunicate,--andthePope(InnocentIV.)atdeadlyspiritualandtemporalwarwithhim;--spiritually,becausehehadbroughtSaracens


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intoApulia;temporally,becausethePopewantedApuliaforhimself.St.LouisandhismotherbothwrotetoInnocent,prayinghimtobereconciledtothekindhereticwhohadsavedthewholecrusadingarmy.ButthePoperemainedimplacablythundrous;andFrederick,wearyofquarrel,stayedquietinoneofhisApuliancastlesforayear.Thereposeofinfidelityisseldomcheerful,unlessitbecriminal.Frederickhadmuchtorepentof,muchtoregret,nothingtohope,andnothingtodo.Attheendofhisyear'squiethewasattackedbydysentery,andsomadehisfinalpeacewiththePope,andheaven,--agedfifty-six.

93.MeantimeSt.LouishadgoneonintoEgypt,hadgothisarmydefeated,hisbrotherkilled,andhimselfcarriedcaptive.Youmaybeinterestedinseeing,intheleafofhispsalterwhichIhavelaidonthetable,thedeathofthatbrothersetdowningoldenletters,betweenthecommonlettersofultramarine,ontheeighthofFebruary.

94.Providence,defiedbyFrederick,andtrustedinbySt.Louis,madesucharrangementsforthemboth;Providencenotinanywiseregardingtheopinionsofeitherking,butverymuchregardingthefacts,thattheonehadnobusinessinEgypt,northeotherinApulia.

Notwokings,inthehistoryoftheworld,couldhavebeenhappier,ormoreuseful,thanthesetwomighthavebeen,iftheyonlyhadhadthe

sensetostayintheirowncapitals,andattendtotheirownaffairs.Buttheyseemonlytohavebeenborntoshowwhatgrievousresults,underthepowerofdiscontentedimagination,aChristiancouldachievebyfaith,andaphilosopherbyreason.[1]

[Footnote1:ItmustnotbethoughtthatthisissaidindisregardofthenoblenessofeitherofthesetwogloriousKings.Amongthemanydesignsofpastyears,oneofmyfavoriteswastowritealifeofFrederickII.ButIhopethatbothhis,andthatofHenryII.ofEngland,willsoonbewrittennow,byamanwholovesthemaswellasIdo,andknowsthemfarbetter.]

95.ThedeathofFrederickII.virtuallyendedthesoldierpowerin

Florence;andthemercantilepowerassumedtheauthorityitthenceforwardheld,until,inthehandsoftheMedici,itdestroyedthecity.

WewillnowtracethecourseandeffectsofthethreerevolutionswhichclosedthereignofWar,andcrownedthepowerofPeace.

96.Intheyear1248,whileSt.LouiswasinCyprus,ItoldyouFrederickwasatwarwithVenice.Hewassobecauseshestood,ifnotastheleader,atleastasthemostimportantally,ofthegreatLombardmercantileleagueagainsttheGermanmilitarypower.

ThatleagueconsistedessentiallyofVenice,Milan,Bologna,andGenoa,

inalliancewiththePope;theImperialorGhibellinetownswere,PaduaandVeronaunderEzzelin;Mantua,Pisa,andSiena.IdonotnametheminortownsofnorthItalywhichassociatedthemselveswitheachparty:getonlythemainlocalitiesofthecontestwellintoyourminds.ItwasallconcentratedinthefurioushostilityofGenoaandPisa;GenoafightingreallyverypiouslyforthePope,aswellasforherself;Pisaforherownhand,andfortheEmperorasmuchassuitedher.Themadlittleseafalconnevercaughtsightofanotherwater-birdonthewing,butshemusthawkatit;andasanallyoftheEmperor,balancedVeniceandGenoawithhersinglestrength.Andsoitcametopassthatthe


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victoryofeithertheGuelphorGhibellinepartydependedonthefinalactionofFlorence.

97.Florencemeanwhilewasfightingwithherself,forherownamusement.ShewasnominallyattheheadoftheGuelphicLeagueinTuscany;butthisonlymeantthatshehatedSienaandPisa,hersouthernandwesternneighbours.ShehadneverdeclaredopenlyagainsttheEmperor.Onthecontrary,shealwaysrecognizedhisauthority,inanimaginativemanner,asrepresentingthatoftheCaesars.Shespentherownenergychieflyinstreet-fighting,--thedeathofBuondelmontiin1215havingbeentherootofaseriesofquarrelsamonghernobleswhichgraduallytooktheformofcontestsofhonour;andwereakindofaccidentaltournaments,foughttothedeath,becausetheycouldnotbeexcitingordignifiedenoughonanyothercondition.Andthusthemanneroflifecametobecustomary,whichyouhaveaccurately,withitsconsequences,picturedbyShakspeare.SamsonbiteshisthumbatAbraham,andpresentlythestreetsareimpassableinbattle.ThequarrelintheCanongatebetweentheLesliesandSeytons,inScott's'Abbot,'representsthesametemper;andmarksalso,whatShakspearedidnotsodistinctly,becauseitwouldhaveinterferedwiththedomesticcharacterofhisplay,theconnectionoftheseprivatequarrelswithpoliticaldivisionswhichparalyzedtheentirebodyoftheState.--Yetthesepoliticalschisms,intheearlierdaysofItaly,neverreachedthebitternessofScottishfeud,[1]becausetheywere

neversosincere.ProtestantandCatholicScotsmenfaithfullybelievedeachothertobeservantsofthedevil;buttheGuelphandGhibellineofFlorenceeachrespected,intheother,thefidelitytotheEmperor,orpietytowardsthePope,whichhefounditconvenient,forthetime,todispensewithinhisownperson.Thestreetfightingwasthereforemoregeneral,morechivalric,moregood-humoured;awordofoffencesetallthenoblesseofthetownonfire;everyoneralliedtohispost;fightingbeganatonceinhalfadozenplacesofrecognizedconvenience,butendedintheevening;and,onthefollowingday,theleadersdeterminedincontendedtrucewhohadfoughtbest,buriedtheirdeadtriumphantly,andbetterfortifiedanyweakpoints,whichtheeventsofthepreviousdayhadexposedattheirpalacecorners.FlorentinedisputewasapttocentreitselfaboutthegateofSt.

Peter,[2]thetowerofthecathedral,orthefortress-palaceoftheUberti,(thefamilyofDante'sBellincionBertiandofFarinata),whichoccupiedthesiteofthepresentPalazzoVecchio.ButthestreetsofSienaseemtohaveaffordedbetterbarricadepractice.Theyareassteepastheyarenarrow--extremelyboth;andtheprojectingstonesontheirpalacefronts,whichwereleft,inbuilding,tosustain,onoccasion,thebarricadebeamsacrossthestreets,aretothisdayimportantfeaturesintheirarchitecture.

[Footnote1:Distinguishalwaysthepersonalfromthereligiousfeud;personalfeudismoretreacherousandviolentinItalythaninScotland;butnotthepoliticalorreligiousfeud,unlessinvolvedwithvastmaterialinterests.]

[Footnote2:Sismondi,vol.ii.,chap.ii.;G.Villani,vi.,33.]

98.SuchbeingthegeneralstateofmattersinFlorence,inthisyear1248,FrederickwritestotheUberti,whoheadedtheGhibellines,toengagetheminseriousefforttobringthecitydistinctlytotheImperialside.HewasbesiegingParma;andsenthisnaturalson,Frederick,kingofAntioch,withsixteenhundredGermanknights,togivetheGhibellinesassuredpreponderanceinthenextquarrel.


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TheUbertitookarmsbeforetheirarrival;ralliedalltheirGhibellinefriendsintoaunitedbody,andsoattackedandcarriedtheGuelphbarricades,onebyone,tilltheirantagonists,driventogetherbylocaldefeat,stoodinconsistencyascompleteastheirown,bythegateofSt.Peter,'Scheraggio.'YoungFrederick,withhisGermanriders,arrivedatthiscrisis;theGhibellinesopeningthegatestohim;theGuelphs,nevertheless,foughtattheiroutmostbarricadeforfourdaysmore;butatlast,tired,withdrewfromthecity,inabody,onthenightofCandlemas,2ndFebruary,1248;leavingtheGhibellinesandtheirGermanfriendstoworktheirpleasure,--whoimmediatelysetthemselvestothrowdowntheGuelphpalaces,anddestroyedsix-and-thirtyofthem,towersandall,withthegoodhelpofNiccolaPisano,--forthisistheoccasionofthatbeautifulpieceofnewengineeringofhis.

99.ItisthefirstinterferenceoftheGermansinFlorentineaffairswhichbelongstotherealcycleofmodernhistory.Sixhundredyearslater,atroopofGermanridersenteredFlorenceagain,torestoreitsGrandDuke;andourwarmheartedandlovingEnglishpoetess,lookingonfromCasaGuidiwindows,givesthesaidGermansmanyhardwords,andthinksherdarlingFlorentinesentirelyinnocentinthematter.Butifshehadhadcleareyes,(yeuxdelin[1]theRomanceoftheRosecallsthem,)shewouldhaveseenthatwhite-coatedcavalrywithitsheavygunstobenothingmorethantherear-guardofyoungFrederickof

Antioch;andthatFlorence'sownGhibellineshadopenedhergatestothem.Destinylittleregardscostoftime;shedoesherjusticeatthattelescopicdistancejustaseasilyandaccuratelyascloseathand.

[Footnote1:Lynx.]

100."Frederickof_Antioch_."Notethetitularcoincidence.ThediscipleswerecalledChristiansfirstinAntioch;herewehaveourlieutenantofAntichristalsonamedfromthattown.Theanti-ChristianGermansgotintoFlorenceuponSundaymorning;theGuelphsfoughtontillWednesday,whichwasCandlemas;--theToweroftheDeath-watchwasthrowndownnextday.ItwassocalledbecauseitstoodonthePiazzaofStJohn;andalldyingpeopleinFlorencecalledonSt.Johnfor

help;andlooked,ifitmightbe,tothetopofthishighestandbest-builtoftowers.Thewickedanti-ChristianGhibellines,NicholasofPisahelping,cutthesideofit"sothatthetowermightfallontheBaptistery.ButasitpleasedGod,forbetterreverencingoftheblessedSt.John,thetower,whichwasahundredandeightyfeethigh,asitwascomingdown,plainlyappearedtoeschewtheholychurch,andturnedaside,andfellrightacrossthesquare;atwhichalltheFlorentinesmarvelled,(piousorimpious,)andthe_people_(anti-Ghibelline)weregreatlydelighted."

101.Ihavenodoubtthatthisstoryisapocryphal,notonlyinitsattributionofthesereligiousscruplestothefallingtower;butinitsaccusationoftheGhibellinesashavingdefinitelyintendedthe

destructionoftheBaptistery.Itisonlymodernreformerswhofeeltheabsoluteneedofenforcingtheirreligiousopinionsinsopracticalamanner.SuchapieceofsacrilegewouldhavebeenrevoltingtoFarinata;howmuchmoretothegroupofFlorentineswhosetemperiscentrallyrepresentedbyDante's,toallofwhomtheir"belSanGiovanni"wasdear,atleastforitsbeauty,ifnotforitssanctity.AndNiccolahimselfwastoogoodaworkmantobecometheinstrumentofthedestructionofsonobleawork,--nottoinsistontheextremeprobabilitythathewasalsotoogoodanengineertohavehadhispurpose,ifoncefixed,thwartedbyanytendernessintheconscienceof


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thecollapsingtower.ThetraditionitselfprobablyaroseaftertherageoftheexiledGhibellineshadhalfconsentedtothedestruction,onpoliticalgrounds,ofFlorenceitself;buttheformittookisofextremehistoricalvalue,indicatingthusearlyatleastthesuspectedexistenceofpassionslikethoseoftheCromwellianorGaribaldiansoldieryintheFlorentinenoble;andthedistinctcharacteroftheGhibellinepartyasnotonlyanti-Papal,butprofane.

102.Uponthecastles,andthepersonsoftheirantagonists,however,thepride,orfear,oftheGhibellineshadlittlemercy;andintheirdayoftriumphtheyprovokedagainstthemselvesnearlyeveryrationalaswellasreligiouspersoninthecommonwealth.Theydespisedtoomuchtheforceofthenewly-risenpopularpower,foundedoneconomy,sobriety,andcommonsense;and,alikebyimpertinenceandpillage,increasedtheirritationofthecivilbody;until,asaforesaid,onthe20thOctober,1250,alltherichburgessesofFlorencetookarms;metinthesquarebeforethechurchofSantaCroce,("where,"saysSismondi,"therepublicofthedeadisstillassembledtoday,")thencetraversedthecitytothepalaceoftheGhibellinepodesta;forcedhimtoresign;namedUbertoofLuccainhisplace,underthetitleofCaptainofthePeople;dividedthemselvesintotwentycompanies,each,initsowndistrictofthecity,havingitscaptain[1]andstandard;andelectedacounciloftwelveancients,constitutingasenioryorsignoria,todeliberateonanddirectpublicaffairs.

[Footnote1:'Corporal,'literally'.]

103.Whataperfectlybeautifulrepublicanmovement!thinksSismondi,seeing,inallthis,nothingbuttheenergyofamultitude;andentirelyignoringthepeculiarcapacityofthisFlorentinemob,--capacityoftwovirtues,muchforgottenbymodernrepublicanism,--order,namely;andobedience;togetherwiththepeculiarinstinctofthisFlorentinemultitude,whichnotonlyfeltitselftoneedcaptains,butknewwheretofindthem.

104.HubertofLucca--Howcamethey,thinkyou,tochoose_him_outofastrangercity,andthatapooreronethantheirown?Wasthereno

Florentinethen,ofallthisrichandeagercrowd,whowasfittogovernFlorence?

IcannotfindanyaccountofthisHubert,Brightmind,ofDucca;Villanisayssimplyofhim,"FuilprimocapitanodiFirenze."

TheyhungabellforhimintheCampanileoftheLion,andgavehimtheflagofFlorencetobear;andbeforethedaywasover,that20thofOctober,hehadgiveneveryoneofthetwentycompaniestheirflagsalso.Andthebearingsofthesaidgonfalonswerethese.IwillgiveyouthisheraldryasfarasIcanmakeitoutfromVillani;itwillbeveryusefultousafterwards;IleavetheItalianwhenIcannottranslateit:--

105.A.Sesto,(sixthpartofthecity,)oftheothersideofArno.

Gonfalon1.Gules;aladder,argent.2.Argent;ascourge,sable.3.Azure;(unapiazzabiancaconnicchivermigli).4.Gules;adragon,vert.


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B.SestoofSt.PeterScheraggio.

1.Azure;achariot,or.2.Or;abull,sable.3.Argent;alionrampant,sable.4.(Alivelypiece,"pezzagagliarda")Barryof(howmany?)pieces,argentandsable.

Youmayaswellnoteatonceofthiskindofbearing,called'gagliarda'byVillani,thatthesegroupsofpiles,pales,bends,andbars,werecalledinEnglishheraldry'Restrialbearings,'"inrespectoftheirstrengthandsolidsubstance,whichisabletoabidethestresseandforceofanytrialltheyshallbeputunto."[1]Andalsothat,thenumberofbarsbeinguncertain,Iassumethebearingtobe'barry,'thatis,havinganevennumberofbars;haditbeenodd,asofsevenbars,itshouldhavebeenblazoned,argent;threebars,sable;or,ifsodivided,sable,threebarsargent.

[Footnote1:Guillim,sect.ii.,chap.3.]

ThislivelybearingwasSt.Pulinari's.

C.SestoofBorgo.

1.Or;aviper,vert.2.Argent;aneedle,(?)(aguglia)sable.3.Vert;ahorseunbridled;draped,argent,across,gules.

D.SestoofSt.Brancazio.

1.Vert;alionrampant,proper.

2.Argent;alionrampant,gules.3.Azure;alionrampant,argent.

E.SestooftheCathedralgates.

1.Azure;alion(passant?)or.2.Or;adragon,vert.3.Argent;alionrampant,azure,crowned,or.

F.SestoofSt.Peter'sgates.

1.Or;twokeys,gules.2.AnItalian(ormoredefinitelyaGreekandEtruscanbearing;Idonotknowhowtoblazonit;)concentricbands,argentandsable.ThisisoneoftheremainsoftheGreekexpressionsofstorm;hail,ortheTrinacrianlimbs,


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beingputonthegiant'sshieldsalso.ItisconnectedbesideswiththeCretanlabyrinth,andthecirclesoftheInferno.3.Partedperfesse,gulesandvai(Idon'tknowifvaimeansgrey--notaproperheraldiccolour--orvaire).

106.OfcourseHubertofLuccadidnotdeterminethesebearings,buttookthemashefoundthem,andappointedthemforstandards;[1]hedidthesameforallthecountryparishes,andorderedthemtocomeintothecityatneed."AndinthismannertheoldpeopleofFlorenceordereditself;andformorestrengthofthepeople,theyorderedandbegantobuildthepalacewhichisbehindtheBadia,--thatistosay,theonewhichisofdressedstone,withthetower;forbeforetherewasnopalaceofthecommuneinFlorence,butthesignoryabodesometimesinonepartofthetown,sometimesinanother.

[Footnote1:Wewillexamineafterwardstheheraldryofthetrades,chap,xi.,Villani.]

107."Andasthepeoplehadnowtakenstateandsignoryonthemselves,theyordered,forgreaterstrengthofthepeople,thatallthetowersofFlorence--andthereweremany180feethigh[1]--shouldbecutdownto75feet,andnomore;andsoitwasdone,andwiththestonesofthemtheywalledthecityontheothersideArno."

[Footnote:120braccia.]

108.Thatlastsentenceisasignificantone.Hereisthecentralexpressionofthetrueburgessortownsmantemper,--resolutemaintenanceoffortifiedpeace.Thesearethewallswhichmodernrepublicanismthrowsdown,tomakeboulevardsovertheirruins.

109.Suchneworderbeingtaken,Florenceremainedquietforfulltwomonths.Onthe13thofDecember,inthesameyear,diedtheEmperorFrederickII.;newsofhisdeathdidnotreachFlorencetillthe7thJanuary,1251.Ithadchanced,accordingtoVillani,thatontheactualdayofhisdeath,hisFlorentinevice-regent,RinieriofMontemerlo,waskilledbyapieceofthevaulting[1]ofhisroomfallingonhimasheslept.AndwhenthepeopleheardoftheEmperor'sdeath,"whichwasmostusefulandneedfulforHolyChurch,andforourcommune,"theytookthefalloftheroofonhislieutenantasanomenoftheextinctionofImperialauthority,andresolvedtobringhomealltheirGuelphicexiles,andthattheGhibellinesshouldbeforcedtomakepeacewiththem.Whichwasdone,andthepeacereallylastedforfullsixmonths;when,aquarrelchancingwithGhibellinePistoja,the

Florentines,underaMilanesepodesta,fough

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