Value, Attitude

8/8/2019 Value, Attitude

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Value, Attitude

And Job Satisfaction


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Values

It shows individual preference of what is right,

good or desirable.

Values have both content and intensity

attributes

Content shows what is important to you

Intensity shows how much important that is for

you

When we combine both this attributes than

person value system is obtain.


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Values are basic convictions that a

specific mode of conduct or end state of

existence is socially or personally

preferable to an opposite or converse

mode of conduct or end state of existence.

Value System-A hierarchy based on the

ranking of an individual's values in term ofintensity.


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Importance of values- How it influence

attitudes and behavior


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Types of Values

Milton Rokeach created the Rokeach

Value Survey (RVS).

The RVS consists of two sets of values,

with each set containing 18 individual

value items,

Terminal values- Desirable end states of

existence, the goals that a person would

like to achieve during his lifetime.


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Instrumental values- Preferable mode of

behavior or means of achieving one's

terminal value.


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Terminal values Instrumental values

Comfortable life Ambitious, hardworking,aspiring

Self respect, self esteem Obedient, respectful,dutiful

Social recognition,respect, admiration

Polite, courteous, wellmannered

True friendship, relations Responsible, reliable

wisdom Self controlled, self disciplined


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Values Across Cultures

Hofstedes framework for assessing

cultures:- to analyze variations among

different national cultures Geert Hofstede

conducted survey on more than 1.16lac

IBM employees in 40 countries about their

work related values.

He found 5 value dimensions of nationalculture.


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Power Distance

The degree to which people in a country

accept that power in institutions and

organizations is distributed unequally.

Ranges from relatively equal (low power

distance)- USA

To extremely unequal (higher power

distance)- india


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Individualism vs. collectivism

Individualism is the degree to which

people in a country prefer to act as a

individual rather than member of s group.

Collectivism indicates degree to which

people want to be part of society or group

expect from members of group to look

after them and protect them,


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Quality vs. quantity of life

Quantity- people give value to

assertiveness, acquisition of money and

material goods.

Quality- people values relationships,

concern for others, sensitive and welfare

of others.


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Uncertainty Avoidance- A national culture

attribute describing the extent to which a

society feels threatened by uncertainty and

ambiguous situations and tries to avoidthem.

Long term orientation- emphasize on future

and short term orientation emphasize onpast and present, respect for tradition and

fulfill social obligations.


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Attitudes

It reflect how one feels about something.

Attitude and value are interrelated

3 Component of attitude:

Cognitive: Opinion or believe segment

Affective: Emotional or feeling segment

Behavior: An intention to behave in a certainway toward someone or something


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Types of Attitudes

Job Satisfaction: How positive (Job

satisfaction) or negative (Job

Dissatisfaction) attitude one's has toward

his job.

Job Involvement: It measures the degree to

which a person identifies psychologically

with his job, actively participate in it andconsiders his performance important to self

worth.


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Organization Commitment Now

Occupation Commitment: The degree to

which an employee identifies with a

particular organization and its goals, andwishes to maintain membership in the

organization.

Attitude and Consistency


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Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Any incompatibility between two or more

attitudes or between behavior and

attitudes.

Attitude and workforce divercity


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Job Satisfaction

Its an individual general attitude towards

his job.

2 approaches to find out job satisfaction

among employees

Single global rating

Summation Score


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Effect of Job Satisfaction on

Employee Performance

Productivity: Happy workers are

productive workers.

Absenteeism:

Turnover:

Organization Citizenship Behavior

Customer Satisfaction


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Chapter 4

Motivating

Self and Others


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Motivating Self and Others

What do theories tell us about motivating

ourselves and others?

How do we motivate for specific

organizational circumstances and/or

individual differences?

Are rewards always necessary?

Questions forConsideration


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What Is Motivation?

Motivation

The processes that account for an individuals

intensity, direction, and persistence of effort

toward attaining a goal Intensity: how hard a person tries

Direction: where effort is channeled

Persistence: how long effort is maintained


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Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X Assumes that employees dislike work, will attempt

to avoid it, and must be coerced, controlled, orthreatened with punishment if they are to perform.

Theory Y

Assumes that employees like work, are creative,seek responsibility, and can exercise self-directionand self-control.


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Motivators

Intrinsic

A persons internal desire to do something,

due to such things as interest, challenge, and

personal satisfaction.

Extrinsic

Motivation that comes from outside the

person, such as pay, bonuses, and othertangible rewards.


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Needs Theories of Motivation

Basic idea:

Individuals have needs that, when unsatisfied,

will result in motivation

Maslows hierarchy of needs

Herzbergs two factor theory (motivation-hygiene

theory)

Alderfers ERG theory

McClellands theory of needs


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Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological

Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, and other

bodily needs

Safety

Includes security and protection from

physical and emotional harm

Social

Includes affection, belongingness,

acceptance, and friendship


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Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Esteem Includes internal esteem factors such as self-

respect, autonomy, and achievement; and

external esteem factors such as status,recognition, and attention

Self-actualization The drive to become what one is capable of

becoming; includes growth, achieving onespotential, and self-fulfillment


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Exhibit 4-1

Physiological

Safety

Social

Esteem

Self-

actualization


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Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene

Theory Hygiene factors are necessary, but not

sufficient, for healthy adjustment Extrinsic factors; context of work

Company policy and administration Unhappy relationship with employee's supervisor

Poor interpersonal relations with one's peers

Poor working conditions


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Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene

Theory

Motivators - the sources of satisfaction Intrinsic factors; content of work

Achievement

Recognition

Challenging, varied or interesting work

Responsibility

Advancement


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Exhibit 4-3 Contrasting Views of

Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction

Satisfaction Dissatisfaction

Traditional view

Satisfaction No satisfaction

Herzberg's view

No dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction

Hygiene Factors

Motivators


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Criticisms of Motivation-Hygiene

Theory The reliability of Herzbergs methodology

is questioned

No overall measure of satisfaction was

used

The theory is inconsistent with previous

research


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Alderfers ERG Theory

Existence Concerned with providing basic material

existence requirements

Relatedness Desire for maintaining important interpersonal

relationships

Growth Intrinsic desire for personal development


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Exhibit 4-4 Summarizing the

Various Needs Theories

HygieneFactors

Need for Achievement

Need for Power

Need for Affiliation

Self-Actualization

Esteem

Affiliation

Security

Physiological

Motivators

Relatedness

Existence

Growth

Maslow Alderfer Herzberg McClelland


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Summary: Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow: Argues that lower-order needs must besatisfied before one progresses to higher-order needs.

Herzberg: Hygiene factors must be met if person is notto be dissatisfied. They will not lead to satisfaction,

however. Motivators lead to satisfaction. Alderfer: More than one need can be important at the

same time. If a higher-order need is not being met, thedesire to satisfy a lower-level need increases.

McClelland: People vary in the types of needs they

have. Their motivation and how well they perform in awork situation are related to whether they have a needfor achievement, affiliation, or power.


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Summary: Impact of Theory

Maslow: Enjoys wide recognition among practisingmanagers. Most managers are familiar with it.

Herzberg: The popularity of giving workers greaterresponsibility for planning and controlling their work can

be attributed to his findings. Shows that more than oneneed may operate at the same time.

Alderfer: Seen as a more valid version of the needhierarchy. Tells us that achievers will be motivated byjobs that offer personal responsibility, feedback, and

moderate risks. McClelland: Tells us that high need achievers do not

necessarily make good managers, since high achieversare more interested in how they do personally.


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Summary: Support and

Criticism of Theory Maslow: Research does not generally validate the

theory. In particular, there is little support for thehierarchical nature of needs. Criticized for how datawere collected and interpreted.

Herzberg: Not really a theory of motivation: Assumesa link between satisfaction and productivity that wasnot measured or demonstrated.

Alderfer: Ignores situational variables.

McClelland: Mixed empirical support, but theory isconsistent with our knowledge of individualdifferences among people. Good empirical support,particularly on needs achievement.


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Process Theories of Motivation

Looks at the actual process of motivation

Expectancy theory

Goal-setting theory


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Expectancy Relationships

The theory focuses on three relationships: Effort-performance relationship

The perceived probability that exerting a given amountof effort will lead to performance.

Performance-reward relationship The degree to which the individual believes that

performing at a particular level will lead to a desiredoutcome.

Rewards-personal goals relationship The degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an

individuals personal goals or needs and and areattractive to the individual.

Exhibit 4-7


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Exhibit 4-7

Steps to Increasing Motivation,

Using Expectancy Theory

Improving Expectancy

Improve the ability of the

individual to perform

Make sure employees have skills

for the task

Provide training

Assign reasonable tasks and goals

Improving Instrumentality Improving Valence

Increase the individual s belief that

performance will lead to reward

Observe and recognize performance

Deliver rewards as promised

Indicate to employees how previous

good performance led to greater

rewards

Make sure that the reward is

meaningful to the individual

Ask employees what rewards they

value

Give rewards that are valued


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Goal-Setting Theory

The theory that specific and difficult goalslead to higher performance. Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how

much effort will need to be expended.

Specific goals increase performance Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance

than do easy goals

Feedback leads to higher performance than doesnonfeedback.

Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output thandoes the generalized goal of do your best.

The specificity of the goal itself acts as an internal stimulus.


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Management by Objectives

A program that encompasses

Specific goals

Participative decision-making

Explicit time period

Performance feedback

R t th R d


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Responses to the Reward

System Equity Theory

Fair Process


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Equity Theory

Main points

Individuals compare their job inputs and

outcomes with those of others and then

respond so as to eliminate any inequities.

Equity theory recognizes that individuals

are concerned not only with the absolute

amount of rewards for their efforts, butalso with the relationship of this amount to

what others receive.


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Exhibit 4-8 Equity Theory

Person 1Inequity, underrewarded

Equity

Inequity, overrewarded

Ratio of Output to Input Person 1s Perception

Person 2

Person 1

Person 2

Person 1

Person 2


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Responses to Inequity

Change Inputs

Change Outcomes

Adjust Perceptions

Choose a Different Referent

Leave the Field


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Fair Process and Treatment

Historically, equity theory focused on:

Distributive justice

However, equity should also consider

Procedural justice


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Fair Process

Distributive Justice

Perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of

rewards among individuals

Procedural Justice Perceived fairness of the process used to determine

the distribution of rewards

Interactional Justice

The quality of the interpersonal treatment receivedfrom another


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Role of Money

Money is most commonly used reward in

organizations

Money certainly helps some needs get met

But, money is not all employees top

priority

Many emphasize relationships in the

workplace


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Motivating for Specific

Organizational Goals Employee Recognition: Motivating to

Show People Matter Employee recognition plans

Variable-Pay Programs: Motivating forImproved Productivity Individual-based incentives: piece rate

Group-based incentives: gainsharing

Organizational-based incentives: profit sharing,ESOPs


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Variable-Pay Programs

A portion of an employees pay is based onsome individual and/or organizationalmeasure(s) of performance. Individual-based

Piece-rate wages, bonuses

Group-based

Gainsharing

Organizational-based

Profit sharing Employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs)


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Variable Pay Programs

Profit-sharing plans Organization wide programs that distribute

compensation based on some established

formula designed around a companysprofitability.

Employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs) Company-established benefit plans in which

employees acquire stock as part of theirbenefits.


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Motivating Professionals

How are professionals different?

Receive a great deal of intrinsic satisfaction

from their work.

Strong and long-term commitment to theirfield of expertise.

Well paid/Chief reward is work itself.

Value support. More focused on work as central life interest.


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Motivating Contingent Workers

No simple solutions to motivating contingent

workers.

Contingent or temporary workers have little or no job

security/stability; therefore, they dont identify with the

organization or display the commitment of permanent

employees.

Contingent or temporary workers are typically

provided with little or no health care, pensions, or

similar benefits.


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Motivating Contingent Workers

Greatest motivating factor is the

opportunity to gain permanent

employment.

Motivation is also increased if the

employee sees that the job he or she is

doing for the firm can develop saleable

skills.

Motivating Low Skilled Service


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Motivating Low-Skilled Service

Workers Many 15- to 24-year-olds have McJobs with

pay levels near minimum wage

To motivate Employees want more respect

Make jobs more appealing

Raise pay levels

Find unusual ways to motivate:

Flexible work schedules

Broader responsibility for inventory, scheduling, andhiring

Creation of a family atmosphere among employees

Motivating Unionized


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Motivating Unionized

Employees Constraints of contract affect some forms of

rewards

Some unions against pay-for-performance

Additional ideas Create better work environments

Show appreciation

Provide opportunities for training and advancement

Listen to employees concerns

Motivating Public Sector


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Motivating Public Sector

Employees Special challenge

Much work is service-oriented, harder to

measure productivity

Hard to link rewards to performance

What to do

Goal setting helps

Goal difficulty and goal specificity help improvemotivation


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Are Rewards Overrated?


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Are Rewards Overrated?

Cognitive Evaluation Theory Allocating extrinsic rewards for behaviour

that had been previously intrinsically

rewarded tends to decrease the overall

level of motivation.


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Summary

Need Theories

Be aware that individuals differ in their levels and

types of needs

Goal Setting Theory Clear and difficult goals lead to higher levels of

employee productivity.

Expectancy Theory

Offers a relatively powerful explanation of employeeproductivity, absenteeism, and turnover.


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Implications

Recognize Individual Differences Employees have different needs.

Dont treat them all alike.

Spend the time necessary to understandwhats important to each employee.

Use Goals and Feedback

Allow Employees to Participate inDecisions That Affect Them


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Chapter 5

Group Dynamics


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Groups: ?

Groups Two or more individuals, interacting and

interdependent, who have a stable relationship, acommon goal, and perceive themselves to be a group

Types of Groups Informal groups: a collection of people seeking

friendship and acceptance that satisfies esteemneeds.

Formal groups: a collection of people created to dosomething productive that contributes to the successof the larger organization.


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Exhibit 5-4


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Exhibit 5-4

Stages of Group Development

Stage IForming

Prestage I Stage IIStorming

Stage IIINorming

Stage IVPerforming

Stage VAdjourning


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Stages of Group Development

Stage IV: Performing

The fourth stage in group development, when

the group is fully functional

Stage V: Adjourning The final stage in group development for

temporary groups, characterized by concern

with wrapping up activities rather than taskperformance

Putting the Five-Stage Model


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g g

Into Perspective

Groups do not necessarily progressclearly through the stages one at a time

Groups can sometimes go back to an

earlier stage Conflict can sometimes be helpful to the

group

Context can matter: airline pilots canimmediately reach performing stage

The Punctuated-Equilibrium


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q

Model

First phase The first meeting sets the groups direction.

The first phase of group activity is one of inertia.

Transition

A transition takes place at the end of the first phase,which occurs exactly when the group has used up half itsallotted time.

The transition initiates major changes.

Second phase

A second phase of inertia follows the transition.

Last meeting is characterized by markedly acceleratedactivity

Exhibit 5-5 The Punctuated-


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Equilibrium Model

Completion

Transition

First

Meeting

Phase 1

Phase 2

(High)

(Low)

A (A+B)/2

Time

B

Performa

nce


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Explaining Work-Group Behavior

External Conditions Imposed on Group

Group Member Resources

Group Structure

Group Processes

Group Task

Performance and Satisfaction

External Conditions Imposed on


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External Conditions Imposed on

Group

Organization Overall Strategy

Authority Structure

Formal Regulations

Performance evaluation and reward

system

Organization culture

Physical work setting


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Group Member Resources

Knowledge

Skills

Abilities

Personal Characteristics


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Group Structure

Formal Leadership

Roles

Norms

Status

Size

Composition Cohesiveness


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Roles

A role is a set of expected behaviour

patterns associated with someone

occupying a given position in a social unit.

Role Identity: Certain attitudes andbehaviours consistent with a role

Role Perception: An individuals view of how

he or she is supposed to act in a givensituation


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Roles

Role Expectations: How others believe aperson should act in a given situation

Psychological Contract: Unwritten agreement that

sets out what management expects from the

employee, and vice versa.

Role Conflict: A situation in which an

individual is confronted by divergent role

expectations


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Norms

Acceptable standards of behaviour withina group that are shared by the groups

members


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How Norms Develop

Explicit statements

Critical events

Initial patterns of behaviour

Carry-over behaviour


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Why Norms Are Enforced

Facilitate group survival

Make behaviour predictable

Minimize embarrassment

Express central values

Clarify the groups identity


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Conformity

Adjusting your behaviour to align with thenorms of the group

People conform to reference groups

Important groups to which individuals belong

or hope to belong


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Deviant Workplace Behaviour

Antisocial actions by organizationalmembers that intentionally violate

established norms and that result in

negative consequences for theorganization, its members, or both.

Exhibit 5-3


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Deviant Workplace Behaviour

Category Examples

Production Leaving early

Intentionally working slowly

Wasting resources

Property Sabotage

Lying about hours worked

Stealing from the organization

Political Showing favouritism

Gossiping and spreading rumours

Blaming co-workers

Personalaggression

Sexual harassment

Verbal abuse

Stealing from co-workers


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Status

A socially defined position or rank given togroups or group members by others

Status and norms

Status equity

Status and culture


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Roles in Groups

Task-oriented roles Roles performed by group members to ensure

that the tasks of the group are accomplished

Maintenance roles Roles performed by group members to

maintain good relations within the group

Individual roles Roles performed by group members that are

not productive for keeping the group on task

Exhibit 5-7 Roles That Build Task


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Accomplishment

Initiating

Exhibit 5-7 Roles That Build and


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Maintain a Team

Harmonizing Mediating conflict among other members,

reconciling disagreements, relieving tensions

Compromising Admitting error at times of group conflict

Gatekeeping Making sure all members have a chance to expresstheir ideas and feelings and preventing members

from being interrupted

Encouraging Helping a group member make his or her point.

Establishing a climate of acceptance in the group


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Group Size

Research Evidence Smaller groups faster at completing tasks

When problem solving, larger groups do

better Social loafing-The tendency of individuals to

expend less efforts when working collectively

than working individually.


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Composition

Groupdemography-The degree to whichmembers of a group share common

demographic attributes like age,

experience, qualification and it impact onturnover

Cohorts-Individuals who, as a part of

group hold a common attribute.


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Cohesiveness

Degree to which group members areattracted to each other and are motivated

to stay in the group

Exhibit 5-9 Relationship Between


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Group Cohesiveness, Performance

Norms, and Productivity

Cohesiveness

Low

HighHigh

productivity

Moderate

productivity

Low

productivity

Moderate to

low productivity

Perfor m

anceNorm

s


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Group Task

If task is complex then it need diverseviews, skills and ideas therefore group

discussion required

If task is simple and repetitive than peoplecan better work on it independently.

Exhibit 5-10 Advantages and


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Disadvantages of Diversity

Advantages Multiple perspectives

Greater openness to

new ideas Multiple interpretations

Increased creativity

Increased flexibility

Increased problem-

solving skills

Disadvantages Ambiguity

Complexity

Confusion Miscommunication

Difficulty in reaching a

single agreement

Difficulty in agreeing on

specific actions


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Group Decision Making

Strength of group decision making More complete information and knowledge

Diversity of views

High quality decisions

Weakness of group decision making

Time Consuming and Conformity

Effectiveness and efficiency


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Group Decision Making

Strengths of Group DecisionMaking

Generates more complete information and

knowledge

Offers increased diversity of views

Generates higher-quality decisions

Leads to increased acceptance of a solution


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Weaknesses of Group DecisionMaking

More time consuming

Conformity pressures in groups

Discussion can be dominated by one or a few

members Decisions suffer from ambiguous responsibility


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Groupthink Phenomenon in which the norm for

consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of

alternative courses of action Groupshift

Phenomenon in which the initial positions of

individual members of a group areexaggerated toward a more extreme position

G Thi k


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Group Think

Groupthink (Irving Janis) A mode of thinking (blind conformity) that people engage

in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group,when the members strivings for unanimity override theirmotivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of

action.

Symptoms of Groupthink Excessive optimism

An assumption of inherent morality

Suppression of dissent A desperate quest for unanimity


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Preventing Groupthink Avoid using of groups as rubberstamps.

Urge each group member to think independently.

Bring in outside experts for fresh perspectives.

Assign someone the role of devils advocate.

Take time to consider possible effects andconsequences of alternative courses of action.

G hift


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Group shift

A change in decision risk between thegroup decision and individual decision that

members within the group would make,

can be either toward conservation orgreater risk

It is one of the type of group think

Group Decision-making


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Techniques

Interacting Groups

Brainstorming

Nominal Group Technique

Electronic meeting


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Chapter 8

Conflict andNegotiation

Chapter Outline


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Chapter Outline

Conflict Defined Sources of Conflict

From Potential to Actual Conflict

Conflict Management and Teams Negotiation

Issues in Negotiation

Conflict and Negotiation


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Conflict and Negotiation

How do we manage conflict?

When is conflict functional?

How do we negotiate?

Questions for ConsiderationQuestions forConsideration

Conflict


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Conflict

A process that begins when one party perceivesthat another party has negatively affected, or is

about to negatively affect, something that the

first party cares about.

Functional

Supports the goals of the group and improves its

performance

Dysfunctional

Hinders group performance

Conflict Process


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Conflict Process

Potential opposition or incompatibility

Communication

Structure

personal variables


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Cognition and personalization

Perceived conflict-Awareness by one or

more party of the existence of conditions

that create opportunities for conflict toarise

Felt conflict-emotional involvement in

conflict creating anxiety, tenseness orfrustation

How Structure Can Lead to


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Conflict

Stimulating conflict Size, specialization, and composition of the

group

Too much reliance on participation

Diversity of goals among groups

Ambiguity in precisely defining whereresponsibility for actions lies

Reward systems where one members gain isat anothers expense

Exhibit 8-1 How Conflict Builds


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Exhibit 8 1 How Conflict Builds

Functional:

increased

performance

Dysfunctional:

decreased group

performance

Behaviour

Outcomes

Competing

Collaborating

Compromising

Avoiding

Accommodating

Conflict-handlingIntentions


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Specific Intentions


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Specific Intentions

Competing A desire to satisfy ones interests, regardless of the impact on the other

parties.

Collaborating A situation where the parties to a conflict each desire to satisfy fully the

concerns of all parties

Avoiding The desire to withdraw from or suppress a conflict.

Accommodating The willingness of one party in a conflict to place the opponents

interests above his or her own

Compromising A situation in which each party to a conflict is willing to give up

something

Exhibit 8-2 Dimensions of

C f


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Conflict-Handling Intentions

Cooperativeness

Compromising

Uncooperative

Avoiding

Competing

Cooperative

Accommodating

Collaborating

Assertivene

ss

Unasse

rtive

Asserti v

e

Exhibit 8-4

C fli I i C i


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Conflict Intensity Continuum

Annihilatory

conflict

No

conflict

Overt efforts to destroy

the other party

Aggressive physical attacks

Threats and ultimatums

Assertive verbal attacks

Overt questioning or

challenging of others

Minor disagreements or

misunderstandings


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Conflict outcomes

Functional or dysfunctional conflict

Conflict Resolution Techniques


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Conflict Resolution Techniques

Problem Solving Shared Goals

Expansion of Resources

Avoidance

Authoritative Command

Types of Conflict


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Types of Conflict

Cognitive Conflict related to differences in perspectives and

judgments

Task-oriented

Results in identifying differences

Usually functional conflict

Affective

Emotional conflict aimed at a person rather than an

issue

Dysfunctional conflict

Reducing Group Conflict


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Reducing Group Conflict

Team members reduced conflict using thefollowing tactics: Worked with more, rather than less, information

Debated on the basis of facts

Developed multiple alternatives to enrich the level ofdebate

Shared commonly agreed-upon goals

Injected humour into the decision process

Maintained a balanced power structure Resolved issues without forcing consensus

Summary and Implications


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Conflict can be either constructive or

destructive to the functioning of a group.

An optimal level of conflict:

Prevents stagnation Stimulates creativity

Releases tension

And initiates the seeds for change

Inadequate or excessive levels of conflict canhinder group effectiveness.



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Dont assume there's one conflict-handlingintention that is always best. Use competition when quick, decisive action is vital

Use collaboration to find an integrative solution

Use avoidance when an issue is trivial Use accommodation when you find youre wrong

Use compromise when goals are important

Negotiation is an ongoing activity in groups

Intergroup conflicts can also affect anorganizations performance.

Point-CounterPoint


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o t Cou te o t

Conflict Is Goodfor theOrganizationv Conflict is a means by which

to bring about radical changev

Conflict facilitates groupcohesivenessv Conflict improves group and

organizational effectivenessv Conflict brings about a slightly

higher, more constructivelevel of tension

All Conflicts AreDysfunctional!v The negative consequences

from conflict can bedevastating

v Effective managers build

teamwork not conflictv Competition is good for an

organization, but not conflictv Managers who accept and

stimulate conflict dont survivein organizations

Negotiation


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g

A process in which two or more partiesexchange goods or services and attempt to

agree upon the exchange rate for them

Distributive bargaining

Negotiation that seeks to divide up a fixed amount of

resources; a win-lose situation

Integrative bargaining

Negotiation that seeks one or more settlements that

can create a win-win solution


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How to Negotiate


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g

Assess personal goals, consider othersgoals, develop strategy

Identify target and resistance points

Target: what one would like to achieve

Resistance: lowest outcome acceptable

Identify BATNA

BestAlternative To a NegotiatedAgreement


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Gender Differences


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Women More inclined to be concerned with feelings and

perceptions, and take a longer-term view

View the bargaining session as part of an overall

relationship Tend to want all parties in the negotiation to beempowered

Use dialogue to achieve understanding

Men View the bargaining session as a separate event Use dialogue to persuade


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Alcohol Consumption and

Negotiations


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133

Negotiations

Sober negotiators Were were more likely to look for win-win solutions

Did not do well when bargaining against someone

who had been drinking, as the drinker tended to be

far more aggressive


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Conciliator


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Trusted third party who provides aninformal communication link between the

negotiator and the opponent

Informal link Used extensively in international, labour,

family and community disputes

Fact-find, interpret messages, persuade

disputants to develop agreements

Mediator


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A neutral third party who facilitates a negotiatedsolution by using reasoning, persuasion, andsuggestions for alternatives Labour-management negotiations and civil court

disputes Settlement rate is about 60%; satisfaction rate is

about 75%

Participants must be motivated to bargain and settle

Best under moderate levels of conflict

Mediator must appear neutral and non-coercive

Arbitrator


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Has authority to dictate an agreement Voluntary (requested) or compulsory

(imposed by law or contract)

Always results in a settlement May result in further conflict


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138

Chapter 12

OrganizationalStructure


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Organizational Structure


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140

What are the key elements oforganizational structure?

How do traditional organizational designscompare with newer organizationalstructure?

Why do organizational structures differ?

Questions forConsideration


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Exhibit 12-1 Pyramidal



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142


Exhibit 12-2

Flat Organizational Structure


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143

Flat Organizational Structure


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Work Specialization


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145

The degree to which tasks in the organizationare subdivided into separate jobs Also known as division of labour

Benefits

Efficiency Less time changing tasks, putting equipment away

Easier to train employees

Downsides

Boredom, stress, low productivity, high turnover,increased absenteeism

Departmentalization


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146

The basis on which jobs are grouped together Types

Functional

Product

Geographic

Process

Customer

Mixed

Exhibit 12-4 Functional

Departmentalization


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147

Departmentalization

President/

CEO

Counsellor of

the President

ExecutiveSecretary

Director, Quality

Assurance

VP Business

Development

Financial

Controller

VP

Operations

Executive

Vice-President

Composites Atlantic

Board of

Directors

Exhibit 12-5

Product Departmentalization


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148

Product Departmentalization

Wireless

Networks

Enterprise

Networks

Broadband

Networks

Public Carrier

Networks

Nortel

Exhibit 12-6 Geographic

Departmentalization


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149

Departmentalization

Royal Bank

Canada Asia Europe United States

Exhibit 12-7

Customer Departmentalization


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150

Customer Departmentalization

Dell Canada

IndividualUsers

EducationalUsers

FederalGovernment Users

Large BusinessUsers

Small/MediumBusiness Users

Chain of Command


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Two aspects Authority

Who has the right to give orders and expect them to be

obeyed

Unity of command Subordinates should have only one superior

Todays organizations

Fewer follow chain of command

More have decision making opportunities at all levels

Span of Control


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152

Number of subordinates that can be efficientlyand effectively managed

Small span Expensive, more managers

Makes vertical communication more complicated Encourages tight supervision and discourages

autonomy

Larger span

Empowers workers Speeds up decisions

Exhibit 12-8 Contrasting Spans

of Control


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of Control

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

(Highest)

Assuming span of 4

Operatives

Managers (Levels 1 6) = 1365

= 4096 Operatives

Managers (Levels 1 4) = 585

= 4096

1

4

16

64

256

1024

4096

Assuming span of 8

4096

512

64

8

1

Members at each level

OrganizationalL

eve

l

Centralization and

Decentralization


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Decentralization

Are decisions concentrated at top(centralization) or pushed to lower levels

(decentralization)?

There is a marked trend towarddecentralization

Formalization


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How standardized are the jobs? High formalization means employees have

little discretion

Low formalization means employees havemore freedom


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Simple Structure


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157

Strengths Simplicity: fast, flexible, inexpensive

Weakness

Works best in small organizations Can slow down decision making in larger

organization

Can be risky as it relies on one person tomake all decisions


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Matrix Organization


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159

Breaks the unity of command principle Employees have two bosses

Strengths

Facilitates coordination when there are many

activities

More communication

Efficient allocation of specialists

Disadvantages Power struggles, confusion, stress

Exhibit 12-11

Matrix Structure


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ProgramsAcademicdepartments

Accounting

Finance

Administrativestudies

Information anddecision sciences

Marketing

Organizationalbehaviour

Quantitativemethods

Undergraduate Masters Ph.D.. Research

ExecutiveDevelopment

CommunityService


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Modular Organization


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A small core organization that outsources majorbusiness functions

Advantages Can devote technical and managerial talent to most

critical activities Can respond more quickly to environmental changes

Increased focus on customers and markets

Disadvantages

Reduces managements control over business Relies on outsiders to get job done


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Virtual Organization


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164

A continually evolving network of independent companiessuppliers, customers, even competitorslinkedtogether to share skills, costs, and access to oneanothers markets

Advantages

Organizations can share costs and skills Provides access to global markets

Increases market responsiveness

Disadvantages

Companies give up operational and strategic control towork together

Managers need to be more flexible, acquire new skills


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Exhibit 12-15

Model of the Environment


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Stable

ComplexSimple

Abundant

Scarce

Dynamic

Exhibit 12-16Organization Structure: Its

Determinants and Outcomes


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Determinants and Outcomes

determines leads to

Causes

Strategy

Size Technology

Environment

Moderators

Individualdifferences

Cultural

norms

Outcomes

Performance

Satisfaction

Structuraldesigns

Mechanistic Organic



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An organizations internal structure contributes toexplaining and predicting behaviour.

An organizations structure reduces ambiguity foremployees.

The specific effect of structural designs on performance

and satisfaction is moderated by employees individualpreferences and cultural norms.

Structural variables like work specialization, span ofcontrol, formalization, and centralization are objective

characteristics that can be measured by organizationalresearchers.


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Basic Approaches toLeadership

Chapter 11


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Trait Theories


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176DR.SANDEEP RAMAKANT SAWANT.. 11176

LimitationsLimitations::

No universal traits found that predictNo universal traits found that predict

leadership in all situations.leadership in all situations.

Traits predict behavior better in weakTraits predict behavior better in weakthan strong situations.than strong situations.

Unclear evidence of the cause and effectUnclear evidence of the cause and effect

of relationship of leadership and traits.of relationship of leadership and traits.

Better predictor of the appearance ofBetter predictor of the appearance of

leadership than distinguishing effectiveleadership than distinguishing effective

and ineffective leaders.and ineffective leaders.

LimitationsLimitations:: No universal traits found that predictNo universal traits found that predict

leadership in all situations.leadership in all situations.

Traits predict behavior better in weakTraits predict behavior better in weak

than strong situations.than strong situations.

Unclear evidence of the cause and effectUnclear evidence of the cause and effect

of relationship of leadership and traits.of relationship of leadership and traits.

Better predictor of the appearance ofBetter predictor of the appearance ofleadership than distinguishing effectiveleadership than distinguishing effective

and ineffective leaders.and ineffective leaders.


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Ohio State Studies


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Initiating Structure

The extent to which a leader is likely to defineand structure his or her role and those of sub-ordinates in the search for goal attainment.

Consideration

The extent to which a leader is likely to havejob relationships characterized by mutual

trust, respect for subordinates ideas, andregard for their feelings.

University of Michigan StudiesEmployee-Oriented Leader


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Employee Oriented Leader

Emphasizing interpersonal relations; taking apersonal interest in the needs of employeesand accepting individual differences amongmembers.

Production-Oriented Leader

One who emphasizes technical or taskaspects of the job.


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Contingency TheoriesFiedlers Contingency Model


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Fiedler s Contingency Model

The theory that effective groups depend on aproper match between a leaders style ofinteracting with subordinates and the degreeto which the situation gives control and

influence to the leader.Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Questionnaire

An instrument that purports to measurewhether a person is task- or relationship-oriented.

Fiedlers Model: Defining theSituation

Leader Member Relations


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Leader-Member Relations

The degree of confidence, trust, and respectsubordinates have in their leader.

Position Power

Influence derived from ones formal structuralposition in the organization; includes power tohire, fire, discipline, promote, and give salaryincreases.

Task Structure

The degree to which the job assignments areprocedurized.

Cognitive Resource Theory



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Research Support:

Less intelligent individuals perform better in leadership

roles under high stress than do more intelligent

individuals.

Less experienced people perform better in leadership

roles under low stress than do more experienced people.

Research Support:

Less intelligent individuals perform better in leadership

roles under high stress than do more intelligent

individuals.

Less experienced people perform better in leadership

roles under low stress than do more experienced people.


A theory of leadership that states that stresscan unfavorably affect a situation and thatintelligence and experience can lessen theinfluence of stress on the leader.

Hersey and Blanchards

Situational Leadership Theory


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Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)A contingency theory that focuses onfollowers readiness.

Leader: decreasing needfor support and supervisionLeader: decreasing needfor support and supervision

Follower readiness:

ability and willingness

Follower readiness:

ability and willingness

Unable andUnable and

UnwillingUnwilling

Unable butUnable but

WillingWilling

Able andAble and

WillingWilling

DirectiveDirective High Task and RelationshipHigh Task and Relationship

OrientationsOrientations

SupportiveSupportive

ParticipativeParticipative

Able andAble and

UnwillingUnwilling

MonitoringMonitoring

Leadership Styles andFollower Readiness

(Hersey and Blanchard)


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(Hersey and Blanchard)WillingUnwilling

Able

Unable DirectiveDirective

High TaskHigh Task

andand

RelationshipRelationship

OrientationsOrientations

SupportiveSupportive

ParticipativeParticipativeMonitoringMonitoring

FollowerReadiness

LeadershipLeadership

StylesStyles

LeaderMember ExchangeTheory


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Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory

Leaders create in-groups and out-groups, andsubordinates with in-group status will have

higher performance ratings, less turnover,and greater job satisfaction.

Path-Goal TheoryPath-Goal Theory


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Path-Goal Theory

The theory that it is the leaders job to assistfollowers in attaining their goals and toprovide them the necessary direction and/orsupport to ensure that their goals are

compatible with the overall objectives of thegroup or organization.

Directive Leader

Supportive Leader

Participative Leader

Achievement oriented Leader


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Contingency Variables in the

Leader-Participation Model


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1. Importance of the decision

2. Importance of obtaining follower commitment

3. Whether the leader has sufficient information to make a good decision.

4. How well structured the problem is

5. Whether an autocratic decision would receive follower commitment.

6. Whether followers buy into organizational goals.7. Whether there is likely to be conflict among followers over solutions

alternatives.

8. Whether followers have the necessary information to make good

decision.

9. Time constraints on the leader that may limit follower involvement

10.Importance of using participation as a tool for developing follower

decision skills.

DR.SANDEEP RAMAKANT SAWANT.. 11189


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190

Chapter 12

Contemporary

Issues in

Leadership

Trust: The Foundation ofLeadership


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191DR.SANDEEP RAMAKANT SAWANT. 12191

Trust

Apositive expectation that another will notthrough words, actions, or decisionsact

opportunistically.Trust is a history-dependent process(familiarity) based on relevant but limitedsamples of experience (risk).

Dimensions of Trust Integrity


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Integrity

honesty and truthfulness.

Competence

an individuals technical

and interpersonal

knowledge and skills.

Consistency

an individuals reliability,

predictability, and goodjudgment in handling

situations.

Loyalty the willingness to

protect and save face

for another person.

Openness

reliance on the person

to give you the full

truth.


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Three Types of TrustDeterrence-based Trust


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Trust based on fear of reprisal if the trust isviolated.

Identification-based Trust

Trust based on a mutual understanding ofeach others intentions and appreciation ofthe others wants and desires.

Knowledge-based Trust

Trust based on

behavioral predictabilitythat comes from ahistory of interaction.

Basic Principles of Trust

Mistrust drives out trust


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Mistrust drives out trust.

Trust begets trust.

Growth often masks mistrust.

Decline or downsizing tests the highest levels of trust.

Trust increases cohesion.

Mistrusting groups self-destruct.

Mistrust generally reduces productivity.

Framing: Using Words toShape Meaning and Inspire


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Others

Leaders use framing (selectively including or

excluding facts) to influence how others see

and interpret reality.

Leaders use framing (selectively including or

excluding facts) to influence how others see

and interpret reality.

Framing

A way to uselanguage to managemeaning.

Inspirational Approaches toLeadership

Charismatic Leadership Theory


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Charismatics Influence Followers By:

1. Articulating the vision

2. Setting high performance expectations

3. Conveying a new set of values

4. Making personal sacrifices

Charismatics Influence Followers By:

1. Articulating the vision

2. Setting high performance expectations

3. Conveying a new set of values

4. Making personal sacrifices

p y

Followers make attributions of heroic orextraordinary leadership abilities when theyobserve certain behaviors.

Beyond Charismatic Leadership


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Level 5 Leaders Possess a fifth dimensiona paradoxical

blend of personal humility and professional will

in addition to the four basic leadership

qualities of individual capability, team skills,managerial competence, and the ability to

stimulate others to high performance.

Channel their ego needs away fromthemselves and into the goal of building a great

company.

Transactional andTransformational Leadership

Contingent RewardTransactional Leaders


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Contingent Reward

Management by

Exception (active)

Management by

Exception (passive)

Laissez-Faire

Charisma

Inspiration

Intellectual Stimulation

Individual Consideration

Leaders who guide ormotivate their followersin the direction ofestablished goals by

clarifying role and taskrequirements.

Transformational Leaders

Leaders who provide

individualizedconsideration andintellectual stimulation,and who possess

Emotional Intelligence andLeadership Effectiveness


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Elements of Emotional

Intelligence:

Self-awareness

Self-management

Self-motivation

Empathy

Social skills

Elements of Emotional

Intelligence:

Self-awareness

Self-management

Self-motivation

Empathy

Social skills

Contemporary LeadershipRoles: Providing Team

Leadership


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Leadership

Team Leadership Roles:

Act as liaisons with

external constituencies.

Serve as troubleshooters.

Managing conflict.

Coaching to improve teammember performance

Team Leadership Roles:

Act as liaisons with

external constituencies. Serve as troubleshooters.

Managing conflict.

Coaching to improve teammember performance

Contemporary LeadershipRoles: Mentoring

Mentor


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Mentoring Activities:

Present ideas clearly

Listen well

Empathize Share experiences

Act as role model

Share contacts Provide political

guidance

Mentoring Activities: Present ideas clearly

Listen well

Empathize Share experiences

Act as role model

Share contacts

Provide politicalguidance

A senior employeewho sponsors andsupports a less-experienced

employee (aprotg).

Contemporary LeadershipRoles:

Self-Leadership


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Self Leadership

Creating self leaders:

Model self-leadership.

Encourage employees to

create self-set goals. Encourage the use of self-

rewards.

Create positive thoughtpatterns.

Create a climate of self-leadership.

Encourage self-criticism.

Creating self leaders:

Model self-leadership.

Encourage employees tocreate self-set goals.

Encourage the use of self-rewards.

Create positive thoughtpatterns.

Create a climate of self-leadership.

Encourage self-criticism.

Self-Leadership

A set of processesthrough whichindividuals control

their ownbehavior.

Ethical Leadership


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Actions:

Work to positively change the attitudes andbehaviors of employees.

Engage in socially constructive behaviors.

Do not abuse power or use improper means toattain goals.

Actions:

Work to positively change the attitudes andbehaviors of employees.

Engage in socially constructive behaviors.

Do not abuse power or use improper means toattain goals.

Online Leadership

Leadership at a Distance: Building Trust


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Leadership at a Distance: Building Trust

The lack of face-to-face contact in electronic communications

removes the nonverbal cues that support verbal interactions.

There is no supporting context to assist the receiver with

interpretation of an electronic communication.

The structure and tone of electronic messages can stronglyaffect the response of receivers.

An individuals verbal and written communications may not

follow the same style.

Writing skills will likely become an extension of interpersonalskills


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Finding and Creating EffectiveLeaders

Selection


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Selection

Review specific requirements for the job.

Use tests that identify personal traits associated with leadership,measure self-monitoring, and assess emotional intelligence.

Conduct personal interviews to determine candidates fit with the

job. Training

Recognize the all people are not equally trainable.

Teach skills that are necessary for employees to becomeeffective leaders.

Provide behavioral training to increase the developmentpotential of nascent charismatic employees.


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Power and Politics


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209

What is power?

How does one get it?

What does it mean to empower employees? How can we be effective at office politics?

Questions for ConsiderationQuestions forConsideration

Power and Politics


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Power A capacity that A has to influence the behaviour of B

so that B acts in accordance with As wishes.

Dependency: Bs relationship to A when A possesses

something that B requires

Politics

Behaviour to influence or attempt to influence the

distribution of advantages and disadvantages within

the organization.

Leadership and Power


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Leadership Requires goal

agreement

Focuses on downward

influence

Minimizes importance of

lateral and upward

influence

Leadership research

focuses on answers

Power Does not require goal

acceptance

Focuses on intimidation

(threats)

Maximizes importance of

lateral and upward

influence

Power focuses on tactics

for gaining compliance

Measuring Bases of Power

Coercive power


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Coercive power The person can make things difficult for people, and

you want to avoid getting him or her angry.

Power that is based on fear.

Reward power The person is able to give special benefits or rewards to

people, and you find it advantageous to trade favorswith him or her.

Legitimate power

The person has the right, considering his or her positionand your job responsibilities, to expect you to complywith legitimate requests.

Measuring Bases of Power


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Expert power The person has the experience and knowledge to

earn your respect, and you defer to his or her

judgment in some matters.

Referent power You like the person and enjoy doing things for him or

her.

Evaluating the Bases of Power

Coercive power tends to result in negative performance responses


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Coercive powertends to result in negative performance responses

from individuals, decreases satisfaction, increases mistrust, andcreates fear.

Legitimate powerdoes not have a negative effect, but does not

generally stimulate employees to improve their attitudes or

performance, and it does not generally result in increased

commitment.

Reward powermay improve performance in a variety of situations if

the rewards are consistent with what the individuals want as

rewards.

Expert powerrelies on trust that all relevant information is given out

honestly and completely.

Leaders Use of Power


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The least effective power bases are theones most likely to be used by managers

Coercive, legitimate, and reward

Easiest to implement

Effective leaders use referent and/or

expert power

Dependency: Key to Power


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Importance The things you control must be important

Scarcity

A resource must be perceived as scarce Non-substitutability

The resource cannot be substituted with

something else

Increasing Dependency


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To increase the dependency of others onyou, you need to

Control things viewed as important

The resources must be viewed as scarce

The resource must have few or no substitutes

(nonsubstitutability)


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Conditions for TrueEmpowerment

Clear definition of the values and mission of the


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220

Clear definition of the values and mission of thecompany

Company must help employees acquire therelevant skills

Employees need to be supported in theirdecision making, and not criticized when they tryto do something extraordinary

Employees need to be recognized for their

efforts

Characteristics of EmpoweredPeople

Sense of self-determination


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Sense of self determination Employees are free to choose how to do their work; They

are not micromanaged

Sense of meaning Employees feel that their work is important to them; They

care about what they are doing

Sense of competence Employees are confident about their ability to do their work

well; They know they can perform

Sense of impact Employees people believe they can have influence on their

work unit; Others listen to their ideas

Coalitions


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Two or more individuals who combine theirpower to push for or support their demands

Predictions about coalition formation

Coalitions seek to maximize their size

Coalitions more likely to be created when there isgreater task and resource dependence

Coalitions more likely when tasks are routine

Political Behavior


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Those activities that influence, or attemptto influence, the distribution of advantages

and disadvantages within the organization.

Legitimate: normal everyday behaviour

Illegitimate: extreme political behaviours that

violate the implied rules of the game

Why Do We Get Politics?


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224

Organizations are made up of groups andindividuals who have differing values,

goals and interests

Resources in organizations are limited Performance outcomes are not completely

clear and objective

Factors Influencing PoliticalBehaviour


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225

Political behaviour

Low High

Individual factors

High self-monitors

Internal locus of control

High Mach

Organizational investment

Perceived job alternatives

Expectations of success

Organizational factors

Reallocation of resources

Promotion opportunities

Low trust

Role ambiguity

Unclear performance

evaluation system

Zero-sum reward practices

Democratic decision making

High performance pressures

Self-serving senior managers

Favourable outcomes

Rewards

Averted punishments

What Individual FactorsContribute to Politics?


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High self-monitors Internal locus of control

High mach

Organizational investment Perceived job alternatives

Expectations of success

What Organizational FactorsContribute to Politics?

Reallocation of rewards


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Reallocation of rewards

Promotion opportunities

Low trust

Role ambiguity

Unclear performance evaluation system Zero-sum reward practices

Democratic decision-making

High performance pressure Self-serving senior managers

Types of Political Activity


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Attacking or blaming others Controlling information

Forming coalitions

Networking Creating obligation

Managing impressions

How employee respond to Politics


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Decreased job satisfaction Increased anxiety

Increased turnover

Reduced performance


Power is a two-way street.


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y

Few employees relish being powerless in their jobs and

organization.

People respond differently to various power bases. Employees working under coercive managers are unlikely to be

committed,

and more likely to resist the manager.

Expert power is the most strongly and consistently

related to effective employee performance.



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The power of the manager may also play a rolein determining job satisfaction.

The effective manager accepts the political

nature of organizations.

The more political that employees perceive anorganization, the lower their satisfaction.

Documents

Value, Attitude