The Girl of the Golden West(LA FANCIULLA DEL WEST)

By GIACOMO PUCCINI

A study guidePrepared by Virginia Opera

TABLE OF CONTENTSCast of Characters 2Brief plot summary 3Full synopsis with musical examples 5Historical Background 14Discussion questions 22A Short History of Opera 23The Operatic Voice 25Opera Production 26Glossary of Operatic Terms 27

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THE GIRL OF THE GOLDEN WEST(LA FANCIULLA DEL WEST)

Music by Giacomo PucciniLibretto by Carlo Zangarini and Geulfo Civinini

Adapted from the play The Girl of the Golden West by David Belasco

PremiereFirst performance on Dec. 10, 1910 at the Metropolitan Opera House, New York City

CAST OF CHARACTERSMINNIE, proprietress of the Polka Saloon SopranoJACK RANCE, sheriff BaritoneDICK JOHNSON, a.k.a.Ramerrez, a bandit TenorNICK, bartender at the Polka TenorASHBY, a Wells Fargo agent BassSONORA, a miner BaritoneTRIN, a miner TenorSID, a miner BaritoneBELLO (a.k.a Handsome), a miner BaritoneHARRY, a miner TenorJOE, a miner BaritoneHAPPY, a miner BaritoneJIM LARKENS, a miner BassBILLY JACKRABBIT, an Indian BassWOWKLE, Billy’s squaw Mezzo sopranoJAKE WALLACE, a traveling minstrel BaritoneJOSÉ CASTRO, a member of Ramerrez’s gang BassA PONY EXPRESS RIDER TenorMen of the mining camp

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Brief Plot SummaryAct 1Time: 1849. Place: The interior of the Polka Saloon in a mining camp at the base of the Cloudy Mountains in California.A group of gold-rush miners converge on the Polka at sunset. Poker games begin at gaming tables as Nick pours out glasses of whiskey. A traveling minstrel, Jake Wallace, sings a sentimental song, causing a homesick man to break down in tears. The miners all chip in to finance his passage home. Nick is approached by two miners, each of whom quietly asks for his help in wooing Minnie, the owner of the saloon; he assures each in turn that Minnie returns their affection. When Sid is discovered to be cheating, the miners prepare to lynch him; Sheriff Rance steps in to settle the dispute. Ashby enters; the Wells Fargo agent is hot on the trail of the notorious bandit Ramerrez. Tempers flare when Rance and Sonora argue over which of them will marry Minnie. Before violence can erupt, Minnie enters; order is quickly restored. A few miners gather around to hear Minnie’s Bible lesson on Psalm 51. The men disperse, leaving Rance alone with Minnie. When he confesses his feelings for her, she quickly reminds him that he is married; recalling her happy childhood, she describes her own vision of romantic happiness.

A stranger enters, introducing himself as Dick Johnson from Sacramento, Minnie recognizes him from a prior encounter. Rance is suspicious of Johnson, but Minnie vouches for him. Minnie and Johnson dance as some miners hum a simple waltz tune. A bandit named Castro is brought in; he offers to lead Rance to Ramerrez’s hideout. In an aside to Johnson, Castro discloses his purpose in being captured is to lead the men on a wild goose chase, giving Johnson (in reality Ramerrez) the opportunity to rob the Polka. The men depart with Castro; leaving Minnie and Johnson alone. They exchange confidences, with Minnie confessing she has never been kissed. Minnie shows Johnson the miner’s hiding-place for their gold; he vows to protect it. Minnie invites him to visit her that evening in her cabin.

Act 2Time: the same evening. Scene: Minnie’s mountain cabin. Billy and Wowkle, alone with their baby, plan their wedding. Minnie enters; sending Billy away, she primps while Wowkle prepares a supper for two. Johnson arrives; Minnie describes her simple but happy life. Wowkle leaves amid a raging snowstorm. Alone now, Johnson and Minnie kiss. Suddenly ashamed, Johnson begins to leave but the trail has been covered with snow. He and Minnie declare their love. When they are interrupted by Rance, Ashby and Nick; Johnson hides. Rance brings the news that Johnson is the bandit Ramerrez. When Rance says Ramerrez’s trail ends at Minnie’s cabin, she denies having seen him. As the men depart, Minnie angrily accuses Johnson of lying. He denies that he would have robbed the Polka, claiming that Minnie has inspired him to seek a new life. Minnie orders him to leave; he plunges into the snowstorm. Shots are heard; Minnie finds Johnson at her door, badly wounded. She helps him into the loft of her cabin. Rance returns, convinced that Johnson is there. Minnie defiantly says she is alone. As Rance declares his love for her, drops of Johnson’s blood fall onto his hand. In desperation, Minnie proposes a game of cards. Should Rance win, Minnie will offer herself to

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him; if Minnie wins, Rance must let Johnson go. Hiding cards in her stocking to cheat, Minnie wins the game; Rance abruptly leaves.

Act 3Time: one week later, early dawn. Scene: the edge of a pine forest.Rance and Nick marvel that Minnie could love a bandit like Ramerrez. Ashby and some miners excitedly bring news that Wells Fargo agents are hot on the bandit’s trail. Johnson, bound with ropes, is led into the forest clearing to an exultant Rance. The men prepare to hang Johnson on the spot. Johnson makes one final request: that Minnie not know his fate and believe him free. As the noose is lowered, Minnie enters on horseback with pistol drawn. Holding the men at gunpoint, Minnie demands Johnson’s release, reminding them of the kindness she has always shown them. One by one, the miners relent, unable to deny Minnie her chance at happiness. As the miners bid her farewell, Johnson and Minnie ride away to begin a new life together.

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Full Synopsis With Musical Examples

Act 1A brief but tumultuous orchestral prelude introduces two important themes that will recur throughout the opera, often in succession. A descending chain of whole-tone chords (Example 1)Represents both the wild environment of the untamed California Sierras and the correspondingly wild existence of the men and women who live and work there in a society of lawless violence and rough justice. It will hereafter be referred to as the “untamed lawlessness” theme.

Example 1

The second theme (Example 2), built on the rhythmic motive of a quarter note followed by two eights, symbolizes the concept of redemption in general and, specifically, Dick Johnson’s aspirations to lead a better life. It will be referred to as the “redemption theme”.

Example 2

Following repetitions of these materials, the prelude closes with a third theme (Example 3), a strongly rhythmic idea that will represent Johnson’s other persona, the bandit Ramerrez

Example 3

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We are in the interior of the Polka, a Western-style saloon situated in the foothills of the Cloudy Mountains during the California Gold Rush of 1848. The sun is setting on a cold winter evening. The saloon is empty save for the local sheriff, Jack Rance, and Jim Larkens, a young man with a troubled expression. With the day’s work at an end, the voices of miners are heard approaching the Polka and greeting one another. As the saloon fills with men, Nick the bartender proffers cigars and glasses of whiskey; card games quickly begin at gaming tables. Two miners, Sonora and Trin, individually approach Nick, quietly asking if Minnie, the owner of the saloon, has confessed any feelings toward them. Nick blithely assures each man in turn of Minnie’s affection. They gleefully offer celebratory rounds of cigars and whiskey for the room.

Jake Wallace, a traveling camp minstrel, enters, singing a nostalgic song of home and family. (Example 4)

Example 4

The miners join him in a sentimental chorus. Larkens, deeply moved, begins sobbing. He confesses that he’s tired of mining and wants to go home to see his mother, but has no money. The miners quickly take up a collection to provide the necessary funds; a grateful Larkens departs as the interrupted poker game resumes.

A sudden dispute finds Sid accused of cheating at cards by Sonora. This being an unforgiveable sin at the Polka, all the miners surround Sid, kicking and punching him and calling for a noose to hang him on the spot. At this moment Rance, who has been quiet throughout, steps forward to calm the mob. Arguing that death is too easy a punishment, he suggests a cruel alternative: calling for Sid’s hidden card, he pins it to his chest to brand him as a cheater. The miners, knowing they’ll have permission to hang Sid if he removes the card, toss him from the saloon.

As order is restored and the game continues, Ashby, an agent of Wells Fargo, enters, asking after Minnie. Rance asks for news of the notorious bandit known as Ramerrez, the gentlemanly leader of a gang of Mexican thieves. Ashby and his men have been on Ramerrez’s trail for months. Nick dispenses another round of whiskey, leading the men to raise their glasses in a toast to Minnie. When Rance loudly proclaims that she’ll soon be known as “Mrs. Rance”, Sonora mocks him, claiming that Minnie has been toying with him. Tempers flare and pistols are drawn in anger when a sudden gunshot rings out: Minnie has arrived. The orchestra ushers her in with a grandly sweeping theme built on a recurring four-note motive. (Example 5)

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Example 5

Quickly sizing up the situation, she forces the two quarrelers to shake hands.

As Minnie settles in for the evening, various miners greet her adoringly with small gifts. Nick urges her to mingle with the men, as her smiles always increase sales. Sonora hands her a bag of gold nuggets to store for safe-keeping. Nick records the bag’s weight and places it inside a barrel. Ashby remarks that it’s not wise for the miners to store their gold at the saloon with bandits operating in the area.

Minnie removes a Bible from behind the bar and takes a seat in the center of the room, all the men save Rance and Asby sitting around her in a circle. A Bible lesson commences. She asks Harry what he recalls about the Psalmist David; when Harry gives a confused answer mixing up the stories of David and Goliath with that of Samson, Minnie chuckles in amusement and begins reading from Psalm 51, stressing the promise of spiritual redemption. At the climax of her solo, when telling the men that there is no sinner in the world for whom redemption is not available, her vocal line recalls the “untamed lawlessness” theme; at the word “redemption”, the orchestra hints at the redemption theme. (Example 6)

Example 6

Excitement stirs when a Pony Express rider bursts in with a packet of mail. Ashby is given a dispatch; quickly reading it, he asks if anyone knows a woman named Nina Micheltorena. Minnie and Rance quickly dismiss her as a low-life woman of easy virtue, warning Ashby not to trust her. However, Ashby announces that Nina knows the hideout of Ramerrez; he declares that he intends to visit her at her brothel, known as “The Palms”. Meanwhile, the air is filled with the chatter of miners, reading the news and gossip in their letters from home.

Nick, who has been outside, enters to announce the approach of a stranger. When he mentions that the newcomer asked for whiskey and water, everyone breaks into laughter; in the mining camp, whiskey is served “neat”. The stranger’s taste marks him as, likely, a city dude.

Rance, seeking a private moment with Minnie, escorts her to a corner of the saloon, where he impulsively blurts out his love for her and asks for a kiss. Minnie gently reminds him that he is a

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married man. When Rance says that if Minnie wishes, he’ll never see his wife again, she is offended, bidding him to leave her in peace.

Persisting, Rance confesses his loneliness to Minnie, claiming that no one has ever loved him, nor has he loved anyone; nothing gives him pleasure. He left his distant home in search of gold, but would gladly give up a fortune for one kiss from Minnie. (Example 7)

Example 7

Minnie replies that she has a different notion of love, going on to recall happy childhood memories of her close-knit family in Soledad. Her solo ends with the passionate wish that she could find a man like her father. (Example 8)

Example 8

Before Rance can respond, Nick ushers in the stranger he’d spoken of earlier as the orchestra repeats Example 3. Minnie, whose startled reaction suggests she knows him, greets him with hospitality; Rance, on the other hand, is hostile and suspicious, implying that the newcomer meant to visit Nina’s brothel. Introducing himself as Dick Johnson from Sacramento, he and Minnie confirm that they recognize each other in a whispered aside. They recount their prior meeting on the road to Monterey; each was aware of an immediate and mutual attraction that lingered in their memories.

Rance loudly proclaims to the miners that he does not trust this “Johnson”, but Minnie puts an end to such talk by personally vouching for him. Rance stalks off angrily, but the men, aware that Minnie likes the stranger, suggest a waltz. Minnie shyly accepts Johnson’s proffered arm, and they dance as the miners hum a simple waltz-tune. (Example 9)

Example 9

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There is another disruption as a newly-captured Mexican bandit, José Castro, is dragged into the Polka and thrown on the floor. Spotting Johnson’s saddle, he recognizes it as that of Ramerrez, the leader of his gang, but says nothing. Castro tells Rance and Ashby that he has left the gang and is willing to lead the men to Ramerrez’s hideout. The men agree to let the prisoner take them to Ramerrez, despite signs of an oncoming blizzard outside. As the posse makes ready, Castro spots Johnson and surreptitiously explains that he allowed himself to be captured for the purpose of leading the sheriff and the others on a wild goose chase.Aas a result, Johnson, who is in reality the outlaw the men are hunting, will have no trouble stealing the miners’ gold. Castro instructs Johnson to listen for the signal of a whistle, and respond with his own whistle to confirm the robbery.

Momentarily alone, Minnie and Johnson express their happiness at having found each other again, exchanging confidences and talking hopefully of the future. When Johnson wonders if men ever attempt to steal the gold, he adds “or to steal a kiss”, Minnie confesses that she has never kissed a man. (Example 10)

Example 10

Holding her in a close embrace, Johnson professes strong heartfelt feelings for her in an intense version of the waltz-tune. (Example 11)

Example 11

They are interrupted by the sound of the whistle Castro promised. Minnie, alert and fearful, looks to Johnson for protection, showing him the barrel where the miners store their gold nuggets. Describing to Johnson all the adversities the miners endure and the sacrifices they’ve made to find this gold, she declares that anyone wishing to steal it will have to deal with her first.

Johnson, unable to bring himself to follow Castro’s plan, tells Minnie he must leave, but would like to see her again to say a last farewell. She quickly invites him to visit her at her cabin upon her return that very night. Minnie, suddenly feeling vulnerable and emotional, begins to weep; Johnson takes her in his arms and, while an off-stage chorus hums a sweetly intimate version of Minnie’s entrance theme, he offers words of comfort. (Example 12)

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Example 12

Act 2Time: later that same evening. Scene: the interior of Minnie’s simple mountain cabin.Wowkle, the Indian woman who serves as Minnie’s servant, sings a quiet lullaby to her baby. The child’s father, the Indian Billy Jackrabbit, enters, reporting that Minnie has told him he must marry Wowkle. Though his squaw se*ems ambivalent about the prospect, the two agree to go to the local church the next day. When Minnie enters, Billy assures her that marriage plans have been made before departing.

Minnie excitedly begins preparations for Johnson’s visit. Biscuits and cream are laid out on a table; Minnie removes her boots to put on a delicate pair of white slippers; she places a rose in her hair; she daubs on some cologne and finally, draws on a pair of white gloves.

Johnson arrives; sensing some reticence from Minnie, he asks for her thoughts. She bluntly asks him if, when he arrived at the Polka, he had really been on his way to Nina Micheltorena’s bordello. Their conversation quickly shifts to happier topics: Minnie tells of the mountain pony she often rides at a gallop through fields of flowers. She also describes the school she has opened for the miners, where she serves as school-mistress. Going on to confess that she enjoys reading stories of love and romance, Johnson is emboldened to ask her for a kiss. Tempted, yet embarrassed at such rudeness in front of Wowkle, Minnie sends the squaw away into the teeth of a furious snowstorm. Alone with Johnson, she yields to him in a passionate embrace. The lovers are unaware when a violent gust of wind blows the cabin door open, allowing torrential snowfall inside before banging shut again.

Johnson abruptly pulls away, unable to look Minnie in the eye, expressing a sudden hopelessness. Over Minnie’s protests he opens the door to leave, but the path down the mountain has disappeared under the new snow. As Minnie begs him to stay, gun-shots are heard outside. Now in a state of desperation, Johnson vows never to leave Minnie again. All inhibitions swept away, the two join their voices in an ecstatic love theme. (Example 12)

Example 12

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Minnie primly invites Johnson to spend the night on her bed while she sleeps on a bearskin by the fireplace. As she slips into a closet to change, Johnson is alerted by noises outside, but decides it must be the howling wind. Settling in for the night, Minnie asks one more time whether Johnson has ever known Nina Micheltorena before accepting his assurances to the contrary.

Loud knocking at the door reveals Nick, Sonora and Rance in pursuit of Ramerrez. Fearing Rance’s jealousy should he find Johnson staying the night, Minnie conceals him behind curtains and admits the three men. Rance announces, with some relish, the news that Mr. Dick Johnson of Sacramento is one and the same as the bandit Ramerrez and that he came to the Polka for the purpose of robbing it. Minnie does not believe it until Rance mentions that they learned of all this from Ramerrez’s mistress. Minnie correctly guesses the woman’s name: Nina Micheltorena. She cannot help but burst into bitter laughter. Nick offers to stay with her for protection from the outlaw, but Minnie sends the three men away.

Now white-hot with rage, Minnie summons Johnson to come out, flinging accusations of deceit in his face. Johnson insists on explaining his circumstances. While Minnie turns away, he tells his story: he is indeed Ramerrez. As a boy, he was unaware that his father was a notorious outlaw. Now that his father has passed on, he has continued the family legacy of crime, but only to provide for his mother and siblings, convinced it was his destiny. But Minnie has given him the vision of a new life; a life of honor, honest work and love. In a frenzied version of the redemption theme, he says his one prayer was that Minnie never know of his shame. (Example 12)

Example 12

Coldly, Minnie says God may forgive his crimes but, implying that his dalliance with Nina is unforgivable, she sends him away.

Shots ring out at once. Minnie finds Johnson at her doorstep, badly wounded. Over his protests, she hauls him back into the cabin before the posse can capture him. Knowing Rance will return at any moment, Minnie begs Johnson to stay, assuring him that she loves him in spite of everything. With her help, Johnson manages to climb up into a small attic loft.

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Rance bursts in, all business now, gun drawn. He knows he has wounded the bandit and is certain he is in the cabin. Minnie defiantly dares him to search the cabin. Rance agrees to leave but first demands that she swear she does not loved that “damned Johnson”. When Minnie scoffs, Rance, unable to control himself, declares that he loves and desires her. A scuffle ensues, with Minnie pushing Rance away. The sheriff corners her and reaches out a hand but freezes when a drop of blood falls on it from above. Triumphantly, Rance calls for Johnson to show himself and come down, but is stopped by Minnie, who proposes a high-stakes game of poker. Should Rance win the game, he can take his prisoner and Minnie will give herself to him; but should Minnie win, Rance must leave them in peace. Rance pledges to accept her terms on his honor as a gentleman.

Buying time, Minnie retreats to her closet. She claims to be finding a new deck of cards, but furtively hides something in her stocking. Each player wins one game, setting up a third and decisive game. Feigning illness, Minnie sends Rance to the closet to bring her a bottle and a glass. As he rushes to fetch them, Minnie replaces the cards she held with a new hand from her stocking. When Rance returns, the game resumes and she shows him a winning hand: three aces and a pair. With a terse “good night”, Rance turns and leaves. Minnie cries out in triumph.

Act 3Time: several days later. Scene: a clearing on the edge of a great pine forest, with the Sierra mountains in the distance. Miners sit on tree stumps, awaiting word on the pursuit of Ramerrez, who is once again on the loose after being nursed back to health by Minnie. Nick commends Rance on his chivalry at having honored his word and left the bandit with her as promised. A posse of men enter, armed with various weapons. Ashby cautions them that Ramerrez must be taken alive. The men report he is not far away, running on a nearby hill. Ashby leaves with the posse. Rance, vowing to hang Ramerrez that very day, looks forward to seeing Minnie weep. Various miners provide continual reports of the efforts to corral the outlaw, until at last a cheer goes up: Dick Johnson, a.k.a. Ramerrez, has been caught.

While Rance, Ashby and the miners celebrate, Nick quietly approaches Billy Jackrabbit, whose task it is to make a hanging noose. Giving Billy some gold coins, Nick instructs him to take his time, threatening to shoot the Indian should he tell the others of these orders.

A sullen Johnson is brought in, bound with rope. Stoically, he tells the men to get his execution over with quickly. The miners accuse him of various violent murders, but Johnson denies killing anyone: he is a thief, but not a murderer. But the miners are angriest about another kind of theft: the theft of Minnie, whose affections now belong only to Johnson.

The condemned man declares that he cares nothing about death. As they wait for Billy to finish tying the noose, Johnson asks to speak some last words. Amid protests, Sonora quiets the miners, confirming that it is the prisoner’s right. Johnson’s sole wish is that Minnie not know of his fate; he wishes her to believe that he is a free man, escaped into the distance. (Example 13)

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Example 13

Rance lashes out at Johnson in rage as the noose, finally completed, is lowered to Johnson’s face. The miners turn toward the trail as the sound of an approaching rider is heard. It’s Minnie, entering on horseback. Rance tries to get the men to hurry and string up the prisoner, but they are transfixed at the sight of Minnie, disheveled and wild-eyed. Drawing her gun, she stands between Johnson and the other men, daring them to proceed, assuring them that she is not afraid. When the miners protest and make as if to remove her, Minnie reminds them of all she has done for them at the camp. Scolding them, she says she gave up her youth to nurture them through their sicknesses, worries and discomforts; now, they owe her a chance for her own happiness.

One by one, the miners, overwhelmed by sentiment, relent until at last, to the disgust of the sheriff, Johnson is untied and set free. Minnie declares that redemption is a gift available to every man and that the bandit Johnson used to be died in her cabin. Sonora pronounces her words to be of God. As the miners, overcome with emotion, wipe tears from their eyes, Johnson and Minnie ride off together, singing their farewell to California, their voices receding farther and farther into the distance as the opera ends.

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Historical Background of the Opera

1. The California Gold RushThe cultural and economic phenomenon known as the California Gold Rush began in January 1848 with the discovery of gold in Coloma, CA. At this time, the Mexican-American war was nearly over (it would end the following month), and it was clear that California would be governed by the United States. This created a strong element of racial tension as the lure of gold brought hundreds of thousands of Americans (as well as fortune-seekers from other countries) into the area over the next half-dozen years.

The discovery of California gold was confirmed by President James Polk in an address to Congress in the summer of 1848, but rumors, many printed in newspapers, were already wide-spread throughout the nation.

The news spurred a tremendous influx of miners into “gold country”. During the early months of the Gold Rush, when the precious metal was more easily obtained from river-beds, an industrious “Forty-niner” (as the first workers, most of them native Californians, were called) could earn thousands of dollars in a single day. At best, it was said, one could earn six years’ worth of wages in six months.

But the hardships suffered in pursuit of treasure were harsh, and many either broke even or lost money. California was a remote location in the days before mechanized inter-continental transportation. There were three routes to the territory, all hazardous: overland trails, ocean voyages around the southern tip of South America, and access to the Pacific via the jungles of Panama. Once arrived in mining country, miners were subject to attack from Native Americans or other Forty-niners. The early months of the Gold Rush took place in a fairly lawless environment, where each man staking a claim to a spot with a rich supply of gold simply reaped all profits without taxation. Claims were in force until they were abandoned, at which point another individual could occupy the same spot, a practice known as “claim-jumping”.

The boom in gold mining put California on the fast track to statehood, which was achieved in September 1850. By then, easily-found gold had been played out, replaced by mining industries employing sophisticated techniques. The effect of the Gold Rush had a major impact in boosting the economy of the United States.

2. David BelascoPuccini’s opera La Fanciulla del West was adapted from a stage-play by the American playwright and producer David Belasco (1853-1931). It was the second of Belasco’s dramas chosen by the composer for operatic treatment, the first being Madame Butterfly. Today he is remembered as a giant of American theater who dominated Broadway for nearly half a century from the 1880’s until his death.

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Belasco was the son of Jewish parents who moved from England to San Francisco, where he was raised. Ironically, it was the California Gold Rush of 1848, the subject of his future hit play, that drew the Belasco family to America. Belasco’s interest in theater was lifelong, beginning in childhood. A steady progression saw him rise from various odd jobs to stints as stage manager and actor in California and Nevada theaters, leading to his move to New York City in 1882.

While working at New York’s Madison Square Theater and the Lyceum, Belasco began turning his attention to playwriting. Eventually becoming an independent producer, Belasco’s career as writer, director and producer saw him personally involved in some one hundred productions. With a keen eye for talent, he fostered the careers of many important actors, including Mary Pickford and Barbara Stanwyck.

Belasco’s productions were notable for innovations in the realm of naturalism; he took extraordinary steps to achieve new standards of realism in acting, set design and lighting. Many of his plays have been made into Hollywood films.

His play The Girl of the Golden West opened at New York’s Belasco Theater in November 1905, enjoying a run of 224 performances. The production featured songs, some of which functioned as part of the action such as Jake Wallace’s minstrel song, as well as songs played during scene changes. The latter included popular songs by Stephen Foster such as “Camptown Races” and “O Susannah”. Belasco is said to have based the story on his personal childhood recollections of California during the Gold Rush. He claimed that the pivotal scene of Dick Johnson’s blood dripping onto the hand of the sheriff was based on a true incident. Some characters bear names of actual persons from Mexico/California history. For example, the outlaw José Castro, who makes a brief appearance in Act 1, was likely named after the Commandante General of the Mexican army during the Mexican-American War of 1846-1848. Belasco’s assignment of that name to a bandit of bad character demonstrates that, over fifty years after the war’s end, racial resentments still existed between the two nations.

In addition to Puccini’s opera, The Girl of the Golden West was also made into a 1938 Hollywood musical film starring the popular cinematic duo of Jeanette MacDonald and Nelson Eddy as Minnie (now called Mary) and Johnson. The film featured songs by Sigmund Romberg.

3. The creation of the operaGiacomo Puccini’s creative process was never free of complications, squabbles with collaborators, or self-doubts. However, La Fanciulla del West had a particularly trying period of gestation; a period of some three years during which professional and personal adversities caused substantial delays.

When Puccini traveled to New York City in January, 1907 to oversee productions of his operas at the Metropolitan Opera House, he was arguably the most successful living composer, certainly in the operatic field. With titles such as Manon Lescaut, La Bohème, Tosca and the revised version of Madama Butterfly to his credit, he was at the pinnacle of his profession.

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His editor and publisher Giulio Ricordi was anxious for a new work, but Puccini had difficulty in finding a story that appealed to his theatrical instincts. The subjects he considered but rejected include Marie Antoinette, as well as novels and plays by Victor Hugo, Oscar Wilde (Puccini greatly admired Richard Strauss’s Wilde-based opera Salome), and Gabriele D’Annunzio. Ricordi urged the composer to consider Conchita, a lurid drama about a Spanish prostitute in Seville, which the publisher believed could be a success after the fashion of Bizet’s Carmen.

While in New York, Puccini attended several theatrical performances, including David Belasco’s stage-play The Girl of the Golden West. Although he understood very little English, he nonetheless grasped the strong theatrical values of the play. He was very impressed with the stage effects Belasco employed. Among these were:

Innovative and striking lighting effects, including a dramatic simulation of sunset at the beginning of the play, an effect of some five minutes during which there was no dialogue; and

A very realistic snow-storm effect requiring three dozen stage-hands to produce wind and blowing snow.

Upon returning to Italy, Puccini ordered a copy of the play translated into Italian and began negotiations with Belasco to secure the rights to begin work on the opera.

The formidable team of librettists that had fashioned his previous two operas consisted of the dramatist Luigi Illica and the poet Giuseppe Giacosa. They were no longer available, as Giacosa died in 1906 and Puccini had a falling-out with Illica, ending their relationship on bad terms.

Upon the suggestion of Tito Ricordi, son of Giulio, Puccini settled on Carlo Zangarini, a poet and novelist who would later achieve distinction as a journalist. One point in favor of Zangarini, a native of Bologna, was that his mother was American, which Puccini believed could be an advantage in lending authenticity to the libretto.

It was not unusual for Puccini to await the work of his librettists with impatience; in the case of this project, however, work proceeded at an unusually slow pace. This was due in part to Zangarini’s own leisurely approach as well as the reality that his mastery of English was not as fine as Puccini had assumed; the composer was continually unhappy with issues of language in Zangarini’s work. It is also true that the task of rendering Belasco’s play into the Italian language posed a built-in obstacle; namely, the proliferation of colorful American slang that made up much of the script, and the challenge of finding a convincing parallel in another language.

As an example, the Indian characters Billy Jackrabbit and Wowkle speak in a primitive, broken style of English in the play, one familiar to viewers of Hollywood westerns, with lines such as “Me not know”. Zangarini’s solution was to have Wowkle use the infinitive form of verbs in place of a first-person conjugation. But other linguistic idiosyncrasies proved more daunting.

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To Puccini’s great frustration, and despite a constant barrage of letters both to Zangarini and Ricordi urging completion, weeks and even months went by at a time with minimal (if any) progress. In the end, Puccini turned to another librettist, Guelfo Civinini, to expedite the completion of the libretto.

But two other complications were entirely Puccini’s own. The first involved his dissatisfaction with Belasco’s ending. Puccini wished the finale of the opera not to take place in the Polka saloon (as in the play), but in a grandly-conceived outdoor setting. Puccini had seen photographs of the majestic redwood forests of California and was convinced this would make for a spectacular theatrical effect on the stage. The nature of Johnson’s rescue and an emphasis on the theme of spiritual redemption were elements Puccini wished to be strengthened. Without Belasco’s model for some of this content, there were many attempts before a successful version emerged.

The other issue stemming from Puccini himself threatened to put an end not just to La Fanciulla del West, but potentially to Puccini’s career itself. This involved a personal tragedy involving the composer, his wife Elvira and their housemaid, a young girl named Doria Manfredi.

Puccini married Elvira primarily because she gave birth to their son Antonio, the result of an extra-marital affair when she was married to another man. The wedding occurred following the death of the first husband; what followed was a marriage that lasted until Puccini’s death but was widely regarded as loveless. Elvira was not particularly well-educated and displayed no interest or curiosity about opera or music in general. Puccini was a wealthy, famous and attractive man; there were many rumors of romances with other women. The composer once jokingly described himself as “a mighty hunter of birds, librettos and beautiful women”. Elvira was certainly aware of her husband’s reputation and was prone to natural feelings of jealousy.

In the fall of 2008, when Puccini was committed to working on Fanciulla, Elvira became convinced that her husband was sleeping with Doria. For the next few months she made life miserable for Puccini and especially for the young housemaid, subjecting Doria to incessant verbal abuse, both at home and in public. Puccini, who denied any improper behavior in this regard, was so distraught that he left their home in Torre del Lago, staying at a hotel in Paris in an attempt to work in peace. In the meantime, throughout the months of September through December, Elvira besieged Doria with a campaign to shame her into leaving the town.

These events culminated in Doria’s suicide in January of 1909. Following her death, an autopsy revealed that the young woman was in fact a virgin. Puccini immediately began planning a formal separation from Elvira. The Manfredi family filed charges against Elvira Puccini; the equivalent of manslaughter in modern terms. A trial was slated for July. Puccini, in the throes of grief and depression, was unable to work on La Fanciulla at all and traveled from one city to another in search of solace.

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In the end, the magistrate at the trial found Elvira guilty on three counts; the accused offered no defense and did not appear in court. The sentence handed down consisted of a fine and some five months in jail. In the end, Puccini (perhaps feeling guilt over his past real adulterous episodes) made an out-of-court settlement with Doria’s family in the amount of 12,000 lire. In exchange, the court action was nullified. Puccini and Elvira made their peace with other to the extent possible and a guarded co-existence resumed.

Problematic collaborations and personal tragedies now past, work resumed on La Fanciulla and plans were made for the world premiere. With its American playwright and American setting, the Metropolitan Opera was the natural choice for a first production. This was a seminal event in the cultural life of New York and helped the Metropolitan Opera achieve its status as a leading international opera company. Global stars were engaged: the great Enrico Caruso, a veteran of Puccini’s previous operas, played Johnson; Pasquale Amato played Jack Rance; Emmy Destinn created the role of Minnie, and Arturo Toscanini, the foremost operatic conductor in the world as well as a personal friend of the composer, led from the podium. David Belasco himself served as stage director. Written descriptions of Belasco’s rehearsal process detail the pains he took to tutor the European cast in the physical mannerisms of nineteenth-century Western Americans.

Puccini came to New York for rehearsals. He was feted at innumerable dinners with the elite of the city’s social scene; he was interviewed constantly by newspapers and magazines; he was generally received like operatic royalty. The first performance was sold out well in advance, and scalpers had a field day re-selling tickets for several times the printed cost.

The performance was a stunning success, with the singers, conductor and composer all recalled to the stage many times to approving ovations. Reception among critics was more mixed, a trend that continued as the opera quickly made its way to productions in London, Italy, and around the world. Many critics discerned a change in Puccini’s approach toward a more symphonic concept. Some decried what they found to be a lack of melody, a charge still somewhat in vogue in modern times. Others were perplexed by the unexpectedly happy ending; Puccini, apparently, had washed his hands of the doomed female characters who populated his previous works. Minnie was a puzzling figure in the realm of Italian opera: strong, healthy, optimistic and self-sufficient: a profile that some critics could not reconcile with their expectations.

While never approaching the popularity of Puccini’s four previous operas or his final work Turandot, La Fanciulla del West has nonetheless found its place as a staple of the standard repertoire.

NOTE: La Fanciulla del West became the subject of controversy following the 1986 premiere of Andrew Lloyd Webber’s musical The Phantom of the Opera. Many people noticed the close resemblance of a passage in the song “The Music of the Night” to a similar passage in Johnson’s Act 1 solo “Quello che tacete”. The Puccini estate threatened legal action against Webber; an out-of-court settlement is said to have resolved the matter.

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The Music of La Fanciulla del West

As one might expect, given a gap of some six years between La Fanciulla del West (1910) and its immediate predecessor Madama Butterfly (1904), Puccini’s musical style and techniques had undergone considerable evolution. Not content to duplicate the popular style of his past hits, the composer expanded his musical vocabulary considerably in his “American” opera.

One major contrast with previous operas is Puccini’s effort to downplay stand-alone arias and duets. Arias no longer allow obvious pauses intended for audience applause, as in Tosca’s aria “Vissi d’Arte”. In contrast, perhaps owing to the composer’s study of Wagner and Richard Strauss, solo passages are smoothly integrated into the texture of the scene. Arias often lack final cadences as the action continues without interruption.

Many critics and commentators have pointed out that Puccini’s harmonic language is more advanced in comparison with earlier works; the influence of Debussy is evident, though the familiar strain of Puccini-esque lyricism is not completely abandoned. Debussy’s technique of “planing” (a stream of parallel non-functional sonorities) is employed freely, as in the opening theme of “untamed lawlessness” (Example 1).

Yet, for all the stylistic evolution displayed, the opera also contains similarities of materials and structure to previous Puccini operas, most notably its immediate predecessor, Madama Butterfly.Butterfly featured a highly effective “humming chorus” in the closing moments of Act 2, as an off-stage chorus wordlessly hummed a passage during Cio-Cio-san’s vigil as she awaited Pinkerton’s return.

This device occurs twice in Fanciulla, each time in Act 1. The miners sing a wordless waltz as Minnie dances with Johnson at the Polka. This is followed by a true “humming chorus” in the closing moments of the act when Johnson comforts a weeping Minnie as an off-stage men’s chorus hum’s Minnie’s theme.

Structurally, there is also an interesting comparison to be observed between Butterfly and Fanciulla. Act 2 of Butterfly opens with the maid Suzuki, a mezzo-soprano role, intoning a Buddhist prayer with a monotonous melody of limited range. In Fanciulla, the second act likewise opens with Wowkle, Minnie’s servant, singing a lullaby to her papoose that is similarly monotonous and of limited range.

In Butterfly, the action of Act 2 includes excited preparations for a festive reunion with the tenor; Cio-Cio-san and Suzuki spread flower petals throughout their home, only to face crushing disappointment when the reunion proves to be unhappy. Echoes of this scenario are found in Fanciulla in that Wowkle and Minnie prepare for Johnson’s visit: Wowkle sets out a supper of biscuits and cream while Minnie adorns herself with cologne and flowers. Although Minnie and Johnson are destined for a happy destiny as the drama develops; in the short run his arrivial, like

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Pinkerton’s brings disappointment as Minnie discovers his lies: he is really the bandit Ramerrez and, despite his denials, he has been Nina Micheltorena’s lover.

As with Madama Butterfly and Turandot, Puccini took pains to indoctrinate himself in authentic native musical sources of the “exotic” culture he chose for his subject: the American West. The clearest example of the fruits of his research are found in the minstrel song sung by Jake Wallace in Act 1. This tune (quoted in Example 4) on first hearing bears modest resemblance to the sentimental songs of Stephen Foster in the manner of “My Old Kentucky Home”. In fact, however, it has been demonstrated by the scholar Allan W. Atlas to have been based on an authentic Zuni Indian melody first transcribed by Carlos Troyer with the title “Festive Sun-dance”. The outline of Jake’s melodic line is clearly seen in this excerpt:

Another musical “Americanism” occurs when the miners occasionally break into the refrain “doo-dah, doo-dah doo-dah day”, more or less in the style of Foster’s “Camptown Races”.

In considering Puccini’s writing for the voice, the role of Minnie reflects the most drastic contrast with his previous work. It is clear that Puccini felt Minnie would require a different type of soprano in light of her character’s dissimilarity to Manon, Mimi, Cio-Cio-san and even Tosca. The first three of those iconic roles were the familiar stereotype: delicate, ultra-feminine, heavily dependent on the men they loved and, in the end, doomed. Minnie, in contrast, is a robustly healthy specimen with a strongly independent streak and in no sense doomed, unless one assumes her future with Johnson involves the jeopardy associated with his status as a fugitive from justice.

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As a result, Minnie calls for a true dramatic soprano, whereas previous roles were written with a classic lyrico spinto voice. The sopranos who have fared best with Minnie’s music have been of the vocal heft and weight associated with Wagner and Strauss, as well as Turandot. Minnie is a true fore-runner of Puccini’s Chinese princess, whereas the supporting soprano role of Liù is a throwback to the more lyrical category.

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Discussion Questions

1. In advance of the world premiere of The Girl of the Golden West, American newspapers continually played up the notion of an “American Opera”, a concept the composer attempted to downplay. What, in your opinion, makes an opera “American”? Is it a question of subject; or musical materials and the “atmosphere” they generate; or the nationality of the composer? Given that the opera is based on Belasco’s play, and that the play came out of his real-life memories of the Gold Rush era, to what extent does the opera successfully recreate an American sensibility?

2. Puccini made a clear effort in this opera to avoid having the action interrupted by applause following arias and other types of solos. What is your opinion regarding applause following the performance of opera arias? Are you bothered by the disruption of the action, or are you frustrated if you cannot immediately express your appreciation of an outstanding performance?

3. Write an essay speculating on your imagined continuation of Minnie and Johnson’s story following the events of the opera. What do you think may have been their eventual fate? Might Rance have continued hunting his adversary? Where do you think Minnie and Johnson went – to a big Western city like San Francisco or farther away? Given Johnson’s past crimes and status as a fugitive, might Minnie suffer the consequences of aiding his escape?

4. As noted above in this Guide, Andrew Lloyd Webber has been accused of having borrowed a phrase from this opera in a musical number from The Phantom of the Opera. There have been many other cases involving claims of plagiarism in the music industry, including George Harrison’s song “My Sweet Lord”. Listen to “The Music of the Night” and “Quello che tacetes” consecutively. Do you feel Webber’s song is a clear-cut case of borrowing? If so, how can one know if such borrowing is conscious or unconscious? Are all cases of melodic similarity throughout music history excamples of “plagiarism”? Why or why not?

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A SHORT HISTORY OF OPERA

The word opera is the plural form of the Latin word opus, which translates quite literally as work. The use of the plural form alludes to the plurality of art forms that combine to create an operatic performance. Today we accept the word opera as a reference to a theatrically based musical art form in which the drama is propelled by the sung declamation of text accompanied by a full symphony orchestra.

Opera as an art form can claim its origin with the inclusion of incidental music that was performed during the tragedies and comedies popular during ancient Greek times. The tradition of including music as an integral part of theatrical activities expanded in Roman times and continued throughout the Middle Ages. Surviving examples of liturgical dramas and vernacular plays from medieval times show the use of music as an “insignificant” part of the action as do the vast mystery and morality plays of the 15th and 16th centuries. Traditional view holds that the first completely sung musical drama (or opera) developed as a result of discussions held in Florence in the 1570s by an informal academy known as the Camerata, which led to the musical setting of Rinuccini’s drama, Dafne, by composer, Jacopo Peri in 1597.

The work of such early Italian masters as Giulio Caccini and Claudio Monteverdi led to the development of a through-composed musical entertainment comprised of recitative sections (secco and accompagnato) which revealed the plot of the drama; followed by da capo arias which provided the soloist an opportunity to develop the emotions of the character. The function of the chorus in these early works mirrored that of the character of the same name found in Greek drama. The new “form” was greeted favorably by the public and quickly became a popular entertainment.

Opera has flourished throughout the world as a vehicle for the expression of the full range of human emotions. Italians claim the art form as their own, retaining dominance in the field through the death of Giacomo Puccini in 1924. Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti, Verdi, and Leoncavallo developed the art form through clearly defined periods that produced opera buffa, opera seria, bel canto, and verismo. The Austrian Mozart also wrote operas in Italian and championed the singspiel (sing play), which combined the spoken word with music, a form also used by Beethoven in his only opera, Fidelio. Bizet (Carmen), Offenbach (Les Contes d’Hoffmann), Gounod (Faust), and Meyerbeer (Les Huguenots) led the adaptation by the French which ranged from the opera comique to the grand full-scale tragedie lyrique. German composers von Weber (Der Freischütz), Richard Strauss (Ariadne auf Naxos), and Wagner (Der Ring des Nibelungen) developed diverse forms such as singspiel to through-composed spectacles unified through the use of the leitmotif. The English ballad opera, Spanish zarzuela and Viennese operetta helped to establish opera as a form of entertainment which continues to enjoy great popularity throughout the world.

A SHORT HISTORY OF OPERA (continued)

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With the beginning of the 20th century, composers in America diverged from European traditions in order to focus on their own roots while exploring and developing the vast body of the country’s folk music and legends. Composers such as Aaron Copland, Douglas Moore, Carlisle Floyd, Howard Hanson, and Robert Ward have all crafted operas that have been presented throughout the world to great success. Today, composers John Adams, Philip Glass, and John Corigliano enjoy success both at home and abroad and are credited with the infusion of new life into an art form which continues to evolve even as it approaches its fifth century.

THE OPERATIC VOICE

A true (and brief) definition of the “operatic” voice is a difficult proposition. Many believe the voice is “born,” while just as many hold to the belief that the voice is “trained.” The truth lies somewhere between the two. Voices that can sustain the demands required by the

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operatic repertoire do have many things in common. First and foremost is a strong physical technique that allows the singer to sustain long phrases through the control of both the inhalation and exhalation of breath. Secondly, the voice (regardless of its size) must maintain a resonance in both the head (mouth, sinuses) and chest cavities. The Italian word “squillo” (squeal) is used to describe the brilliant tone required to penetrate the full symphony orchestra that accompanies the singers. Finally, all voices are defined by both the actual voice “type” and the selection of repertoire for which the voice is ideally suited.

Within the five major voice types (Soprano, Mezzo-Soprano, Tenor, Baritone, Bass) there is a further delineation into categories (Coloratura, Lyric, Spinto, Dramatic) which help to define each particular instrument. The Coloratura is the highest within each voice type whose extended upper range is complimented by extreme flexibility. The Lyric is the most common of the “types.” This instrument is recognized more for the exceptional beauty of its tone rather than its power or range. The Spinto is a voice which combines the beauty of a lyric with the weight and power of a Dramatic, which is the most “powerful” of the voices. The Dramatic instrument is characterized by the combination of both incredible volume and “steely” intensity. Below is a very brief outline of voice types and categories with roles usually associated with the individual voice type.

Coloratura Lyric Spinto Dramatic

SopranoNorina (Don Pasquale)Gilda (Rigoletto)Lucia (Lucia di Lammermoor)

Liu (Turandot)Mimi (La Bohème)Pamina (Magic Flute)

Tosca (Tosca)Amelia (A Masked Ball)Leonora (Il Trovatore)

Turandot (Turandot)Norma (Norma)Elektra (Elektra)

Mezzo-Soprano

Rosina (Barber of Seville)Angelina (La Cenerentola)Dorabella (Così fan tutte)

Carmen (Carmen)Charlotte (Werther)Giulietta (Hoffmann)

Santuzza (Cavalleria)Adalgisa (Norma)

Azucena (Il Trovatore)Ulrica (A Masked Ball)Herodias (Salome)

TenorCount Almaviva (Barber of Seville)Don Ottavio (Don Giovanni)Ferrando (Così fan tutte)

Alfredo (La Traviata)Rodolfo (La Bohème)Tamino (Magic Flute)

Calaf (Turandot)Pollione (Norma)Cavaradossi (Tosca)

Dick Johnson (Fanciulla)Don Jose (Carmen)Otello (Otello)

BaritoneFigaro (Barber of Seville)Count Almavira (Le nozze di Figaro)Dr. Malatesta (Don Pasquale)

Marcello (La Bohème)Don Giovanni (Don Giovanni)Sharpless (Madama Butterfly)

Verdi BaritoneGermont (La Traviata)Di Luna (Il Trovatore)Rigoletto (Rigoletto)

Scarpia (Tosca)Jochanaan (Salome)Jack Rance (Fanciulla)

Bass Bartolo (Barber of Seville)Don Magnifico (Cenerentola)Dr. Dulcamara (Elixir of Love)

Leporello (Don Giovanni)Colline (La Bohème)Figaro (Marriage of Figaro)

Buffo BassDon Pasquale (Don Pasquale)Don Alfonso (Così fan tutte)

Basso CantateOroveso (Norma)Timur (Turandot)Sarastro (Magic Flute)

OPERA PRODUCTION

Opera is created through the collaboration of different artists. First and foremost are the actors who portray characters by revealing their thoughts and emotions through the singing voice. The next very important component is a full symphony orchestra that accompanies the singing actors and actresses, helping them to portray the full range of emotions. The orchestra performs in an

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area in front of the singers called the orchestra pit while the singers perform on the open area called the stage.

The creation of an opera begins with a dramatic scenario crafted by a playwright or dramaturge who alone or with a librettist fashions the script or libretto that contains the words the artists will sing. Working together, the composer and librettist team up to create a musical drama in which the music and words work together to express the emotions revealed in the story. Following the completion of their work, the composer and librettist entrust their new work to a conductor who assumes responsibility for the musical preparation of the work. The conductor collaborates with a stage director (responsible for the visual component) in order to bring a performance of the new piece to life.

Set, lighting, and costume designers, wig and makeup designers and even choreographers must all work together to participate in the creation of the new production. The set designer combines the skills of both an artist and an architect using “blueprint” plans to design the physical set which will reside on the stage, recreating the physical setting required by the storyline. These blueprints are turned over to a team of carpenters who are specially trained in the art of stage carpentry. As the set is assembled on the stage, the lighting designer works with a team of electricians to place light onto both the stage and the set in an atmospheric as well as practical way. Using specialized lighting instruments, colored gels and a state of the art computer, the designer creates a “lighting plot” by writing “lighting cues” which are stored in the computer and used during the actual performance of the opera.

During this production period, the costume designer in consultation with the stage director has designed appropriate clothing for the actors and actresses to wear. These designs are fashioned into patterns and crafted by a team of highly skilled artisans called cutters, stitchers, and sewers. Each costume is specially made for each singer using his/her individual measurements. The wig and makeup designer, working with the costume designer, creates wigs which will complement both the costume and the singer as well as represent historically accurate “period” fashions.

As the actual performance date approaches, rehearsals are held on the newly crafted set, combined with costumes, lights, and orchestra in order to ensure a cohesive performance that will be both dramatically and musically satisfying to the audience.

GLOSSARY OF OPERATIC TERMS

ALTO (It.)The lowest female voice. Also called contralto.

ARIA (It.)pronounced (AH-ree-ah) - A song for solo voice.

BARITONE

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pronounced (BARR-ah-tone) - The middle range male voice, between tenor and bass.

BASSpronounced (BASE) - Lowest of the male voices.

COSTUME Clothing a singer wears to portray a character.

COMPOSER The person who writes the music.

DESIGNER The person who creates the scenery, costumes and lights.

DUET pronounced (do-ET) - Music written for two people to sing together, usually to each other.

ENSEMBLE Two or more singers singing at the same time to express their emotions and tell the story.

LIBRETTO (It.) pronounced (lih-BRET-oh) - The word literally means “little book.” Thetext or words of an opera.

MELODY A series of musical tones that make up a tune.

MEZZO-SOPRANO (It.)pronounced (MEDZ-oh soh-PRANH-oh) - The middle female voice, between soprano and contralto.

OPERA pronounced (AH-per-ah) - A play that uses singing instead of speaking and is accompanied usually by piano in rehearsals and orchestra in performances.

PIANO (It.) pronounced (pee-AN-oh) – A musical instrument used to accompany singers in rehearsals when there is no orchestra. The orchestral score is reduced from parts for many instruments to one part for the pianist, which combines all the important music that must be played to give a complete sound for the singers.

RECITATIVE

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pronounced (ress-it-uh-TEEVE) - A type of music using words sung with the rhythm of natural speech with some melody added. Recitative can come before an aria or stand alone and it gives information or moves the story along.

REHEARSAL The time singers and musicians spend practicing before a performance.

PROPS Objects placed on the stage, excluding scenery. Short for “properties.”

SCORE The book which contains both the music and the text of the opera.

SET The scenery used on the stage to show location for the action.

SOPRANO (It.)pronounced (soh-PRANH-oh) - The highest female voice.

STAGE DIRECTOR The person who decides how the singers will move on stage and how they will act while they are singing their parts.

TENOR pronounced (TEH-nor) - The highest male voice.

TRIO (It.)pronounced (TREE-oh) - Music written for three characters to sing together.

VIBRATO (It.)pronounced (vi-BRAH-toe) - The natural way for a voice or instrument to enlarge its sound through a very rapid but very tiny waver in pitch.

VOCAL RANGEThe scope of the human voice from its highest to its lowest sounds. Voices fall into these categories:

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