SOLUTION GUIDES

VAULTED CEILINGS

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SOLUTION GUIDE

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CONTENTS

Glossary

Introduction

Reference project

Ultimate Specification - Technical description

System performance

Environmental improvements

Our sustainability strategy

References

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10

13

15

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Reflectance

Defines a material’s ability to reflect solar energy, it is also commonly referred to as albedo3.

Thermal comfort

Describes a person’s state of mind in terms of whether they feel too hot or cold4.

Diurnal temperature variation

The daily temperature shift that occurs between daytime and night time temperatures2.

Fabric energy storage

The utilisation of thermal mass in buildings and its ability to store energy5.

Perimeter zone

Area within a building that is typically most significantly affected by out door conditions, such as noise, temperature and solar radiation 6.

GLOSSARY

Air stratification

The distinct layering of air dependent on its temperature creating a vertical temperature gradient, from cool to warm.

HVAC

Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning is concerned with the provision of thermal comfort in buildings.

Radiant cooling

The removal of heat from a space due to the action of thermal radiation, requiring line of sight. Flows will occur from objects as long as their temperature remains above that of other elements1.

Thermal mass

The ability of material to absorb, store and release heat 2.

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Our approach to construction encompasses innovative sustainable products, efficient building systems and practical solutions. We recognise the important role we have in promoting sustainable construction by optimising our products, their use and whole life performance. This document is one of a suite that identifies specific construction solutions that can help deliver a sustainable built environment. They explore the details of each system, its performance benefits, how it can be implemented in a project and then compares its environmental performance against alternative solutions.

This document introduces Vaulted Ceilings, which form part of a building’s structural frame, identifying an approach to slab soffit construction that can be used to provide thermal comfort benefits to occupants.

Typical Applications

Building sectors: Office and commercial buildings, schools, universities, convention centres and public facilities.

7Vaulted ceilings utilised in an open office environment.

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Other advantages include

• Thermal comfort

• Integration of services

• Improved daylighting

• Improved ventilation

• Adaptability to future climate change

• Structurally efficient

• Energy efficiency.

ADVANTAGESThe profiled shape enables a larger surface area of the material to be exposed, optimising access to the concrete’s thermal mass which can attenuate internal heat energy gains.

In open office applications with walls typically constructed of extensive glazing and floors covered, it is typically only the ceiling that offers a large enough exposed expanse to provide sufficient thermal mass capacity.

Vaulted ceilings are profiled concrete ceilings which form part of a building’s structural frame. Through careful design they can form part of the solution to mitigate a building’s cooling and ventilation demands, with the ability to address future cooling demands due to expected increases in global temperatures.

INTRODUCTION

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CASE STUDY

PORTLAND HOUSE, SOLIHULLTARMAC HEAD OFFICE

After the acquisition of Blue Circle Cement to enhance the offering from Tarmac, there was a need to create a purpose built home to bring the two businesses together.

In order to compliment the sustainable ambitions of the company the brief was set to create a sustainable and efficient building, which would satisfy the requirements of the newly expanded business whilst maintaining the potential for future growth.

The solution was a purpose built sustainable development that utilised improved methods of construction and optimised the fabric of the building to offer more than just structural performance.

Client: Tarmac

Developer: Stoford Developments

Architects: Webb Gray and Vincent and Gorbing

Year: 2007

Office space: 5,570 m²

Project Value: £22 million

Green Rating: BREEAM Office ‘Very Good’

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Stoford Developments were approached to lead the project and, with architects Webb Gray, devised a steel frame solution to fulfil the minimum requirements of the project. Tarmac worked in close collaboration with their architects, Vincent and Gorbing, and the project team, to optimise and develop the project. Concrete was introduced as a fundamental structural material, enhancing the sustainable credentials of the building.

Concrete created the opportunities for savings to be realised throughout the building’s life.

The design was based around a concrete frame complemented with external concrete columns and a glazed façade. Open office areas made use of the concrete frame, through exposing the soffits of slabs which were constructed in a barrel-vaulted form. Access to the soffits allowed the structure’s thermal mass to be utilised. The vaulted shape increased the surface area for heat transfer, increasing its cooling potential.

Utilising the thermal mass created a ‘free cooling’ system that helped to mitigate the heating effect of occupants and equipment and complemented thermal comfort by

providing a radiant cooling effect. The implementation of this approach provided savings as HVAC requirements were reduced.

When a structures thermal mass is used to aid cooling, night purging is required to ready the material for the next day’s cooling demand, typically through opening windows. Due to the sites location, next to Birmingham International Airport and Train Station this was not possible. In its place an air displacement ventilation system was implemented, which also increased the access to the thermal mass of the building.

The air displacement ventilation system works by treated air being introduced into a void underneath the floor, where it comes into contact with the exposed concrete slab, cooling the air due to transfer of heat energy facilitated by the thermal mass. This is then distributed into the populated space through swirl diffusers, creating a low velocity air flow within the room.

As it is warmed by room heat sources, occupants and equipment (reaching 23°C), the air rises up to ceiling level where it is trapped with the vaulted bays. This enables the warm air to interact with the thermal mass of the vaults and begin to be cooled

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Air extraction vents

Exposed slab

Floor void Raised floorFloor air diffusers

Illustration of the layout of Portland House utilising vaulted ceilings

and air displacement ventilation

prior to extraction. The extracted air is mixed with fresh air, to provide an acceptable level of air quality, before re-circulation into occupied spaces (at approximately 18°C). No cooling system is required as the high thermal mass exposed in the structure has sufficient capacity to cool the air temperature from 23°C to 18°C.

Significant additional benefits were also realised through the inclusion of barrel vaulted ceilings, including improved

acoustic control and increased natural daylighting. The effective increase in ceiling height within the vaults and the naturally light colour of the concrete offered high levels of reflectance allowing light to penetrate further into the open office space. Implementing a vaulted concrete ceiling solution contributed to creating a 38% reduction in office energy costs when compared to a typical air conditioned prestige office 8.

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Vaulted ceilings are part of the intrinsic fabric of a building and can play a significant role in improving the cooling and ventilation strategy of a building. Their foremost application is to fulfil the structural performance requirements of the building where they can be used in place of more traditional construction systems such as flat slab, steel decking or composite slab systems.

With the implementation of this system, it is possible to realise the wider potential that key structural materials can offer to improve the operational performance of buildings, despite having been historically selected on physical properties9 alone.

Vaulted ceilings can be created by either the inclusion of profiled cutouts within a traditional flat slab soffit or the construction of arched structural elements. Both methods are viable for precast and insitu concrete construction solutions. It is the latter, arched structural elements, which create the most distinct change from conventional approaches.

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the traditional construction of a separate suspended ceiling system10 and facilitates the possibility to add rebates and access points for services within the structure.

The presence of this void also creates an opportunity to implement an underfloor ventilation system, which allows further access to the structure’s inherent thermal mass.

Conventional and traditional approaches typically utilise a flat soffit with the requirement to suspend a false ceiling in order to create a service void for essential and HVAC systems. A vaulted system can replace this void due to the curvature of the slab, creating a void between the upper surface of the element and the floor of the storey above. It is then possible to utilise this void to run services rather than

Beam support for vaulted ceiling

Supporting column

Vaulted ceiling element

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Diagram right:Representation of the effect that thermal mass has on thermal comfort 11.

THERMAL COMFORT

In office environments where a consistent level of thermal comfort cannot be maintained there is anecdotal and quantified evidence stating that this can have a detrimental effect of occupant performance11.

Concrete can offer a high level of fabric energy storage (FES), providing the capacity to store large amounts of heat energy. This allows unwanted heat gain or generated heat energy to be absorbed helping to maintain thermal comfort levels.

Vaulted or profiled ceilings increase the exposed surface area of concrete optimising access to thermal mass, which can help to provide a cooling effect12. Incorporation of this system

offers the potential to reduce a buildings cooling energy demand 14.

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Heat energy is primarily absorbed via radiation, whether from occupants, equipment or objects, as long as they are of a higher temperature than the concrete itself.

Absorption will continue throughout the day, whilst occupants will also experience a radiant cooling effect, due to high levels of fabric energy storage. This approach helps stabilise internal temperature and can delay the peak temperatures by 5 or 6 hours, to typically fall outside of office hours12.

When the 24 hour cooling cycle of a typical office is considered, 100mm of concrete has been stated to be sufficient to mitigate these heat gains5. However, over longer periods of increased temperatures (i.e. weeks or months) concrete in excess of 100mm can be beneficial as this provides sufficient additional capacity to moderate these associated energy gains.

Displacement ventilation systems also increase the efficiency of thermal mass by enabling access to the top surface of slabs.

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Peak temperature delayed by up to six hours

Up to 6-8°C difference between peak external and internal temperature

Internal temperature with high thermal mass

Day Night Day

30 °C

temperature

15 °C

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Internal temperature with low thermal mass

External temperature

1717

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INTEGRATION OF SERVICES

Typical approaches to services integration sees the majority hidden within suspended ceilings. Vaulted ceilings and exposed soffits prevent this traditional approach as access to thermal mass is required; however this does allow a simple and clean design to be achieved.

Exposed soffit approaches can also be easily integrated with displacement ventilation systems, which require a raised floor creating a void. This void can be utilised as a key service route removing the need for many over head services.

It is also possible to design slabs with voids and rebates to act as service routes, due to the flexibility offered by concrete.

IMPROVED DAYLIGHTING

Daylighting can be improved through increasing light penetration and reflectance19. Vaulted ceilings provide an increase in soffit height, enabling windows to be placed higher on external walls, promoting light to penetrate further into a building.

As a material with a comparably high albedo, untreated concrete can offer high levels of reflectance which promote light penetration3.

Levels of albedo and reflectance can be further enhanced through the use of white cement or substitute materials such as ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS).

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IMPROVED VENTILATION

Through the integration of vaulted ceilings in HVAC systems, improvements in ventilation quality can be achieved, due to the action of air displacement. The availability of thermal mass improves the operation of an air displacement system due to its heat energy storage capacity15. With this system air is introduced into the under floor void which in turn flows into the room via floor diffusers.

Introduced air is cooler than required for thermal comfort and creates a layer of cool air at floor level. As this air enters it displaces the warm air above it, which has been slowly warmed by heat emitters within the room. This displacement creates a chain effect displacing the warmer air above it until it is trapped within the vaults of the ceiling.

This hot air is extracted at ceiling level where it is either removed or re-circulated with fresh air. As it comes into contact with the thermal mass in the vaulted ceiling and the exposed under floor slab it is cooled to required temperatures16.

This process creates an air flow due to air stratification, which prevents the mixing of warm air with cooler, fresher air within the building, improving the quality of air at occupied levels13. Care must be taken to ensure that introduced air is not too cold as this can create of cold spots or short circuiting of air flows, typically present with air conditioning systems17. Floor diffusers avoid this issue as they can be spread evenly around office areas, whereas air conditioning systems typically only provide a fixed source of air.

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IMPROVED VENTILATION

Through the integration of vaulted ceilings in HVAC systems, improvements in ventilation quality can be achieved, due to the action of air displacement. The availability of thermal mass improves the operation of an air displacement system due to its heat energy storage capacity15. With this system air is introduced into the under floor void which in turn flows into the room via floor diffusers.

Introduced air is cooler than required for thermal comfort and creates a layer of cool air at floor level. As this air enters it displaces the warm air above it, which has been slowly warmed by heat emitters within the room. This displacement creates a chain effect displacing the warmer air above it, until it is trapped within the vaults of the ceiling.

This hot air is extracted at ceiling level where it is either removed or re-circulated with fresh air. As it comes into contact with the thermal mass in the vaulted ceiling and the exposed under floor slab it is cooled to required temperatures16.

This process creates an air flow due to air stratification, which prevents the mixing of warm air with cooler, fresher air within the building, improving the quality of air at occupied levels13. Care must be taken to ensure that introduced air is not too cold as this can create of cold spots or short circuiting of air flows, typically present with air conditioning systems17. Floor diffusers avoid this issue as they can be spread evenly around office areas, whereas air conditioning systems typically only provide a fixed source of air. Cool fresh air enters the room through floor diffusers

Hot contaminated air is removed

Air rises as it is warmed by occupants and equipment

Temperaturegradient

Illustration demonstrating the flow of air within occupied spaces and the subsequent temperature gradient.

Illustration demonstrating the flow of air within occupied spaces and the subsequent temperature gradient.

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ADAPTABILITY TO FUTURE CLIMATE CHANGE

Reports have shown that UK temperatures are rising and that summer peak temperatures could rise by as much as 7°C by 2080. Sucha significant rise in temperature will see a increased demand for cooling within buildings7,18. Whilst concrete vaulted ceilings offer the ability to provide passive cooling through increased fabric energy storage capacity, this may not be enough to mitigate these temperature rises.

However their capabilities can be increased through the integration of cooling systems. These can be hollow core systems, where air is passed through voids, or water based systems, created by the embedding of pipes. The concrete can be purged of excess stored heat as low temperature air or water is passed through each system15. These solutions can be incorporated into concrete ceilings and remain dormant until required. Displacement ventilation systems can also be boosted by the integration of cooling coils to reduce the temperature of air introduced into the system15.

ENERGY EFFICIENCY

A vaulted ceiling system can help to reduce a building’s cooling energy demand, with further reductions achievable if combined with passive cooling. Where this is not feasible air displacement systems can be utilised to satisfy both cooling and ventilation requirements. Each system is a low energy solution which utilises the natural properties (thermal mass) or tendencies (air stratification) of the materials involved.

Any reduction in energy demand can be seen to be beneficial to operational costs over the life span of the building and can, with responsible design, provide a relatively prompt payback period 5,20.

The use of underfloor ventilation distribution systems also offers an improvement in adaptability when considering future use.Diffusion points enable a simple process of relocation if layouts change when compared to ceiling based or fixed systems10.

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STRUCTURALLY EFFICIENT

When compared to conventional flat slabs, vaulted or profiled slabs can utilise less material to fulfil the same specification requirements. This is achieved due to the sectional geometry that exists with vaulted and profiled slabs, which provides a higher bending resistance. Material savings of up to 50% can be achieved when conventional slabs are replaced with vaulted slabs. Savings can be transferred to other structural elements as reductions in weight can also reduce the performance requirements of supporting elements, in turn reducing the embodied impacts of the building†.

AESTHETICS

Vaulted ceilings offer a different architectural form to what can be achieved through traditional flat soffits, creating the opportunity to develop the aesthetic offering of exposed concrete.

Concrete by its nature is a versatile material which can be readily adapted and designed to meet architectural requirements whether a complex design or simply pigmentation. High quality finishes can be achieved through the use of specialised concretes, such as self-compacting concrete, which can accurately reflect formwork finishes (which can be enhanced using formwork liners).

Finite element anaysis of vaulted panel identifying steel requirements.

The analysis carried out on the vaulted panel was completed with Dlubal Structural and Dynamic analysis software.

The vaulted panel was compared against a 9m span reinforced flat slab for the design of a multi-storey office development.

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STRESSES X,+(km/cm2)O

0.45

0.39

0.32

0.26

0.20

0.13

0.07

0.01

-0.05

-0.12

-0.18

-0.24

0.45 -0.24

Max: Min:

Finite element anaysis of vaulted panel identifying steel requirements

The analysis carried out on the vaulted panel was completed with Dlubal Structural and Dynamic analysis software.The vaulted panel was compared against a 9m span

reinforced flat slab for the design of a multi-storey office development

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STRUCTURALLY EFFICIENT

When compared to conventional flat slabs, vaulted or profiled slabs can utilise less material to fulfil the same specification requirements. This is achieved due to the sectional geometry that exists with vaulted and profiled slabs, which provides a higher bending resistance.

Material savings of up to 50% can be achieved when conventional slabs are replaced with vaulted slabs. Savings can be transferred to other structural elements as reductions in weight can also reduce the performance requirements of supporting elements, in turn reducing the embodied impacts of the building†.

AESTHETICS

Vaulted ceilings offer a different architectural form to what can be achieved through traditional flat soffits, creating the opportunity to develop the aesthetic offering of exposed concrete.

Concrete by its nature is a versatile material which can be readily adapted and designed to meet architectural requirements whether a complex design or simply pigmentation.

High quality finishes can be achieved through the use of specialised concretes, such as self-compacting concrete, which can accurately reflect formwork finishes (which can be enhanced using formwork liners).

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Whilst the fundamental approach of concrete vaulted ceiling construction is not a complete step change from conventional methods, additional consideration is required when changing from a flat or composite slab with suspended ceilings. The following is not an exhaustive list but highlights some key subjects that should be considered prior to and during construction.

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SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

When considering the implementation of a vaulted ceiling system, its performance should be assessed at the earliest possible stage of a project. Any assessment should be carried out in line with work on the buildings HVAC strategy.

It should be noted that fabric energy storage systems have the potential to offset approximately 20-40 W/m2 of solar heat gains 5, which should be taken into full consideration.

VENTILATION STRATEGY

The UK’s diurnal temperature variation allows passive natural strategies to employed in order to purge stored heat energy from the building’s fabric 2. This is typically only possible where site location allows for the opening of windows.

In areas where this is not possible, mechanical ventilation systems will usually be required to ensure effective performance. Displacement ventilation systems can be implemented to provide a low energy alternative which can help optimise the exposed thermal mass15.

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THERMAL MASS

The thermal mass that is present within a concrete vaulted ceiling is integral to the achievement of the cooling effect that can be achieved within a building.

Varying reports and commentaries state that it is only the thermal mass to a depth of 100mm that can be accessed within an element. It is true that a depth of 100mm will provide enough thermal mass to react to 24 hour cooling cycles, however this does not take into account longer temperature cycles such as weekly or monthly periods of increased temperatures.

Increased depths of concrete can be successfully used to mitigate these temperatures21. It is possible to access more of the thermal mass capacity of the concrete by utilising under floor ventilation or cooling systems, improving its performance and unlocking more of its potential.

DAYLIGHTING

Vaulted and profiled ceilings offer the ability to allow light to penetrate further into occupied spaces due to increases in ceiling height.

Design decisions to optimise the daylighting potential should consider the finish that is required at the face of concrete elements.

Mix designs can be optimised to provide light surface finishes or they can be simply painted to enhance surface reflectance.

Additional design approaches can be implemented such as; high level windows at the crest of profiles and the use of light shelves21 to reflect incoming light onto and into the vaulted and profiled spaces.

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29Conran K PartnersVarsity Hotel, Ca mbridge

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FORMWORK

The finished quality of concrete is dictated by the quality of formwork and workmanship that has been used to create it. It is necessary to employ rigorous quality systems in to ensure that requisite final finishes are achieved, enforced by a specification based on decisions taken prior to construction.

The National Structural Concrete Specification 22 provides a good guide for the creation of a job specific specification.

A specification should consider all aspects of construction; including formwork and placement processes but also acceptable standards for the finished element (trial panels and sample panels are effective in delivering this).

MATERIAL

In highly visual applications the correct specification and selection of material is integral to achieving high quality results. Traditional concrete mix design for architectural applications sees the inclusion of high proportions of fine materials as this aids the finish.

However, recent developments have seen the introduction of self-compacting concretes, which can exceed the performance and quality of conventional concretes, whilst also mitigating risk and potential issues surrounding workmanship.

It is recommended that the design team liaise with the material supplier at an early project stage to detail exact material requirements and to enable the supplier’s expertise and previous experience to be utilised effectively.

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When vaulted ceiling solutions are selected in place of more traditional flat slab solutions further environmental improvements can be delivered.

SUSTAINABILITY

MATERIAL EFFICIENCYWhen compared to traditional flat slab construction the more efficient vaulted profile means that less material is required to construct a similarly performing slab. Further efficiency improvements can be sought across the whole of the building as loadings are reduced and corresponding performance requirements for supporting structures 10,28.

EMBODIED ENERGY

The production of steel reinforcement is an energy intensive manufacturing process along with the production of cement, as such the embodied energy in concrete can be relatively high. However choice of a vaulted ceiling over a traditional flat slab and the resulting reduction of materials can reduce the embodied energy of the constructed element28.

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BES 6001*

Tarmac has achieved a ‘Very Good’ rating for all its production sites and products. The independent third-party scheme assesses responsible sourcing polices and practices throughout the supply chain 25.

ISO 14001

Tarmac is fully accredited with ISO 14001, having implemented Environmental Management Systems throughout our business, maintaining our commitment to reducing our environmental impact 27.

RECYCLING

The concrete industry has taken significant steps to improve its performance in terms of material reuse, reducing the depletion of abiotic resources, increasing energy efficiency and reducing carbon emissions. Significant improvements have already been achieved compared to the industry’s 1990 baseline23.

With respect to material reuse and the depletion of abiotic resources, concrete readily utilises recycled and secondary materials along with cement replacements. This has enabled the industry to be a net user of waste, using 47 times more waste than it generates23, and concrete itself is also 100% recyclable23.

‡ Tarmac’s concrete products offer the ability to conform with a wide-ranging number of assessment criteria in both BREEAM and LEED. For more information contact Tarmac sustainability team.

* Our BES 6001 certificate number for our readymix concrete products is BES 559207.

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SUSTAINABILITY ASSESSMENT SCHEMES

Concrete can play an extended role in enabling an efficient building to be created. Concrete can contribute in a number of assessment schemes and help achieve a range of credits‡.

BREEAM† LEED

Man 03: Responsible construction practices Tarmac’s Carbon Calculator has the capability to determine and provide data relating to the CO2 arising from the production and delivery of our products.

MR Credit 4: Recycled content Concrete is a versatile material whose deisgn can be readily adapted to enable the use of recycled, secondary or replacement materials.

Hea 01: Visual Comfort Concrete naturally offers a relatively high albedo when compared to other construction materials. Concrete’s mix design and finishes can be optimised to further improve its albedo and reflectance.

MR Credit 5: Regional materials Concrete is one of the few materials that is produced locally to where it is used. It can typically be supplied from within 10 miles of any given site.

Ene 01: Reduction of CO2 Emissions Optimisation of design to utilise thermal mass enables energy reductions through reduced cooling, heating and ventilation demands.

IEQ 8.1: Daylight and Views – Daylight Concrete naturally offers a relatively high albedo when compared to other construction materials.

C Mat 03: Responsible sourcing of materials Concrete is primarily constituted of locally available materials, all concrete products produced by Tarmac are BES 6001 accredited to a ‘Very Good’ standard.

Wst 02: Recycled Aggregates Concrete is a versatile material whose design can be readily adapted to enable the use or recycled, secondary or replacement materials.

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PEOPLE

SOLUTIONS

Safety and health Our people Community involvement

PERFORMANCE

Economic value Governance and ethics Communication

PLANET

Climate change Environmental stewardship Resource efficiency

Sustainable supply chain Innovation and quality Sustainable construction

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Using this ‘whole life’ thinking we have

engaged with our stakeholders to develop our

sustainability strategy. The strategy defines the

main sustainability themes and our key priorities,

those issues which are most important to our

business and our stakeholders. It sets out our

commitments to transform our business under

four main themes: People, Planet, Performance and Solutions.

Building on progress already made, we have set

ambitious 2020 milestone targets for each of our

key priorities. These ambitious targets have been

set to take us beyond incremental improvement

programmes to business transforming solutions.

Sustainability is about securing long-term success for our business, customers and communities by improving the environmental, social and economic performance of our products and solutions through their life-cycle. This means considering not only the goods we purchase, our operations and logistics but also the performance of our products in use and their reuse and recycling at the end of their life. By doing this, we can understand and take action to minimise any negative aspects, while maximising the many positive sustainability benefits our business and products bring.

OUR SUSTAINABILITY STRATEGY

FOUR THEMESTwelve key priorities

Forty four other performance targets

Twelve commitments

Twelve 2020 milestones

Our 2020 milestones are supported by

a range of other performance targets.

This hierarchy helps make it easier to build

understanding, drive improvement and

enables us to report progress in a meaningful

and measurable way.

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1. US Department of Energy – Radiant Cooling www.energy.gov/energysaver/articles/radiant-cooling

2. The Mineral Product Association and The Concrete Centre Thermal Mass Explained (2012)

3. Marceau, M. and Vangeem, G. Solar Reflectance Values for Concrete, Concrete International, August 2008

4. Health and Safety Executive Thermal Comfort www.hse.gov.uk/temperature/thermal/index.htm

5. Reinforced Concrete Council Fabric Energy Storage: Using concrete structures for enhanced energy efficiency (2001)

6. Center for the Built Environment, University of California Façade and Perimeter Zone Performance Field Study www.cbe.berkeley.edu/research/facade_fieldstudy.htm

7. Hacker, JN, Belcher, SE and Connell, RK (2005) Beating the Heat: Keeping UK buildings cool in a warming climate. UKCIP Briefing Report. UKCIP, Oxford

8. The Government’s Energy Efficiency Best Practice programme Energy Consumption Guide 19: Energy use in offices (2000).

REFERENCES

9. From reactive to proactive: quantifying on-site benefits of self-compacting concrete (SCC), D. Rich, Loughborough

10. The Mineral Product Association and The Concrete Centre Concrete Floor Solutions for Passive and Active Cooling (2012)

11. European Project ThermCo Thermal Comfort in Buildings with Low-Energy Cooling – Thermal Comfort and Productivity (2009) www.thermco.org

12. GreenSpec® – Thermal Mass (2013) – www.greenspec.co.uk/thermal-mass.php

13. Center for the Built Environment, University of California Underfloor Air Technology http://cbe.berkeley.edu/underfloorair/glossary.htm#S

14. European Concrete Platform – Concrete for energy-efficient buildings: The benefits of thermal mass (2007)

15. The Concrete Centre – Utilisation of Thermal Mass in Non-Residential Buildings (2006).

16. Hamilton, S., Roth, K. and Brodrick, J., Displacement Ventilation – ASHRAE Journal, September 2004.

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This catalogue is provided for information purposes only. Tarmac expressly disclaims all warranties of any kind,

whether express or implied, as to the accuracy, reliability and validity of the content and accepts no liability for any

loss or other commercial damages incurred as a result of using and relying on the information provided. There is no

partnership between Tarmac and the companies mentioned in this catalogue. All products and intellectual property

rights of these companies are only used for identification and information purposes and remain, at all times, the

exclusive property of their respective owners.

17. BSRIA – Ventilation effectiveness: How well do ventilation systems work? (2011) www.bsria.co.uk/news/ventilationeffectiveness-how-well-do-ventilation-systems-work

18. Hulme, M., Jenkins, G.J., Lu, X., Turnpenny, J.R., Mitchell, T.D., Jones, R.G., Lowe, J., Murphy, J.M., Hassell, D., Boorman, P., McDonald, R. & Hill, S. (2002) Climate Change Scenarios for the United Kingdom: The UKCIP02 Scientific Report, Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK. 120pp.

19. City of Melbourne Council House 2: Our green building www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/sustainabilty/CH2/pages CH2Ourgreenbuilding

20. Irish Concrete Federation Thermal Mass and Sustainable Building: Improving Energy Performance and Occupant Comfort

21. European Concrete Platform General guidelines for using thermal mass in concrete buildings (2009)

22. CONSTRUCT Concrete Structures Group National Structural Concrete Specification 4th Edition (2010) www.construct.org.uk

23. The Mineral Product Association and The Concrete Centre on behalf of The Sustainable Concrete Forum Concrete Indusry Sustainability Performance Report - 4th Report: 2010 performance data.

24. GreenSpec® Reducing the Impact of Concrete – www.greenspec.co.uk/greening-of-concrete.php

25. Green Book Live www.greenbooklive.com/search/scheme.jsp?id=153

26. The Carbon Trust www.carbontrust.com

27. ISO 14001 www.bsigroup.co.uk/en/Assessment-and-Certification-services/Management-systems/Standards-and-Schemes/ISO-14001/?gclid=CO6WrLnSgrMCFcrItAodVhwAUA

28. The Mineral Product Association and The Concrete Centre Concrete, Material Efficiency (2010)

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