VCE GLOBAL POLITICSUnit 3

Area of Study 1Global Actors

KEY TERMS

NATION STATES• Definition: Political social grouping in which people within

territorial boundaries, with recognised sovereignty, have common bonds based on culture, language and history.

• Features: - permanent population- defined territory- recognised sovereignty- citizens are largely culturally homogeneous, i.e. language, religion and historical identity are the same.

• Example: Japan

NATION• NATIONS: Groups of people claiming common bonds based on

culture, language and history.• Example: Palestine: power of the UN has failed them; 90% of them

agree they can have there own recognised state but United States of America does not and therefore they cannot become a nation state.

• The Kurdish people of northern Iraq, southern Turkey and western Iran who have for year campaigned for self-determination and the right to represent their views in the international arena.Therefore they cannot raise their voice in traditional forums of international relations such as the UN.

• Nations often but not always, have defined geographical areas, for example Jewish people are a nation that are spread across the world.

• Why the united nations do not want to let nations become a state: that will mean they will have to fund them and put effort into getting them up and running.

More examples of NATIONS• Now incorporates “soft” notions

for example, economic sovereignty is being used and is thought to be challenged by globalization.this is highlighted by Nigerian company Shell, who had inserted staff into all main industries of the government and hence knew everything that was being done.

STATE• Define: traditionally the central actors in international relations. States

possess a permanent population, defined territory and recognised sovereignty.

• Features:- permanent populations that include people who are not necessarily culturally homogeneous, i.e. their language, religion and historical identity may not be the same- defined territory - recognised sovereignty- functioning government and economy.

• Example:Indonesia; an archipelago of 17,508 islands comprising four major ethnic groups, five major religions and fur ‘main’ languages. As a result of these internal differences, the Indonesian government has historically spent much time dealing with issues of separatism. - Some would argue that due to these distractions, it has made them not an influential state on the world stage.- States are not necessarily culturally homogeneous for example Australia.

ROLE OF THE STATE• To meet the needs of the citizens;

- according to Jackson and Sorenson there are at least 5 basic social values:1. security 2. freedom3. order4. justice5. welfare

• In the developed world (states that have a high-level of development, predominantly measured in economic terms) people tend to take these for granted and become only aware of them when the state fails to uphold them.

• Developing world: states with low levels of economic wealth- Niger (located in western Africa), the annual public spending on health per person is less than $5 and as low as $2 in some parts of the state (WHO recommends spending $34 for low income states) - As a result, Niger’s health record is poor with average of life to be 53.4 years (Australia’s is 81.81 years).

• When states are wholly unable to provide for the needs of their citizens, they are termed failed states.- Failed state: a state that has collapsed and that cannot provide for the basic needs of its citizens.

STATE SYSTEM• Non-western political systems were only accepted into the state

system on the basis of equal sovereignty after the Second World War.• This cause the membership of the UN (an essential badge of

sovereignty) to triple, from 51 member-states in 1945 to over 160 by 1970.

• Currently there is 193 members in the UN and nearly 200 governments.

• LEGITIMACY: That all states have the right to exist and that he authority of the government within the state is supreme, legitimate and recognised.

• FORMAL OBLIGATIONS: That states have duties to one another based on international laws and customs, i.e. treaties must be obeyed, non-interference, ect.

• SOVEREIGNTY: That no higher authority than the state exists within international relations.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STATE• National Security: Traditionally refers to protection of a state’s borders from

external/internal threats and the maintenance of sovereignty, most commonly achieved through the use of military power. Has evolved to include softer forms of security, such as access to resources (economic security) and protection of ecosystems (environmental security).

• National Interest: outlines the goals or objectives of foreign policy and is used as an all-embracing concept to justify policy preferences and actions.- national interests change over time, depending on the political grouping of the governing party, the changing needs of a state and external events. - National interest can be categorised into 3;1. Geo- political or strategic interests2. Economic and trade interests3. Being perceived as a good international citizen

• The advent of internationalism and the rise of third agenda issues have meant the scope of natural interests has expanded beyond those solely confined to the state- Internationalism: Emphasises the similarities and links between people. Stresses a common humanity beyond national boundaries and promotes the need for cooperative solutions to common challenges.

SOVEREIGNTY• Definition: A legitimate or widely-recognised ability to apply effective

control of a territory within recognised borders. It is the primary organising principle of global politics which provides states with the authority to represent their territorial entity within the international community.

• State sovereignty can be challenged- internally: secessionist groups, can result in civil war or intra-state conflict or - externally: for example, one state invades the other.

• The desire to attain, or maintain, sovereignty has been a habitual feature of the global political arena.

• Economic sovereignty: the power of national governments to make decisions independently of those made by other governments with regards to their economy.

• Cultural Sovereignty: The power of national governments to make decisions independently to protect and develop the state’s national cultural expression.

SOVEREIGNTY cont.• States remain ‘Masters of the Treaties’ which means that the

Union does not have the authority to transfer additional powers from states onto itself without their agreement through further treaties.- example: foreign affairs and defence, member-states have given up relatively little national sovereignty.

• Members of the EU have allowed for the transfer of sovereignty upward, believing that any loss is outweighed by economic and political gains.

• THIRD- AGENDA ISSUES: Issues which affect a number of states at any on time and so require joint action to be resolved successfully. - examples: includes global warming, migration and terrorism.

EXAMPLES OF SOVEREIGNTY• INTERNAL GROUPS: the Chechens have long fought for

independence from Russia based on historical and ethnic factors.

• EXTERNAL GROUPS: South Ossetia does not recognise the borders incorporating it as part of Georgia and in 2008 unsuccessfully declared and sought independence (with the support of Russian military forces).

• ECONOMIC SOVEREIGNTY: Frequently used term when there is an argument that the economic sovereignty of some states is being challenged by the forces of globalisation.

• CULTURAL SOVEREIGNTY: The French government has strict quotas on the level of non-French material broadcast on its radio and television networks.

POWER

• Definition: The ability of one global actor to influence the actions of another global actor. Power can be exercised in a range of types and forms.

• Example: the success of the global terrorist network al-Qaeda in challenging the power of the United States.

MULTILATERALISM

• DEFINITION: System of coordinating relations between three or more states, usually in pursuit of objectives in particular areas.

PUBLIC OPINION

• DEFINITIONS:Sentiment shared by the people. Can be an important factor in influencing the foreign policy decisions of governments.

GLOBALISATION• DEFINITION:

The acceleration and intensification of exchanges of goods, services, labour and capital which promote global interdependence. These have been facilitated by rapid changes in communication and technology. Globalisation has widespread impact on social, political, economic and cultural life.

• EXAMPLES:- As of April 2011 there were 99,133 uniformed UN peacekeepers from 115 different states deployed across 14 operations globally. The persuasive impact of globalisation has amplified the power and influence of transnational corporations (TNCs) that have a tremendous impact on the economies of states. - Wal-mart controls more economic resources than all but 19 states in the world.

KEY GLOBAL ACTORS

INSTITUTIONS OF GLOBAL GOVERNANCE• GLOBAL GOVERNANCE: Institutions, rules, norms and legal

arrangements that seek to facilitate cooperation and manage relations between states. Governance is carried out by both governmental organisations such as the United Nations and non-governmental organisations such as the International Criminal Court.

• MOVES TOWARDS A SYSTEM OF GLOBAL GOVERNANCE HAVE BEEN DRIVEN BY 3 FACTORS:1- The end of the Cold War which increased expectations of the role international institutions would play.2- Advances in communication and technology3- Increased awareness of shared interests and third agenda issues which require a concerted and coordinated global approach.

THE UNITED NATIONS• AIMS:

-To keep peace throughout the world- To develop friendly relations between nations- To work together to help people live better lives, to eliminate poverty, disease and illiteracy in the world, to stop environmental destruction and to encourage respect for each other’s rights and freedoms-To be a centre for helping nations achieve these conditions

• OBJECTIVES:-To ensure greater coherence of views within the UN-Facilitate a more effective participation of developing countries in global processes-To achieve better balance between the global and regional dimensions of development in terms of analysis, norm settings and technical assistance-To ensure better balance between interface between private sector and the UN-To develop fruitful cooperative links between non-governmental actors and the UN

• ROLES: -to create a forum for international issues ie: refugees-to maintain peace

THE UNITED NATIONS• POWER:

-to force states to agree with their policies via sanctions-International acceptance for what it does as a body of global governance

• POWER DERIVES FROM: -The fact that states generally accept decisions of the UN because they have had a part in making those decisions-The ability to impose economic and trade sanctions on states to force them to adhere to the resolutions passed. -These take the form of economic sanctions (certain goods not traded), economic embargoes (no trade at all with the offending state by any member), military sanctions and embargoes (same as economic but related to weapons sales, military cooperation, joint programs etc)-The ability to raise military forces from its member states to undertake peacemaking or peace keeping roles

• INFLUENCE: set up to reflect power structures of WW2General Assembly discusses issues facing world yet has little influenceSecurity Council can apply sanctions to any state seen to be breaching the peace, acting in aggression or ignoring ICJ ruling.

THE UNITED NATIONS• Examples of activities:

World Food Program aims to combat global hunger by providing food assistance primarily to those in emergency situations. The work is essential to ensuring the UN works towards achieving its aim of helping millions of the world’s most vulnerable people “live better lives”.

• Has it been successful?-Yes. It has had a number of successes in the areas of health improvement, poverty reduction, disease control and some environmental issues

-No. --the UN cannot force some of the more powerful states such as China or -the US to do what they want because there is very little you can threathen these states with. Allies of these states are also given some protection e.g. Australia & the US, China & Iran and Nth Korea states --States still act and vote in their national interests--States will often form power blocs and vote as a group to increase their power e.g. the EU bloc or the Mid-Eastern bloc or the African bloc etc--In issues that require states to give up some of their sovereignty such as the climate change issue states will still tend to vote on what is best for them rather than what's best for the planet or other states.

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND(IMF)

• AIMS:-Promote international monetary cooperation and exchange-rate stability-Facilitate the balanced growth of international trade-Provide resources to help members in balance of payment difficulties-Assist with poverty reduction

• OBJECTIVES:-Policy advice to governments and central banks based on analysis of economic trends and cross-country experiences-Research, statistics, forecasts and analysis based on tracking of global, regional and individual economies and markets -Loans to help countries overcome economic difficulties-Concessional loans to help fight poverty in developing countriestechnical assistance and training to help countries improve management of their economies

• ROLES:-Manage global economic arena-Provide practical guidance and training -Provide loans to states with trouble meeting international payments

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND(IMF)

• POWER:-members contribute a quota of resources to organisation proportionate to size of economy-Oversees international momentary system and monitors financial and economic policies of members-Provide loans to states having trouble meeting international payments-Its power stems from the ability to refuse loans and funding to states who do not adhere to its requests e.g. Greece

• INFLUENCE:-States elect whether or not to follow advice-Guidance and training on how to upgrade institutions and design appropriate macro-economic, financial and structural policies

• EXAMPLES OF ACTIVITIES:- In 2010, approved £30 billion loan over three years to Greece- In 2010, approved £22.5 billion loan as part of joint package with EU worth £85 billion to Iceland.

WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION (WTO)• AIMS:

-liberalise world trade-promote economic growth and stability-lay down the rules for world trade.

• OBJECTIVES:-forum for negotiation and exchange of information-overseas the treaty commitments of members – capacity to constrain members’ trade policy based on principle of discrimination-provides exceptions from constraints to allow for individual flexibility-offers dispute settlement mechanism which aims to resolve trade disputes between states.

• ROLES: to supervise trade between states

• POWER:-all members must oppose decisions for them not to stand-its power is derived largely from the desire of states to be members and the trade benefits that will flow through to a state when it becomes a member of the WTO

• INFLUENCE:-members surrender aspects of economic sovereignty so WTO can enforce trade rules

INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT (ICC)• AIMS:

-ensure worst perpetrators are held accountable for their crimes-serve as a court of last resort that can investigate, prosecute and punish the -perpetrators of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes -assist national judiciaries in investigating and prosecuting the worst perpetrators, allowing states to be the first to investigate and prosecute-help promote international peace and security by deterring future would-be perpetrators

• ROLES:- Prosecute individuals

• POWER:- Try individuals of most heinous crimes (incl. crimes against humanity, genocide and war crimes)- Dependant on voluntary contribution of states- Dependant on willingness of other states to pressure non-compliant state, cost and damage of reputation and willingness of Security Council to exercise diplomacy

INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT (ICC)• NEGATIVES OF THE COURT’S POWER AND ABILITES:

-Not all states have signed the Treaty of Rome to agree to be bound by the courts decisions. The most notable exclusion is the US-Relies on ruling governments within states to hand over suspects. In some cases these suspects are allied to the government so are not likely to be handed over-It has no police force of its own and again must rely on investigations and evidence collection by local authorities

• INFLUENCE:-global jurisdiction-exercise jurisdiction when states are unable or unwilling to prosecute individuals-can exercise authority over crimes committed within boundaries of any state party to Rome Statute.

• EXAMPLES OF ACTIVITIES:-The ICC recently recorded its first ever conviction when the judges found Congolese warlord Thomas Lubanga Dyilo guilty of conscripting (enlisting) children under the age of 15 and sending them into guerrilla (rebel) war of extreme brutality. The verdict took years to reach and Lubanga was given 30 days to appeal. He was turned over by the Congolese government in 2006, the first person to be taken into custody by the ICC. Beginning in 2009, the prosecutor, Luis Moreno-Ocamp, was criticized for limiting the case to the use and abuse of child soldiers as left off the charge sheet were numerous other war crimes. The ICC does not condone the death penalty meaning Lubanga faces the maximum thirty-year jail sentence. -The sentencing of Lubanga has meant the use of child soldiers is now established as a war crime. -The ICC issued a warrant for the arrest of Kony and his 2 co-leaders in 2005 but the case had no attention until the release of the KONY 2012 campaign created by Invisible Children.

NON-GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONS(NGO’s)

• Specialised organisations, agencies and groups committed to promoting a range of issues, such as protection of the environment, ending human rights abuses or promoting the status of women.

• These organisations work on the basis of links between individuals across the globe and are independent from government influence, and as such act as a moderating influence on their behaviour.

• Seek change, often without the approval of national governments.

NON-GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONS (NGO’s)

• Each of the following organisations have clear distinctions between each other, they are;- NGO’s with universalist and non-partisan aspirations.- NGO’s motivated by self-interest-NGO’s that are noted for their destructive impacts (such as terrorist groups and some corporations)

• But all seek to make political change• When NGO’s win a peace prize we accept their existence• Due to developing technology NGO’s can reach millions and make

themselves know• Governments are more willing nowadays to support IGO (internal

government organisations) and NGO’s because they “look good” and also they do not have to give up time to organise it themselves.

NEED TO KNOW AT LEAST 2 OF THE FOLLOWING NGOs

- HUMAN RIGHTS ORGANISATIONS• EXAMPLE: OXFAM:1. WHAT ARE THEY AND WHAT DO THEY DO?

Care and support in disaster relief and for the people in developing states in need (doesn't have to be after a disaster as they undertake a number of community aid programs in areas of high need).

2. SPECIFIC EXAMPLE OF THEIR ACTIVITIES?In South Africa, Oxfam has taken on the challenge to Tackle HIV and AIDS. South Africa has one of the highest HIV prevalence rates in the world. With 18% of the population infected, including a tragic 28% of pregnant women. Tackling this crisis is one of the country’s gravest challenges. Oxfam works with over 40 partner organisations to lessen the terrible impact of HIV and AIDS. Their programs provide food to keep children and adults healthy (especially children orphaned by AIDS), and home-based care for those already living with HIV and AIDS. They use innovative ‘edutainment’ programs to promote awareness and prevention, and lobby for the rights of the most vulnerable people. Together they’re educating communities about HIV prevention and focusing on behaviour change. We’re also supporting voluntary counseling, providing detection tests and treatment. And they’re supporting home-based care and nutritional educational programs. Oxfam also supports partners to lobby the government for improved services, access to treatment and social grants.

- HUMAN RIGHTS ORGANISATIONS3. INFLUENCE/EFFECT ON STATE SOVEREIGNTY?

Oxfam can advise governments on approaches to take to alleviate hunger and poverty, they also fund many of these programs. This reduces the pressure on governments both politically and financially so governments will often take notice of what Oxfam proposes. It is important to not however that this influence is incidental to what they do. Oxfam does not set out to direct or control government decisions. They try to convince them through the benefits Oxfam can provide.

4. POWER?Oxfam's power derives from their good reputation and international acceptance of their good intentions. Oxfam does not represent any foreign government or power and is a neutral care organisation. Governments are not threatened by their activities so may be more willing to listen to them.

-ORGANISED CRIME SYDICATES• EXAMPLE: Yakuza (Japan)1. WHAT ARE THEY AND WHAT DO THEY DO?

Criminal organisation who's role in global and national affairs is limited to self serving criminal activities and investments (some of these are legitimate investments such as in the stock market) designed to increase their wealth. They are very prevalent in the Japanese media and operate internationally with an estimated 102,400 members.

2. SPECIFIC EXAMPLE OF THEIR ACTIVITIES?Some Yakuza groups are heavily involved in sex-related industries. Some are known to deal extensively in human trafficking. The Philippines, for instance, is a source of young women. Yakuza trick girls from impoverished villages into coming to Japan, where they are promised respectable jobs with good wages. Instead, they are forced into becoming prostitutes and strippers. Yakuza frequently engage in a uniquely Japanese form of extortion. There is much evidence of Yakuza involvement in international crime. There are many tattooed yakuza members imprisoned in various Asian prisons for such crimes as drug trafficking and arms smuggling. In 1997, one verified Yakuza member was caught smuggling 4 kilograms (8.82 pounds) of heroin into Canada.

-ORGANISED CRIME SYDICATES3. INFLUENCE/EFFECT ON STATE SOVEREIGNTY?

The Yakuza hand directly tries to influence government through threats and corruption at all levels of government and industry (e.g. the corruption scandal that destroyed the Olympus brand) and in to the public service of Japan as well. They try to force decisions which will benefit the organisation not the people of Japan

4. POWER?Yakuza's power comes from their wealth which is used to corrupt officials and from their use of violence and threats. Its sheer size as a criminal organisation makes it very difficult for a state to deal with it considering the corruption extends into government and the police force as well.

-ENVIROMENTAL ORGANISATIONS

• Example:Greenpeace

-GLOBAL TERRORIST MOVEMENTS

• Example:Islamic Jihad or al-Qaeda

-ORGANISED RELIGIONS

• Example:world council of churches

TRANSNATIONAL COMPANIES (TNC)• DEFINITION: Company whose operations and

investments extend beyond the boundaries of the state in which it is registered. Also referred to as multinational corporation.

• CENTRAL AIM: Regardless of their operation or investment portfolio, is to maximise profit and return to share holders. Therefore because of this desire other concerns are meaningless, they include upholding human rights and preservation of the enviroment.

THE POWER AND INFLUENCE OF TNC’S• The breakdown of trade barriers, through the process of

globalisation, have facilitated the growth of TNC’s and allowed them to become increasingly powerful global actors.- artificial obstacles to trade, most commonly imposed by governments to protect their economies and local producers.

• Current power and influence of TNCs stems from their control over international trade and foreign direct investment (FDI) as both provide additional avenues for TNCs to maximise profit and create new markets for their products.

• States especially developing states have come to rely on FDI to ensure their continued economic development, however TNCs can remove their investment.

• This has increased the power of TNCs and their ability to influence government decisions and undermine state sovereignty.

• Thus economic power translates into political power.

EXAMPLES OF TNC’S• States that TNCs have removed their investments from;

- Sony corporation left West Java, Indonesia - Mining company Anglo- American withdrew copper investments from Zambia

• Royal Dutch Shell:-2010 WikiLeaks release of US diplomatic cables revealed that a Shell executive had boasted that the TNC had staff in all major government departments in Nigeria and knew “everything that was being done in those ministries”. - the oil sector provides 95% of Nigeria’s foreign exchange earnings and 80% of budgetary revenues.

CRITICISMS OF TNC’s1. To maximise profits and efficiency, TNCs employ as few

workers as possible. 200 largest TNCs account for 28% of the world trade but employs less than 1% of the worlds workers.

2. TNCs create and market products which are detrimental to health (e.g. Cigarettes) and harm the environment (e.g. Agent Orange). Furthermore industrialisation increase pollution which affects the host state as opposed to the home state of the TNC. i.e. China “worlds factory”

3. TNCs try to delay or prevent the political process of the states in which they operate. For example: Australia tried to introduce a mining tax, this would have affected profit margins, the mining companies, including TNCs BHP Billiton and Rio Tinto, launched an intensive media campaign to convince the Australian people otherwise.

CRITICISMS OF TNC’s4. TNCs abuse human rights to maximise profit. One

of the factors why TNCs move production overseas is to lower costs thus maximise profit. The term ‘sweatshop’ is used to describe such circumstances employees expected to work; long hours, low pay rates and in poor conditions

5. Returns to their host states are disproportionate to the assets used.

6. TNCs avoid paying tax.