Grand Valley Review

Volume 20 | Issue 1 Article 18

1-1-1999

Verbal and Visual Contexts of Performance in theCantigas de Santa MariaDiane M. WrightGrand Valley State University

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Recommended CitationWright, Diane M. (1999) "Verbal and Visual Contexts of Performance in the Cantigas de Santa Maria," Grand Valley Review: Vol. 20:Iss. 1, Article 18.Available at: http://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/gvr/vol20/iss1/18

by Diane M. Wright

Verbal and Visual Contexts of Performance in the Cantigas de Santa Maria

Diane Wright is Associate Pro­

fessor of Spanish. She joined the

GVSUfaculty in 1992.

V isual and verbal story, connected in the modern era of television and cinema,and more recently, through computer technol­

ogy, has taught us to "read" images in ways that seem natural to us. Analogous to our own age where visual and acoustical media reign, the Middle Ages and its dearth of written documents meant that stories were transmitted orally and visually. Along with the figure of the minstrel or juglar who recited epic poems in the courts and town squares, or clerics who related the sacred stories of the Bible and the Saints, people in the Middle Ages "read" stories woven into tapes­tries, sculpted in stone, or viewed in the stained glass windows of churches. Moreover, for the very few, stories could be perused in the beauti­fully painted miniatures of the manuscript pages of sacred or secular works.

One work, which particularly exemplifies the interaction of word and image, is the Cantigas de Santa Maria, a collection of over four hundred miracle stories and songs of praise in honor of the Virgin Mary. Written in Galician Portuguese and produced in the second half of the thirteenth century under the patronage of the Castilian monarch Alfonso the Wise (1252-1284), the Cantigas de Santa Maria is a visual, verbal, and musical testimony to Holy Mary's intervention in the lives of both the high and low born. The introductory prologues and the miracle songs present a personal portrait of Alfonso as the Virgin's troubadour and include musical notations and the verbal and visual images of musicians, clerics and religious who compose and sing for

the Holy Mother. Tv witnesses contain bri depicting the mirad praise that provide v< ciety and daily life oJ The depiction of urba teractions between r groups, of women, ar ily, continues to invite at once an anthology dies and of art, is o collections of the Eur

Like Alfonso's his works, the Cantigas 1

encyclopedic in natun from all over Europe in Spain. Unlike his c cantigas are performar are destined for re-CI ing audience or pre: viewers. As this stuc on the dynamics of 1 that inform both the tives, neither the v1 subordinate to the ot methods suitable to i

Visual-Verbal Mode! Both the visual and ' lous events in the recreates and affirms l who hear it or view Medieval society wa: the miraculous as a 1

presence, and the do counts appears to be were clearly defined Siete Partidas, and req1 testament of witness~: object.2

Unlike Alfonso's Cantigas often ignore~ vaguely refers to it. vague, temporal refer the other hand, are m

<ts of

gas de

;tory, connected in the ·vision and cinema,and mgh computer technol­d" images in ways that ogous to our own age tical media reign, the h of written documents ransmitted orally and gure of the minstrel or ,ems in the courts and vho related the sacred e Saints, people in the ies woven into tapes-viewed in the stained es. Moreover, for the perused in the beauti­: the manuscript pages 3.

:ularly exemplifies the 1age, is the Cantigas de Jf over four hundred of praise in honor of n Galician Portuguese j half of the thirteenth 1age of the Castilian ise (1252-1284), the a visual, verbal, and

r Mary's intervention ;h and low born. The 1d the miracle songs tit of Alfonso as the lude musical notations images of musicians, :ompose and sing for

the Holy Mother. Two of the four manuscript witnesses contain brilliantly colored miniatures depicting the miracle narratives and songs of praise that provide valuable insights into the so­ciety and daily life of thirteenth-century Spain.1

The depiction of urban and natural scenes, of in­teractions between racial, social and religious groups, of women, and of Alfonso and his fam­ily, continues to invite further study. The Cantigas, at once an anthology of poetic models, of melo­dies and of art, is one of the most extensive collections of the European Middle Ages.

Like Alfonso's historical, scientific and legal works, the Cantigas was a recovery enterprise, encyclopedic in nature, that gathered Marian tales from all over Europe as well as from local sites in Spain. Unlike his other works, the individual cantigas are performance texts, in which the events are destined for re-creation in front of a listen­ing audience or presented as illustrations for viewers. As this study will affirm, by focusing on the dynamics of performance and reception that inform both the verbal and pictorial narra­tives, neither the verbal nor visual mode is subordinate to the other, but each one employs methods suitable to its medium of expression.

Visual-Verbal Modes and the Miraculous Both the visual and verbal re-telling of miracu­lous events in the context of performance recreates and affirms belief in the miracle for those who hear it or view the serialized miniatures. Medieval society was predisposed to believe in the miraculous as a manifestation of the Divine presence, and the documentation of miracle ac­counts appears to be treated with rigor. Miracles were clearly defined in Alfonso's law code, the Siete Partidas, and required validation, such as the testament of witnesses or the proof of a tangible object.2

Unlike Alfonso's two great histories, the Cantigas often ignores the temporal space or only vaguely refers to it. In contrast to the few, and vague, temporal references, spatial references, on the other hand, are more frequent among the 353

Cantigas de Santa Maria

miracle narratives contained in the Cantigas. The verbal stories frequently provide specific ref­erences to place while the pictorial narratives paint scenes of cities or landscapes with great skill and attention to detail. In many of the miniatures, certain towns can be identified.

In a study of the literary miracle, Jesus Montoya explains the lack of precise temporal ref­erences in miracle stories by proposing that the audience ac­cepts the atemporality of the miracle story due to the mutual knowledge and understanding of theological time by author and reader. Montoya defines theological time as aquel que narra una acci6n sobrenatural como real o lzist6rico en raz6n de la acepci6n mutua y mutua asentimiento de autor y lector (125) [that which narrates a supernatural action as real or historical due to the mu­tual acceptance and consent of author and reader]. Ritualized time is accentuated further in the Cantigas when the miracle narratives are sung or recited in oral performance or the pictorial narratives are viewed, thus pre­senting a simultaneous reality with that of the viewer. Atemporality is further high-

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Diane M. Wright

lighted in the miniatures by the contemporary dress of the char­acters no matter the context.

Different Mediums, Different Ends Unlike the Praise Songs (every tenth cantiga) which relate theo­logical and liturgical themes, treating as they do scenes in which symbol and metaphor dominate over action, the artists of the pictorial narratives ac­companying the miracle stories faced the challenge of translat­ing the verbal medium of the narrative action to the visual medium of space. The narrator in the verbal tales, who is highly responsible for dramatic perfor­mance via words, disappears from the miniatures, replaced by visual techniques for dramatiz­ing narrative. Whereas the poet of the verbal miracles had to mold his stories in the poetic forms available to him, the art­ists faced the challenge of economy of space. With some exceptions, in almost all the cantigas, the artists had to illus­trate the miracle story in six frames that are read from left to right, bordered by colored tiles and the king' s crest, the Castle and Lion of Castile and Leon. Captions summarizing the action in the panels alternate in red and blue ink while columns divide the six frames. No matter the length of the verbal narratives, the artists had to illustrate the story within the limits set upon them.3

figure 1. Cantiga r Alfonso dictating to scribes while musicians practice. The musical notation and verbal text appear underneath (Escorial, Ms B.I.2J

Performance Models and the Cantigas The theatrical quality of the Cantigas is reinforced by the miracle poems' conformity to dramatic models of narrative identified by Marie Maclean as dialogue, embedded performances, and framed spectacles. They contribute to the dra­matic quality of the Cantigas not only in the verbal stories but are pronounced as well in the minia­tures as characters gesture, change position and essentially act, under the arches that establish a theatrical frame within the panels.

The use of c quality of the : changes in narr centrate it betw1 In ~he Cantigas, bine with the speakers' ment< cal phrase or d' speeches, whicl listeners. A c< "physical phra~ as a version of eyes." 4 The mir between charac jects communi< facial expressi< assume.5

In the seconc portray selectiv miniatures de Alfonso in varit forming. 6 Min miniatures, frar

scribes while and verbal text

Cantigas tigas is reinforced nity to dramatic y Marie Maclean ormances, and bute to the dra­only in the verbal rell in the minia­nge position and 3 that establish a ~ls.

The use of dialogue heightens the dramatic quality of the miracles by serving to produce changes in narrative space and time and to con­centrate it between the speakers (Maclean 11-12) . In the Cantigas, monologue and dialogue com­bine with the narrator's descriptions of the speakers' mental and emotional states. A physi­cal phrase or description usually introduces the speeches, which brings the subjects to life for the listeners. A commonly used formula is the "physical phrase" also employed in epic poetry as a version of "crying" or "weeping from the eyes."4 The miniatures also illustrate interactions between characters as the artists render the sub­jects communicating through the very detailed facial expressions and dramatic postures they assume.5

In the second model, embedded performances portray selective moments. Tableau scenes in the miniatures depict musicians as well as King Alfonso in various postures of dictating and per­forming. 6 Mirroring the tableau scenes of the miniatures, framed by arches, is the framed spec-

Cantigas de Santa Maria

Figure 2 . Prologue B Alfonso X reading fro m a scroll that contains the initial words of the Prologue Escorial, Ms T.I.r )

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Diane M. Wright

tacle of the verbal text that also portrays selective moments. Many of the protagonists of the miracle stories are musicians minstrels, and poets. '

The full page illustration of Cantiga 1 displays the layout of the words, music and image (Figure 1). It is one of many ex­amples of Alfonso and his musicians in the act of perfor­mance. Alfonso appears to be dictating to a group of scribes, while the musicians practice. He holds a scroll in which the intro­ductory words to the Prologue can be read (Figure 2). Two ex­amples are typical of the portraits of the 77 musicians foun~ in the same manuscript as Cantzga 1. In Cantiga 120 (Figure 3) the musicians play baldosas, a type of vihuela, and in Cantiga 370 (Figure 4) they are shown with drums and whistles (fla­geolets).

Embedded performances are also inscribed within the verbal texts using refrains, prayers, and the gathering of witnesses at the site of the miracle. In each cantiga the refrain is repeated after ev­ery strophe, reinforcing for the listening audience the abstract message concretized by the per­formed miracle. Much like the theatrical stage, the refrain func­tions as a framing device to set off the real world of ordinary time from the sacred, and serves to both legitimize the miracle story and instill its significance into the listeners. This "discur­sive recurrence," as Paul Zumthor calls forms of repeti­tion in oral poetry,

Figure 3· Cantiga I 2 0 Musicians playing a new type a flute or vi hue/a rbaldosaJ Escorial, Ms B.I.2)

constitutes the most efficacious means to ver­balize a spatiotemporal experience, to make the listener participate in it. Time runs on in the fictive intemporality of the song, starting at the moment of the inaugural word. Then, in the space that the sound engenders, the senso­rially felt image is objectified; from within the rhythm a knowledge is born and legitimated (112).

!hus, the re~rain_ va~idate~ the miracle story ~s It suspe~ds_ hi~tonc_, lmear hme, embracing the h~te~ers Withm ntuahzed time and subsequently stunng them to a better understanding of the refrain's message.

Framed spectacles, the third model, are illus­trated in the verbal texts through characters who become narrators or through scenes that are couched within visions or dreams in which the Virgin Mary appears or discourses with angels or saints. Particularly important to transmission ~d receptio~, are the scenes presenting the tell­mg of the miracle story to others as witnesses gather to view the miracle's effects and praise Holy _Mary. This is also commonly portrayed in the pictonal narratives as the characters gather

round a witness c image of the Virgi and verbal narrati an iconic value, cu the diegetic spect; they see mirrore creased devotion

While such ver formance and re leading and direc ratives, supported their narrative te effects. The arch, parts a dramatic viewer's attention he is actually obse taking part in 'ft" ( within each panel a series of actions

[The arches] ir action themselv of events while c sition from on another. Seeing fines, contract~ action within tr

1ew type oflute or

means to ver­ence, to make me runs on in song, starting -vord. Then, in ers, the sensa­om within th( td legitimated

te miracle story ~~ embracing the :1d subsequently standing of the

nodel, are illus­l characters who scenes that are ns in which the ses with angels to transmission ·senting the tell­·rs as witnesses 'ects and praise tly portrayed in taracters gather

round a witness or join in praise in front of the image of the Virgin and Child. In both the visual and verbal narratives, framed spectacles possess an iconic value, and as the audience looks in on the diegetic spectators' celebration of a miracle, they see mirrored their own response of in­creased devotion and faith.

While such verbal utterances inscribe the per­formance and reception of the miracle tales, leading and directing the hearer, the visual nar­ratives, supported by the captions, are not without their narrative techniques to achieve dramatic effects. The arch, well used in medieval art, im­parts a dramatic quality that "concentrates the viewer's attention so as to lead him to feel that he is actually observing a dramatic event or even taking part in it" (Keller and Kincade17). Framed within each panel, a series of arches may denote a series of actions as Keller and Kincade explain:

[The arches] in a sense become parts of the action themselves by contributing to the flow of events while offering a means of spatial tran­sition from one separate point in time to another. Seeing a picture within a picture re­fines, contracts, and intensifies the overall action within the arch (17).

Cantigas de Santa Maria

Another visual narrative technique employed by the min­iaturists of Cantigas but not original to it involves the use of "multiple action within a single panel" (Keller and Kincade 21-22), used extensively due to economies of space or for pur­poses of dramatic action. It consists of representing two or more series of actions within a single panel. Additionally, depth perception is achieved as figures and objects extend beyond the frame (Nelson 116-19).

Cantiga 42 (Figure 5), "This is how the postulant placed the ring on the finger of the statue of Holy Mary and the statue curved its finger around it," re-

1

lates the story of a young man 8 1

who places his ring on the fin-ger of a statue of the Virgin and, enamored of her, promises to forsake all women for her. He later forgets his vow and mar-ries, but the Virgin appears to him on his wedding night and convinces her thoughtless suitor to leave his new bride. He be­comes a hermit, and when he dies, goes to heaven. The second panel (Figure 6) is of interest as an example of double action. Titled "How young men played ball in a meadow," a batter and pitcher appear in the same scene

Figure 4. Cantiga 370 Musicians playing dntms (taboretesJ and flageolets (f/autillas) Escorial Ms BI.2)

Diane M. Wright

Figure 5· Cantiga 42 This is how the postulant placed the ring on the flnger of the statue of Holy Mary and the statue curved its flnger a round it (Escorial. Ms Tl.r)

as that of the act panel four (Figu actions as the m feast of the you vow to Holy Ma framed under a ~ ing under anothe under a third. 0 tales diverge, as ture, an angel i: convince the yo1 the verbal narra and Mary apperu rator also relates the newlyweds • man to be faithf1

Cantiga 142, death one of the river to retrieve <

himself as the w King is hunting, subsequently fal the King's servru but almost drow1 the Virgin inter prayers. Panel t> heron and broke

? ofHoly Mary and

as that of the action of the ball being caught. In panel four (Figure 7), arches denote a series of actions as the miniature displays the wedding feast of the young man who has forgotten his vow to Holy Mary. He and his human bride are framed under a set of arches, the guests convers­ing under another, and the servants carrying food under a third. Oftentimes the visual and verbal tales diverge, as in the fifth panel. In the minia­ture, an angel is present as Mary attempts to convince the young man to accompany her. In the verbal narrative, there is no angel present and Mary appears to him as in a dream. The nar­rator also relates how she lies in the bed between the newlyweds in order to convince the young man to be faithful to her.

Cantiga 142, "How Holy Mary saved from death one of the King's men who had entered a river to retrieve a heron," presents the Wise King himself as the witness to this miracle. While the King is hunting, his falcon wounds a heron that subsequently falls into a turbulent river. One of the King's servants attempts to retrieve the heron but almost drowns himself, and is only saved after the Virgin intervenes in answer to the king' s prayers. Panel two, "How the falcon struck the heron and broke its wing and the heron fell into

Cantigas de Santa Maria

Figure 6. Closeup of panel2 ofCantiga 42. How young men played ball in a meadow.

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Diane M. Wright

Figure 7· Closeup ofpanel4 ofCantiga 42. How the youth married the other woman and left Holy Mary.

the river" (Figure 8), is of particular interest as an example of triple action within one panel. We see three herons, but they are the same bird; first, flying above the water, next, falling into the wa­ter, wounded by the falcon, and lastly, in the water. Note also that the falcon extends or flies out of the panel, adding depth and movement to the scene.

Verbal Narrative: The Narrator as Performer Whereas the pictorial narratives must rely on the various spatial and illustrative techniques to con­vey action and performance, the verbal narratives, through the spoken and written word, rely heavily on the narrator to set the dramatic context. Suzanne Fleischman has developed a helpful topology of four narrating personae.8

They are not distinct narrators but are "alternate vocalizations of the narrator" (220).9 Of the voices assumed by the narrator, Fleischman states that the voice of the performer is one of the most per­sonal in narrative. Certainly in the cantigas de loor or Praise Songs, the figure of Alfonso the Wise emerges as a very personal troubadour who com-

poses and sings ir dramatic narrator miracle narrativt miracle songs ace< rhetorically engag ing message of th rhetorical tone, wl attitude, the liste The narrator's cor audience througl miracles as they f, sion and receptim the narrator of th three types, accm by Keir Elam: dei< nal markers.

Deictic Markers In theatrical perf, such as pointing, ing are, accordinl by verbal signs t the dramatis pers< and set up the 'h communicative c markers are some the Cantigas to esta of the performanc variations as E de: wish now to relah ei [as I have told such as com' agora (236.9) or Estes de here ](135.24) esta actual performan< frame the perforrr Other adverbial d dix au tra vez [as I como ja oystes [so serve as reminde1 said as they guidE

Illocutionary Mar Illocutionary m. performative mm theatrical perf< illocutionary mar

particular interest as within one panel. We

tre the same bird; first, d, falling into the wa­:m, and lastly, in the :alcon extends or flies ·pth and movement to

rrator as Performer 1tives must rely on the :ive techniques to con­mance, the verbal ken and written word, )r to set the dramatic nan has developed a narrating personae.8

tors but are" alternate r" (220).9 Of the voices ~leischman states that s one of the most per­/ in the cantigas de loor · of Alfonso the Wise troubadour who com-

poses and sings in praise of his divine Lady.10 A dramatic narrator is also a unifying figure in the miracle narratives. He orders the individual miracle songs according to his artistic intent and rhetorically engages his listeners in the underly­ing message of the text. Because of a persuasive rhetorical tone, which encourages a participatory attitude, the listener's role is also more active. The narrator's commentaries not only guide the audience through the story but dramatize the miracles as they foreground the act of transmis­sion and reception. The performative phrases of the narrator of the Cantigas can be divided into three types, according to categories developed by Keir Elam: deictic, illocutionary, and attitudi­nal markers.

Deictic Markers In theatrical performance, metalinguistic signs such as pointing, showing, displaying, and act­ing are, according to Elam, often accompanied by verbal signs that together define the "I" of the dramatis persona, the "you" of the addressee and set up the 'here and now' of the dramatic communicative context (Elam 72-74)_11 Deictic markers are some of the most frequently used in the Cantigas to establish the "I-You, here and now" of the performance and include such pronominal variations as E desto vas quer' eu contar [Of this I wish now to relate to you] (5.5-6) or como vas dit' ei [as I have told you] (5.96). Adverbial deictics such as com' agora oyredes [as now you will hear] (236.9) or Estes de que fal' aqui [Those I mention here](135.24) establish boundaries between the actual performance and the narrated events that frame the performance apart from ordinary time. Other adverbial deictic markers such as como vas dix outra vez [as I told you again] (362.30) or assi como ja oystes [so as you already heard] (253.72) serve as reminders of what has previously been said as they guide the hearers through the story.

Illocutionary Markers Illocutionary markers are a second type of performative marker that Elam associates with theatrical performance. In the Cantigas, illocutionary markers display the intentionality

Cantigas de Santa Maria

of the narrator and often appear at the beginning of the song as in: Porende vas contarey [Of this I shall relate to you] (7.9) or Poren direi todavia [Of this I will now tell] (11.9)_12 Many times the narrator's intention is accompa­nied by the promise, another verbal utterance of illocutionary force. Common is the promise that the story will create plea­sure or wonder in the listener: e ass [o] contarei I que se o ben ascuitardes, farri-vos muit' alegrar [and so I will tell it/listen well to it/ it will make you very happy] (258.7-8) or that they will receive either example or spiri­tual profit from hearing the tale: E daquest' un gran miragre direi, onde devo(:onl averedes pai-l' oydes Iss [And of this a great miracle I will tell, where you will have devo-tion / after you hear it] (337.5-6). Other illocutionary markers are warnings that ex-hort the spectator to take heed such as: E porende, meus amigos, quen este miragr' oyr I nunca seja atrevudo ena Virgen desonrrar [And of this, my friends, who hears this miracle / never be bold as to dishonor the Virgin] (327.38-39). Numerous appeals to listen include commands such as this one, which mirrors the restless-ness of the spectators: com' agar' oyredes, se esteveredes cal ados [and as now you will hear, be silent] (233.23) and e par Deus, parad' y mentes e non faledes en al [and by God, stop and think and don't speak about another thing"] (266.9). Illocutionary markers are some of the most powerful

Diane M. Wright

directives to the listener in that they instigate an action through promises, warnings, or com­mands.

Attitudinal Markers A third type of performative marker, the attitudinal marker, is also closely linked with ges­ture in theatrical performance. Elam explains that the attitudi­nal marker 13

presents the attitude adopted by the speaker (to­wards the world, the addressee, the propositional content of the utterance) in speaking (189).

Within the Cantigas the nar­rator continually evaluates, disallowing any ambiguity as to the posture he or his address­ees should adopt.

A common marker that many times accompanies the narrator's intention to perform the song refers to the beauty or wonder of the miracle event, such as Maravilla so miragre d' air I vas quer eu contat [I wish now to relate to you a miracle most marvelous to hear) (17.5-6). Much like the juglar who an­nounces that he will now sing of the exploits of the epic hero are those phrases that refer to the Virgin's great deeds such as the following: Mas agora oyrdes todos a mui gran far;anna I nunca vistes tan estranna [But now you all will hear of a very great deed / you never saw one so strange] (222.41-42).

Frequent direct addresses to the listeners as meus amigos [my friends) or que vas direi ora, ay

buena gente [that I will tell you now, oh good people] (54.11) establish the intimacy of the com­municative exchange and the attitude of complicity and shared cultural values that the narrator establishes with his audience. This is particularly acute in phrases containing verbs in the fourth person such as: E par aquest', ai, amigos, demos-lle grandes loores [For this reason, oh my friends, let us give her great praise].

In addition to the listening audience, the nar­rator also expresses his stance towards the protagonists and characters of the miracle sto­ries and with the appropriate dramatic gestures that would accompany the verbal utterances that suggest such emotions as surprise, pleasure, dis­gust, horror or contempt. For example, pear moller I non vistes do que foi ela [you have not seen a woman worse than she was] (256.16-17). Rhe­torical questions are frequently posed and function to keep the listeners involved in the story, such as by asking them to anticipate a

Figure 8. Closeup of panel 2 ofCantiga I 42. How the falcon struck the heron and broke its wing and the heron fell into the riuer (Escorial, Ms Tl.I)

character's next m que fez? [And wha do?](131.36).

The physical gE panied the verbal · as markers of per as they are tied t mance. Howev1 detailing the gest the characters UJ

performative me: miracle songs the mance.

I have focused <

the Cantigas in • by which the pict their stories with verbal represent< performances an' the dramatic quali references to the c:

ing, or in some G

of the miracle son Alfonso and his s uprising of his so the loyalty of his • his bouts with ill mance of the Cam As he writes in hi wise we order th Praise of Holy Ma body shall be inh the feast days of Kincade 9). The t1 tinues nowadays i imagine. We live tive technology o interactions witl which the writter sight and sound Walter Ong has tE It is an era in wl of the Cantigas c well beyond intentions. I0G1

1 you now, oh good ~ intimacy of the com­t1d the attitude of tural values that the 1is audience. This is ·s containing verbs in par aquest', ai, ami gas, r this reason, oh my 1t praise]. 1g audience, the nar­stance towards the s of the miracle sto­Lte dramatic gestures rerbal utterances that lrprise, pleasure, dis­r example, pear moller 'OU have not seen a Ls] (256.16-17). Rhe­luently posed and 1ers involved in the hem to anticipate a

~a I 42. How the falcon 1 the heron fell into the

character's next move: Mais la santa dona, sa moller, que fez? [And what did the saintly lady, his wife, do?](131.36).

The physical gestures that would have accom­panied the verbal utterances that I have identified as markers of performance are forever lost to us as they are tied to the actual theatrical perfor­mance. However, the pictorial narratives detailing the gestures and facial expressions of the characters underscore the function of the performative markers to inscribe within the miracle songs the dynamics of dramatic perfor­mance.

I have focused on the performative context of the Cantigas in order to present the techniques

by which the pictorial and verbal narratives tell their stories with distinct media. The visual and verbal representations of dialogue, embedded performances and framed spectacles, reinforce the dramatic quality of the Cantigas as do the many references to the acts of composing and perform­ing, or in some cases, to the actual performance of the miracle songs. The Cantigas served to unite Alfonso and his subjects, particularly during the uprising of his son and nobles, when he needed the loyalty of his people, or as a comfort through his bouts with illness. His vision of the perfor­mance of the Cantigas extended past his own life. As he writes in his last will and testament: "Like­wise we order that all the books of the Songs of Praise of Holy Mary be in that church where our body shall be interred, and that they be sung on the feast days of Holy Mary" (trans. Keller and Kincade 9). The transmission of the Cantigas con­tinues nowadays in ways that Alfonso could never imagine. We live in an age in which the interac­tive technology of the computer is changing our interactions with the visual and acoustical, in which the written word is again accompanied by sight and sound in a culture experiencing what Walter Ong has termed" a secondary orality" (11). It is an era in which the three-fold presentation of the Cantigas can be transmitted to audiences well beyond the Wise King's original intentions. li001

Cantigas de Santa Maria

Notes 1. Escorial codex T.l.1 (Ms T), known as the Codice Rico, is the most richly illustrated of the four codices and contains over 200 miracle tales. Escorial codex B.l.2 (Ms E) contains the greatest num­ber of miracle narratives and is of particular interest for its depictions of musicians, musical instruments and musical notations. Codex Banco Rari 20 (Ms F), housed in the National Library in Florence, con­tains 48 complete visual narratives and another 89 in varying stages of completion. The earliest manuscript of the Cantigas, codex 10.069 (Ms To), contains 100 miracle tales.

2. Law 66 of the Siete Partidas de-fines the miracle as 1) que venga par poder de Dios [that which comes from the power of God] (16r65-66), 2); que sea contra natura [that is con- [ trary to nature] (16r70), 3); que 87 auenga par merecimiento de sanctidad I y de bondat que aya en si aquel que lo faze o aquellos para quien es fecho [that is merited due to the sanctity and goodness that is in him who per­forms it or those for whom it is done] (16r74-77), 4); que sea para confirmamiento de Ia fe [that is for the confirmation of faith] (16r85-86) (see Cardenas for a fuller treatment of the definition of a miracle).

3 The exceptions are Cantiga 1 (a type of prologue to the Praise Songs) containing eight frames; and Cantigas ending in 5 that contain two pages of six panels.

4. Zumthor describes the formulaic style as "a discursive and intertextual strategy: it inserts and integrates into the unfolding dis­course rhythmic and linguistic fragments borrowed from other preexisting messages that in prin­ciple belong to the same genre, sending the listener back to a famil-

88 1

Diane M. Wright

iar semantic universe by making the fragments functional within their exposition" (89-90).

5 "Without dialogue, miniatures used body language, facial expres­sion, attitudes of stance and gestures" (Keller and Kincade 19).

6. Keller ("Drama") proposes that many of the Cantigas may be illus­trations of staged dramatic events and Kinkade ("Sermon") suggests that we should broaden our under­standing of what dramatization would have entailed in the Middle Ages. Burke posits the possibility of either a spoken or sung recital of a cantiga (250-51). Presilla also sees the Cantigas as "public performed text that were meant to be read aloud or sung as the royal court moved from town to town" (422).

7 See Keller and Kincade for a fuller description and analysis of these two miracles and others as well. Translations of the titles and panel headings are from this study.

8 There is the histor, whose role is to establish the historicity behind the event and who acts as investi­gator to lend credibility to the often incredible events, the memorialist who recollects personal experience, the painter who depicts rather than narrates, and the performer who represents.

9. "The speaker's relationship with the content of the utterance is dif­ferent for each persona. Although the speaker normally remains the same throughout a text, his or her perspective on and relationship to people, places, objects, and events in the story world may change" (Fleischman 216).

10. Snow has also studied the self­reflexive phrases and self-conscious references within the individual cantigas, and has found that the phrases that refer to other

cantigas within the collection indicate an internal or­ganization on the macro level.

11. The 'I' of the dramatis persona and the 'here and now' of the dramatic communicative context are re­lated to the actors' body and the stage context through the indicative gesture accompanying the utterance. Gesture, in this sense, materializes the dramatic sub­ject and his world by asserting their identity with an actual body and an actual space" (Elam 74).

12. " ... the intentionality of a given utterance. Simul­taneous movement will serve to emphasize, or even define, the kind of speech act being performed by the speaker (and thus the character) in uttering a given sequence of words, be it a question, a command, a demand, an affirmation, etc." (Elam 75).

13. "The particular importance of attitudinal markers to performance is that they permit a given interper­sonal relationship within the drama ... to be kinesically embodied by the actors" (Elam 76).

14. Also, attitudinal markers define "the speaker's stance both towards the dramatic world and towards his own discourse, and the terms in which the fic­tional world and alternative worlds are constructed" (Elam 189)

Bibliography Alfonso X, el Sabia. Can

Madrid: Editorial Ca are mine except whe1

Burke, James. "Virtue a Studies on the Cantig< tiona/ Symposium on t Commemoration of its of Medieval Studies,

Cardenas, Anthony."'[ of Alfonso's Royal S<

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Fleischman, Suzanne. T Austin: U of Texas P,

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Cantigas de Santa Maria

Bibliography Alfonso X, el Sabio. Cantigas de SantaMaria. Ed. Walter Mettman. 3 vols. Clasicos Castalia.

Madrid: Editorial Castalia, 1987-89. (All citations are from this edition. Translations are mine except where noted.)

Burke, James. "Virtue and Sin, Reward and Punishment in the Cantigas de Santa Maria." Studies on the Cantigas de Santa Maria: Art, Music and Poetry: Proceedings of the Interna­tional Symposium on the Cantigas de Santa Maria of Alfonso X, el Sabia (1221-1284) in Commemoration of its 700th Anniversary Year -1981. Madison: The Hispanic Seminary of Medieval Studies, 1987. 246-252.

Cardenas, Anthony. '"De una marauilla que acaecio ... ':Miracles in the Prose and Poetry of Alfonso's Royal Scriptorium." Cantigueiros 2 (1988-89): 13-30.

Elam, Keir. The Semiotics ofTheatre and Drama. London: Methuen, 1980.

Fleischman, Suzanne. Tense and Narrativity: From Medieval Performance to Modern Fiction. Austin: U of Texas P, 1990.

Keller, John. "Drama, Ritual, and Incipient Opera in Alfonso's Cantigas." Emperor of Culture: Alfonso X the Learned of Castile and His Thirteenth-Century Renaissance. Philadel­phia: U of Pennsylvania P, 1990. 72-89.

-.and Richard P. Kincade. Iconography in Medieval Spanish Literature. Lexington: UP of Kentucky, 1984.

Kincade, Richard P. "Sermon in the Round: The Mester de Clerecia as Dramatic Art." La Coronica 9.1 (1981): 9.

Maclean, Marie. Narrative as Performance: The Baudelairean Experiment. New York: Routledge, 1988.

Montoya, Jesus. "El tiempo y el espacio en el milagro literario." Narrativa breve medieval romanica. Eds. J. Montoya Martinez, A. Juarez Blanquer, and J .Paredes Nunez. (Colecci6n Romania, 0) Granada: Ediciones TAT, 1988. 111-29.

Nelson, Charles L. "Art and Visualization in the Cantigas de Santa Maria: How the Artists Worked." Studies on the Cantigas de Santa Maria: Art, Music and Poetry: Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Cantigas de Santa Maria of Alfonso X, el Sabia (1221-1284) in Commemoration of its 700th Anniversary Year -1981. Madison: The Hispanic Seminary of Medieval Studies, 1987. 111-34.

O'Callaghan, Joseph F. The Learned King: The Reign of Alfonso X of Castile. Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania P, 1993.

Ong, Walter J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. New York: Methuen & Co., 1982.

Presilla, Marice! E. "Conflicts Between Ecclesiastical and Popular Culture in the Cantigas de Santa Maria." Romance Quarterly 33.3 (1986): 331-42.

Scarborough, Connie. Women in Thirteenth-Century Spain as Portrayed in Alfonso X's Cantigas de Santa Maria. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 1993.

Snow, Joseph T. "Self-Conscious References and the Organic Narrative Pattern of the Cantigas de Santa Maria of Alfonso X." Ed. J. R. Jones. Medieval, Renaissance and Folklore Studies in Honor o!John Esten Keller. Newark: Juan de la Cuesta, 1980. 53-66.

-."Alfonso X y j en sus Cantigas." Eds. J. Mondejar and J. Montoya. Estudios alfonsies: Lexicografia, lirica, estetica y politica de Alfonso el Sabia. Granada: U of Granada, 1985. 71-90.

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