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See also:Analytic/Synthetic, Necessary/Contingent, anda

priori/a posteriori; Empiricism; Holism, Semantic and Epi-

stemic; Limits of Language; Meaning: Overview of Philo-

sophical Theories; Realism and Antirealism; Truth:

Theories of in Philosophy.

BibliographyA us ti n J L ( 19 62 ). Sense and sensibilia. O x f o rd : O x f or d

U n i v er s i t y P r e s s .Ay er A J ( 19 36 ). Language, truth and logic. London:

G o l l an c z . [ 2 n d e d n . , 1 9 4 6 . ]Ay er A J ( 19 36 /1 93 7) . Ve ri fi ca ti on a nd e xp er ie nc e.

Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 37. [Reprintedi n A y e r ( e d . ) 1 9 5 9 , 2 2 8 2 4 3 . ]

A y e r A J ( e d . ) ( 1 9 5 9 ) .Logical positivism. Glencoe, Illinois:T h e F r e e P r e s s .

B e an e y M ( 2 00 4 ). C ar n ap s c o nc e pt i on o f e x pl i ca t io n :f ro m F re ge t o H us se rl ? I n Aw od ey S & K le in C ( ed s. )Carnap brought home: the view from Jena. Chicago:

O p e n C o u r t . 1 1 7 1 5 0 .B e r l i n I ( 1 9 38 / 1 9 39 ) . Ve r i f ic a t i on . Proceedings of theAristotelian Society 39, 2 2 5 2 4 8 . R e p r in t e d i n P a r k i ns o nG H R ( e d . ) . The theory of meaning. Oxford UniversityP r e s s : O x f o r d . 1 9 6 8 . 1 5 3 4 .

C a rn a p R ( 1 92 8 ). Der logische Aufbau der Welt. Berlin-Schlachtensee: Weltkreis-Verlag. [Translated inThe logi-cal structure of the world. G e o r g e R A ( t r a n s . ). Berkeley:U n i v er s i t y o f C a l i f or n i a P r e s s, 1 9 6 7. ]

C a r n a p R ( 1 9 3 2 ) . T h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f m e t a p h y s i c s t h r o u g hl o gi c al a n al y si s o f l a ng u ag e . Erkenntnis 2, 219241.[ Tr a n s l at e d i n Ay e r ( e d . ), 1 9 5 9, 6 0 8 1. ]

C a r n a p R ( 1 9 32 / 1 93 3 ) . P s y ch o l o gy i n p h y s ic a l l a n g ua g e , Erkenntnis 3, [ T r a n s l a t e d i n A y e r ( e d . ) , 1 9 5 9 , 1 6 5 1 9 8 . ]

C h ur c h A ( 1 94 9 ). R ev i ew o f Language, truth and logic,second edition.Journal of Symbolic Logic 14, 5253.

C of fa J A ( 19 91 ). The semantic tradition from Kant toCarnap. C a m b r i d ge : C a m b ri d g e U n i v er s i t y P r e s s.

D u h e m P ( 1 9 0 6 ) .La theorie physique, son objet et sa struc-ture. P a ri s : C h ev a li e r e t R i vi er e . [ R ep r in t ed i n W ie n er. P P( t r a ns ) ( e d . ) The aim and structure of physical theory.P r i n c e t o n : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 9 2 . ]

D u mm e tt M ( 1 99 1 ). The logical basis of metaphysics.C a m b ri d g e , M A : H a r v ar d U n i v er s i t y P r e s s .

D u m me t t M ( 1 9 9 3) . R e a l i s m a n d a n t i - r e al i s m . I nThe seasof language. O x f o r d: O x f o rd U n i v er s i t y P r e s s.

F ri ed ma n M ( 19 99 ). Reconsidering logical positivism.C a m br i d g e : C a m b ri d g e U n i v er s i t y P r e s s .

F r ie d ma n M ( 2 00 0 ). A parting of the ways: Carnap,Cassirer, and Heidegger. C h i c a g o : O p e n C o u r t .

H an fl i ng O ( ed .) ( 19 81 ). Essential readings in logical

positivism. Oxford: Blackwell.H e m p e l C G ( 1 9 5 0 ) . T h e e m p i r i c i s t c r i t e r i o n o f m e a n i n g .

Revue internationale de philosophie 4, 4 1 6 3. [ R e pr i n t edi n Ay e r ( e d .) , 1 9 5 9, 1 0 8 12 9 . ]

H um e D ( 17 48 ). An enquiry concerning human under-standing. S e l b y - B i g g e L A ( e d . ) [ 3 r d r d . r e v . b y N i d d i t c hP H . O x f o r d : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 7 5 . ]

N e u ra t h O ( 1 9 3 2/ 1 9 3 3) . P r o to c o l s e n t en c e s. Erkenntnis 3.[ Tr a n s l at e d i n Ay e r ( e d . ), 1 9 5 9, 1 9 9 2 0 8 . ]

Q u i n e W V O ( 1 9 5 1 ) . T w o D o g m a s o f E m p i r i c i s m . Philo-sophical Review 60, 2 0 43 . [ Re pr in te d i n a r ev is edf o rm i nFrom a logical point of view. C a mb r id g e, M A :H a rv a rd U n iv e rs i ty P r es s , 1 s t e d . 1 9 53 , 2 n d e d . 1 9 6 1 ,2046.]

R i c ha r d s o n A ( 1 9 98 ) .Carnaps construction of the world:the Aufbau and the emergence of logical empiricism.C a m br i d g e U n i v er s i t y P r e s s: C a m b ri d g e .

R u ss e ll B ( 1 91 4 ). Our knowledge of the external world.O p e n C o u r t : C h i c a g o .

S ch li ck M ( 19 34 ). Th e f ou nd at io n o f k no wl ed ge .Erkenntnis 4. [Translated in Ayer, 1959, 209227.]

S o am e s S ( 2 00 3 ). Philosophical analysis in the twentiethcentury ( 2 v o l s ) . P r i n c e t o n : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

S w ar t z R J ( e d. ) ( 1 96 5 ).Perceiving, sensing, and knowing.New York: Doubleday.

U eb el T E ( 19 92 ). Overcoming logical positivism fromwithin. Amsterdam: Rodopi.

U r ms o n J O ( 1 95 6 ).Philosophical analysis: its developmentbetween the two World Wars. O x f or d : O x f o rd U n i v er s i t yPress.

W is d om J ( 1 93 1 1 9 33 ) . L og i ca l c o ns t ru c ti o ns . P a rt I ,Mind 40, P a r t I I ,40; P a r t I I I , 41, 4 4 1 4 64 ; P a r t I V, 42,4 3 66 ; P a r t V,42, 186202.

Wr i gh t C ( 1 98 6 ). Realism, Meaning and Truth. Oxford:Blackwell.

Vernacular

N Niedzielski, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA

2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

T h e t e r m v e r n a c u l a r h a s n u m e r o u s a n d v a r i e d u s e s ,b o t h w i t h i n t h e f i e l d o f s o c i o l i n g ui s t i c s a n d i n l i n g u is -t i c s i n g e n e r a l . S u c h v a r i e d u s a g e h a s l e d t o m i s u n d e r -s t a n d i n g s a m o n g s c h o l a r s r e g a r d i n g w h a t s p e c i f i c a l l y

i s b e in g r e fe r re d t o , a n d t h e p o s s i bi l it y t h at t h e v a r i -e t ie s r e fe r re d t o a s v er n ac u la r w i l l b e u n de r va l ue db y b ot h t he s pe ak er s o f t he d om i na nt l an gu ag e a nds p e a k e r s o f t h e s e l a n g u a g e v a r i e t i e s t h e m s e l v e s .

W it hi n t he f ie ld o f s oc io li n gu is t ic s, t he re a re a tl e a s t t w o d i s t i n c t u s e s o f t h i s t e r m . T h e f i r s t s e n s e o f t h i s t e r m i n s o c i o l i n g u i s t i c s i s e x e m p l i f i e d b y P o p l a c k( 1 99 3 ), w h ic h d e fi n es v e rn a cu l ar a s t he r e la t iv e l y

414 Verificationism

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h o mo g en o us , s p on t an e ou s s p ee c h r e se r v ed f o r i n t i-m at e o r c as ua l s it u at io ns . . . t ak en t o r ef le ct t hem os t s ys te ma ti c f or m o f t he l an gu ag e a cq ui re d b yt he s pe ak er, pr ior t o an y s ub se que nt e ff or ts a t( h y p er - ) c o r r e c t i o n o r s t y l e s h i f t i n g ( P o p l a c k, 1 9 9 3 :2 52 ). L ab ov ( 19 72 ) d es cr ib ed t hi s v ar ie ty a s o ne i n

w hi ch t he s pe ak er p ay s l ea st a tt en ti o n t o h is o r h ers pe ec h a nd i s t he l ea st s el f -c on sc i ou s o f t he v ar i et i es i nh i s o r h e r r e p e r t o i r e . F o r s c h o l a r s w h o u s e t h e t e r m i nt h is m a nn e r, t h e vernacular i s t he v ar ie ty t ha t i sa c qu i re d f i r st , r e ve a ls t h e m o st a d va n ce d f o rm s o f c h a n ge i n p r o g r es s ( L a bo v, 2 0 0 1 ), a n d p r o v id e s t h ec le ar es t d ep ic ti o n o f w he t he r a l in gu is ti c f ea tu re i sv a ri a bl e o r c a te g or i ca l ( L a b ov, 2 0 0 1 ). A c c o r di n gt o L ab ovs Ve r na c ul a r P r in c ip l e ( L ab o v, 1 9 72 ) , t h ev e r n a c u l a r i s a l s o t h e v a r i e t y t h a t i s m o s t s y s t e m a t i c ,n ot o nl y w it h r eg ar d t o i t s s tr uc tu re b ut a ls o w it hr e ga r d t o i t s h i st o ri c al d e ve l op m en t . T h is u s e o f t h eterm vernacular t he r e f o re e q u a t es v e r n a cu l a r v a r i -

e t i e s w i t h c a s u al v a r i e ti e s .Wo l fr a m a n d S c hi l l in g -E s t es ( 1 99 8 ) i l l us t ra t es a d i f-

f e r e n t u s a g e, b y d e f i n i n g v e r n ac u l a r v a r i e t i es a s vari-e t i es o f l a ng u ag e s t h at a r e n o t c l a s s if i ed a s s t an d ar ddialects a n d c o m p a r i n g t h i s u s a g e t o t h e u s e o f ver-nacular t o m ea n l oc al o r n at iv e ( Wo l f r am a n dS c hi l l in g -E s te s , 1 9 98 : 1 3 ). T h e y c o nt r as t s t an d ar dv a ri e ti e s , w h i c h t h ey s u gg e s t a r e d e fi n ed b y t h e l a c ko f n o ns t an d ar d f e at u re s i n t h e v a ri e tys g r am m ar, t ov e rn a cu l ar v a ri e t ie s , w h os e g r am m ar s c o nt a in s u chn o ns t an d ar d f e at u re s . H o we v er, t h ey p o in t o u t t h atvernacularity e x i s t s o n a c o n t i n u u m s o t h a t p a r t i c u -

l a r s p e a k e r s m a y e x h i b i t s p e e c h w h i c h i s m o r e o r l e s svernacular. T h i s u s a g e t h e r e f o r e e q u a t e s v e r n ac u l a rv a r i e t i e s w i t h n o n s t a n d a r d v a r i e t i e s .

T he t wo v ar yi ng u sa ge s o f t hi s t er m a re f ur t he ri l lu st ra t ed b y t he u se o f t he p hr as e v e r n ac u l a r c u l -t u r e i n d e x , a s u s e d b y C h e s h i r e ( 1 9 8 2 ) a n d E d w a r d s( 19 92 ). F or C he s hi re , t he i nd ex w as c al cu la te d b ysubjects p a rt i ci p a ti o n i n a c ti v i ti e s s u ch a s c a rr y i ngw ea po ns , c ho os in g c lo th in g s ty le s, a nd f ig ht in g,w h il e f o r E d wa r ds , t h e i n d e x w a s c a l c u la t ed b y s u b-jects t i es t o l o ca l n e ig h bo r ho o ds v i a t h e l o ca t i on o f t he ir f am il i es a nd t he ir j ob s, a nd t he ir d es ir e t o r e-m ai n l i vi ng i n t he a re a. T hu s, f or C he sh ir e, t he v er-n a cu l ar c u lt u re i s d e fi n ed a s n o ns t an d ar d o r c o un t erc u l t u r e , w h i l e f o r E d w a r d s , i t i s d e f i n e d a s l o c a l n e s s .

M e ye r ho f f a n d N i ed z ie l s ki ( 2 00 3 ) p l ac e d g l ob a lv ar ia nt s i n o pp os i ti on t o l oc al v ar ia nt s, a nd t he ys ug ge st ed a m ec ha ni sm b y w hi c h g lo ba l v ar ia nt sc an b ec om e l oc al , i n j us t s uc h c as es a s t he y b ec om ep ar t o f a s pe ak er s v er na c ul ar. A lt ho ug h t he y u se vernacular a s a na lo go us t o s ys te ma ti c a nd l ea sts el f -c on sc io us v ar ie ti es , a s d es cr i be d a bo ve , t he ys ho w h ow b ot h o f t he se s en se s c an b e i nc or p or at e di n t o t h e c o n c e p t o f vernacular.

I n t he r ea lm o f g en er al l in gu is ti cs , p ar ti cu la rl yf i e l d l i n g u is t i c s , vernacular i s u se d t o r e f er t o l oc all an gu ag es , a s o pp os ed t o a l in gu a f ra nc a, o ff i ci a l s ta n-d a rd , o r a g l ob a l l a n g ua g e. F o r e x am p le , t h e E t hn o -l o g u e w e b s i t e r e f e r s t o t h e l o c a l l a n g u a g e s s p o k e n i nP a pu a N e w G u in e a a n d t h e a b or i gi n al l a ng u ag e s o f

A u st r al i a a s t h e v e r n ac u l a r l a n g ua g e s , w h ic h , o nt hi s s it e, a re c on tr a st ed w it h E ng li sh . T he S um me rI ns ti t ut e o f L i ng ui st i cs w eb si te r ef er s t o l oc al l an -g u ag e s a s vernaculars, f o r i n st a nc e , i n d i sc u ss i o nso f l i t e r a c y i n l a n g u a g e s o t h e r t h a n E n g l i s h . C o m p a r a -b l e u s a g e o f t h i s t e r m i s s e e n o n t h e p h r a s e vernacu-lar literacy, w h i c h m e a ns l i t er a cy i n a l a ng u ag e o t he rt han a s tan dar d o r g lo ba l l an gua ge , a nd of te ni n cl u d es l i te r a cy i n n o ns t an d ar d d i al e ct s o f a g l ob a llanguage.

T h e j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f vernacular a n d n o n s t a n d a r dd ia le ct s , h ow ev er, r ai s es t he i nh er e nt d an ge r t ha tt he n eg at iv e s t er e ot yp es a ss oc i at ed w it h n on st an -

d a rd n es s w i ll b e co m e a s so c ia t e d w i t h t h e v e rn a cu l a rv a ri e ti e s . T h i s i s o n e r e a s o n s o m e s c ho l ar s p r ef e r t ouse A f r i c a n- A m e r i ca n E n g l i s h i n s te a d o f African-A m e r i ca n Ve r n a cu l a r E n g l i sh .

See also:Academies: Dictionaries and Standards; Compu-

ters in Field Linguistics; Cultural and Social Dimension of

Spoken Discourse; Localization; Mother Tongue Educa-

tion: Nonstandard Language; Mother Tongue Education:

Standard Language; Nonstandard Language Use; Pres-

tige, Overt and Covert; (R) as a Variable; Standard and

Dialect Vocabulary; Standardization.

Bibliography

C h e s hi r e J ( 1 9 82 ) .Variation in an English dialect: a socio-linguistic study. C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .

E d w ar d s W ( 1 9 92 ) . S o c i ol i n g ui s t i c b e h a v i o r i n a D e t ro i tinner-city black neighborhood.Language in Society 21,93115.

L ab ov W ( 19 72 ). Sociolinguistic patterns. Philadelphia:U n i v er s i t y o f P e n ns y l v a ni a P r e s s.

L a bo v W ( 2 00 1 ). Principles of linguistic change, Vol. 2:Social factors. Oxford: Blackwell.

M ey e rh o ff M & N i ed z ie l sk i N ( 2 00 3 ). T h e g l o b a li s a t i on

o f v e r n a c u l a r v a r i a t i o n . Journal of Sociolinguistics 7(4),534555.

P o pl a ck S ( 1 99 3 ). Va r ia t io n t h eo r y a n d l a ng u ag e c o n-tact. I n P re st on D R ( ed .) American dialect research.A m s t er d a m : J o h n B e n ja m i n s .

W o l f r a m W & S c h i l l i n g - E s t e s N ( 1 9 9 8 ) . American English.Oxford: Blackwell.

Relevant Websites

http://www.ethnologue.com E t h no l o g ue ( 2 0 04 ) .http://www.sil.org SIL International.

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http://www.ethnologue.com/http://www.sil.org/http://www.sil.org/http://www.ethnologue.com/