Tibet: Background Information

Official Name: Xizang Zizhiqu; Short form: Xizang

International long form: Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) ; Int'l short form: Tibet

Etymological: the name Tibet is derived from the Sanskrit word Trivistapa which means "heaven." Tibetans called their homeland Bod.

Geography:

Location: Asia, north of India, located on the Tibetan Plateau, the world's highest region. Area: TAR: 1.2m sq km, Tibet/Bod: 2.5 million sq. km, approximately the size of Western Europe. It is the south-West frontier of China. Tibet borders with Sichuan, Yuannan, Qinghai And Xinjiang; to the south contiguous to India, Nepal, Bhutan and Burma, and bounded by Kashmir on the west.

Terrain: High plateau and higher mountain ranges, average elevation of over 4,000 m, Tibet is the highest region in the world and is often called the "Roof of the World." Southern Tibet is located in the Himalayas, which contains many of the world's highest mountains. One of the most famous peaks found in Tibet is Mount Everest (8848 m), the highest mountain in the world. Tibet is also the source and dividing line of the Asian continent's major rivers.

Geographically, Tibet can be divided into three major parts, the east, north and south. The eastern part is forest region, occupying approximately one-fourth of the land. The northern part is open grassland, where nomads and yak and sheep dwell. This part occupies approximately half of Tibet. The southern and central part is agricultural region, occupying about one-fourth of Tibet's land area. All major Tibetan cities and towns such as Lhasa, and, Gyantse are located in this area. It is considered the cultural centre of Tibet.

Climate: When the word Tibet is mentioned cold and snow come to mind but in fact it snows rarely on the plateau and because of the lack of cloud cover, it is not at all that cold during the daytime even in winter. Average temperature 28 degrees Celsius (Summer) -15 degrees Celsius (in Winter), but the daily temperature range can be very large. The plateau is dry and receives an average of only 460 mm of precipitation each year, the rainy season in the summer. Alluvial soils from the spring flooding of the rivers flowing from the high mountains provide agricultural soil. Strong winds causing sandstorms and thunderstorms with large hail are the main weather problems in Tibet.

Population: total 2.62 million; Lhasa 240,000. About 80% of the people are ethnically Tibetan although other ethnic groups, especially the Han Chinese are growing because of

internal migration. Tibet is so thinly populated that it averages out 1.8 persons per square kilometre. This is because Tibet is so high and so dry and so isolated. Most people still live in rural areas on the plateau at elevations ranging from 1200 to 5100 metres. The advantage of the location and isolation is that disease and epidemics are rare on the dry high plateau.

About 90% of the people live on farming and husbandry. Farmers live in the valleys of Tsangpo River (Brahmaputra) and its major tributaries in the south. This area produces barely, wheat, peas and rape-seed (canola). The great northern grassland which occupies a good half of Tibet is the home of nomads, yaks and sheep. The remaining population, approximately 10%, live in towns earning their living from small business and handicrafts, with an increasing number of factory workers and government officials (who are usually Han Chinese).

Religion: Tibetan Buddhism. Religion in deeply embedded in Tibetan life and many people daily pray using mantric prayer, prayer wheels or prayer beads. Pious pilgrims from every corner of Tibet gather regularly at Temples offering donations and praying.

Probably Buddhism was first introduced to Tibet in the first century CE but it is not until eleventh century that Buddhist philosophy becomes the dominant teaching in Tibet and develops its own tradition that is later spread to Nepal and Bhutan. Lama's play an important role in Tibetan Buddhism as they teach all the monks, to ensure their approach to Buddhism continues. In 1578 the Lama Sonam received the title of Ta-Le (Dalai) from the Mongolian ruler Atlan khan. Because he was the third reincarnation found in a row he became the third Dalai Lama. Buddhism is still strong in Tibet and some of the temples and monasteries destroyed during the Chinese takeover have been rebuilt. Article 7 or the 1951 Agreement with China states “ religious beliefs, customs and habits of the Tibetan people shall be respected, and lama monasteries shall be protected”. But, the Chinese government has a strong hold on religious practices, including placing a limit on the number of religious buildings.

Many cultural events and festivals are related to Tibetan Buddhism. These include Tibetan New Year and the Butter Oil Lantern festival in the first lunar month and the religious festival of Saga Dawa celebrating Buddha’s birthday. Other cultural events relate to the lifestyle of the people and horse racing and archery competitions are particularly popular. These competitions are often combined with folk singing and dancing and local fairs to trade foodstuffs and handicrafts. The largest is the Shoton festival in August.

Languages: Tibetan, (Regional dialects vary across Tibet so the Lhasa dialect has become the Tibetan lingua franca.) Chinese ( language of administration and schooling and of an increasing number of Han Chinese migrants).

Natural resources: Forests, wildlife, mineral resources, uranium (world's largest uranium reserve), hydro- and geothermal energy.

Agriculture products: Livestock and livestock products. Barley and root vegetables are the primary crops. The cold dry air allows long term storage of grains and even animal products. Yak butter is an important food, including yak butter tea.

Industries: Mining, wool spinning, carpets, forestry, food processing, printing, building materials and machinery, tourism. Most industries are limited and small scale.

Tourism: a growing source of income for the region

Currency: Chinese Yuan Renminbi (CNY)

Administration: The region is administratively divided into one municipality of Lhasa and six prefectures. The People's Government of the Tibet Autonomous Region exercises the highest administrative authority in Tibet.

Tibet and China: History of a Complex Relationship

For at least 1500 years, the nation of Tibet has had a complex relationship with its large and powerful neighbour to the east, China. The political history of Tibet and China reveals that the relationship has not always been as one-sided as it now appears, and the balance of power between China and Tibet has shifted back and forth over the centuries.

Early Interactions

The first known interaction between the two states came in 640 A.D., when the Tibetan King, a niece of the Tang Emperor. He also married a Nepalese princess. Both wives were Buddhists, and they encouraged the religion in Tibet. For the next 50 years the Tibetan kings expanded their domains to include what are now the Chinese provinces of Qinghai, Gansu, and Xinjiang. Control of these border regions would change hands back and forth for centuries to come.

Chinese power waxed strong in the early decades of the eighth century. Imperial forces under General Gao Xianzhi conquered much of Central Asia, including Tibet but after their defeat by the Arabs and Karluks at the Battle of Talas River in 751, China's power quickly waned, and Tibet resumed control of much of Central Asia. The ascendant Tibetans pressed their advantage, conquering much of northern India and even seizing the Tang Chinese capital city of Chang'an (now Xian) in 763.

Tibet and China signed a peace treaty in 821, which delineated the border between the two empires. The Tibetan Empire would concentrate on its Central Asian holdings for the next several decades, before splitting into several small, fractious kingdoms.

Tibet and the Mongols

When the Mongol leader Genghis Khan conquered the known world in the early 13th century, the Tibetans befriended him rather than fight . As a result, though the Tibetans paid tribute to the Mongols after the Hordes had conquered China, they were allowed much greater autonomy than the other Mongol-conquered lands. Over time, Tibet came to be considered one of the thirteen provinces of the Mongolian-ruled nation of Yuan China. During this period, the Tibetans gained a high degree of influence over the Mongols at court.

Independent Tibet

When the Mongols' Yuan Empire fell in 1368 to the ethnic-Han Chinese Ming, Tibet reasserted its independence and refused to pay tribute to the new Emperor.

In the 1470’s, a child raised as the reincarnation of the abbot of an important Tibetan Buddhist monastery , became the religious and political leader known as the First Dalai Lama after his death. The Third Dalai Lama, Sonam Gyatso (1543-1588), was the first to be so named during his life. While the newly-named Dalai Lama consolidated the power of his spiritual position, though, the Gtsang-pa Dynasty assumed the royal throne of Tibet in 1562. The Kings would rule the secular side of Tibetan life for the next 80 years.

During the 1630s, China was embroiled in power struggles between the Mongols, Han Chinese of the fading Ming Dynasty, and the Manchu people of north-eastern China (Manchuria). The Manchus would eventually defeat the Han in 1644, and establish China's final imperial dynasty, the Qing (1644-1912). One of the Mongol war lords invaded Tibet but they were defeated in 1637. As a result of this conflict the Fifth Dalai Lama, Lobsang Gyatso, was able to seize both spiritual and temporal power over all of Tibet in 1642. The Potala Palace in Lhasa was constructed as a symbol of this new synthesis of power.

The Dalai Lama made a state visit to the Qing Dynasty's second Emperor, Shunzhi, in 1653. The two leaders greeted one another as equals; the Dalai Lama did not kowtow. Each man bestowed honours and titles upon the other, and the Dalai Lama was recognized as the spiritual authority of the Qing Empire. According to Tibet, the "priest/patron" relationship established at this time between the Dalai Lama and Qing China continued throughout the Qing Era.

Lobsang Gyatso died in 1682, but his Prime Minister concealed the Dalai Lama's passing until 1696 so that the Potala Palace could be finished and the power of the Dalai Lama's office consolidated. In 1697, fifteen years after the death of Lobsang Gyatso, the Sixth Dalai Lama was finally enthroned. Tsangyang Gyatso (1683-1706) was a maverick who rejected the monastic life, growing his hair long, drinking wine, and enjoying female company. He also wrote great poetry, some of which is still recited today in Tibet. The Dalai Lama’s unconventional lifestyle prompted Lobsang Khan of the Khoshud Mongols to depose him in 1705. Lobsang Khan seized control of Tibet, named himself King, sent Tsangyang Gyatso to Beijing (he “mysteriously” died on the way), and installed a pretender Dalai Lama.

King Lobsang would rule for 12 years, until the Dzungar Mongols invaded and took power. They killed the pretender to the Dalai Lama’s throne, to the joy of the Tibetan people, but then began to loot monasteries around Lhasa. This vandalism brought a quick response from the Qing Emperor Kangxi, who sent troops to Tibet, who eventually crushed the Dzungar and returned the proper Seventh Dalai Lama, Kelzang Gyatso (1708-1757) to Lhasa.

China took advantage of this period of instability in Tibet to seize the regions of Amdo and Kham, making them into the Chinese province of Qinghai in 1724. Three years later, the Chinese and Tibetans signed a treaty that laid out the boundary line between the two nations. It would remain in force until 1910. The Chinese Army were able to defeat the Tibetans in battle but not control the population and the Emperor recognized that he would have to rule through the Dalai Lama rather than directly. Day-to-day decisions would be made on the local level.

In 1788, the Regent of Nepal sent Gurkha forces to invade Tibet. The Qing Emperor responded in strength, and the Nepalese retreated. The Gurkhas returned three years later, plundering and destroying some famous Tibetan monasteries. The Chinese and Tibetan troops, drove the Gurkhas out of Tibet and south to within 20 miles of Kathmandu. Despite this sort of assistance from the Chinese Empire, the people of Tibet chafed under increasingly meddlesome Qing rule.

Between 1804, when the Eighth Dalai Lama died, and 1895, when the Thirteenth Dalai Lama assumed the throne, none of the incumbent incarnations of the Dalai Lama lived to see their nineteenth birthday. If the Chinese found a certain incarnation too hard to control, they would

poison him. If the Tibetans thought an incarnation was controlled by the Chinese, then they would poison him themselves.

Throughout this period, Russia and Britain were engaged in a struggle for influence and control in Central Asia. Russia pushed south of its borders, seeking access to warm-water sea ports and a buffer zone between Russia proper and the advancing British. The British pushed northward from India, trying to expand their empire and protect the Raj, from the expansionist Russians. Tibet was in the middle.

Qing Chinese power waned throughout the eighteenth century, as evidenced by its defeat in the Opium Wars with Britain (1839-1842 and 1856-1860), as well as the Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864) and the Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901). These defeats made the status of Tibet as a tribute state even more uncertain. In 1893, the British in India concluded a trade and border treaty with Beijing concerning the boundary between Sikkim and Tibet. However, the Tibetans flatly rejected the treaty terms.

The British invaded Tibet in 1903 with 10,000 men, and took Lhasa the following year. They concluded another treaty with the Tibetans, as well as Chinese, Nepalese and Bhutanese representatives, which gave the British themselves some control over Tibet’s affairs.

The 13th Dalai Lama, Thubten Gyatso, fled the country in 1904 at the urging of his Russian disciple . He went first to Mongolia, then to Beijing. The Chinese declared that the Dalai Lama had been deposed as soon as he left Tibet, and claimed full sovereignty over not only Tibet but also Nepal and Bhutan. The Dalai Lama went to Beijing to discuss the situation with the Emperor Guangxu, but he flatly refused to kowtow to the Emperor. Thubten Gyatso stayed in the Chinese capital from 1906 to 1908. He returned to Lhasa in 1909, disappointed by Chinese policies towards Tibet. China sent a force of 6,000 troops into Tibet, and the Dalai Lama fled to Darjeeling, India later that same year. The Chinese Revolution swept away the Qing Dynasty in 1911, and the Tibetans promptly expelled all Chinese troops from Lhasa. The Dalai Lama returned home to Tibet in 1912.

China's new revolutionary government issued a formal apology to the Dalai Lama for the Qing Dynasty's insults, and offered to reinstate him. Thubten Gyatso refused, stating that he had no interest in the Chinese offer. He then issued a proclamation that was distributed across Tibet, rejecting Chinese control and stating that "We are a small, religious, and independent nation." The Dalai Lama took control of Tibet's internal and external governance in 1913, negotiating directly with foreign powers, and reforming Tibet's judicial, penal, and educational systems.

Representatives of Great Britain, China, and Tibet met in 1914 to negotiate a treaty marking out the boundary lines between India and its northern neighbours. This was known as the Simla Convention. The Simla Convention granted China secular control over "Inner Tibet," (also known as Qinghai Province) while recognizing the autonomy of "Outer Tibet" under the Dalai Lama's rule. Both China and Britain promised to "respect the territorial integrity of Tibet, and abstain from interference in the administration of Outer Tibet." China walked out of the conference without signing the treaty after Britain laid claim to the Tawang area of southern Tibet, which is now part of the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh. Tibet and Britain both signed the treaty. As a result, China has never agreed to India's rights in northern Arunachal Pradesh (Tawang), and the two nations went to war over the area in 1962. The boundary dispute still has not been resolved.

China also claims sovereignty over all of Tibet, while the Tibetan government-in-exile points to the Chinese failure to sign the Simla Convention as proof that both Inner and Outer Tibet legally remain under the Dalai Lama's jurisdiction.

Soon, China would be too distracted to concern itself with the issue of Tibet. Japan had invaded Manchuria in 1910, and would advance south and east across large swaths of Chinese territory until 1945. Government in China disintegrated into warring military factions and civil war, as well as war with Japan, continued through the period until the Communists win in 1949. Under these circumstances, the Chinese showed little interest in Tibet. As a result the 13th Dalai Lama, Thubten Gyatso, ruled independent Tibet in peace until his death in 1933. Following Thubten Gyatso's death, the new reincarnation of the Dalai Lama was born in Amdo in 1935. Tenzin Gyatso, the current Dalai Lama, was taken to Lhasa in 1937 to begin training for his duties as the leader of Tibet. He would remain there until 1959, when the Chinese forced him into exile in India.

In 1950, the People's Liberation Army (PLA) invaded Tibet. Mao Zedong sought to re- assert China's right to rule over Tibet. The PLA inflicted a swift and total defeat on Tibet's small army, and China drafted the "Seventeen Point Agreement" incorporating Tibet as an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China. Representatives of the Dalai Lama's government signed the agreement under protest, and the Tibetans repudiated the agreement nine years later.

The Mao government immediately initiated land redistribution in Tibet. Landholdings of the monasteries and nobility were seized for redistribution to the peasants. The communist forces hoped to destroy the power base of the wealthy and of Buddhism within Tibetan society. In reaction, a uprising led by the monks broke out in June of 1956, and continued through 1959. The poorly-armed Tibetans used guerrilla war tactics in an attempt to drive out the Chinese. The PLA responded by razing entire villages and monasteries to the ground. Three years of bitter fighting left 86,000 Tibetans dead.

On March 9, 1959, the Dalai Lama received an invitation to attend a theatre performance at PLA headquarters near Lhasa, but his bodyguards were not to accompany him. The guards publicised what they thought was a planned abduction and the following day an estimated crowd of 300,000 Tibetans surrounded Potala Palace to protect their leader.

The PLA moved artillery into range of major monasteries and the Dalai Lama's summer palace, Norbulingka. Both sides began to dig in, although the Tibetan army was much smaller than its adversary, and poorly armed. Tibetan troops were able to secure a route for the Dalai Lama to escape into India on March 17. Actual fighting began on March 19, and lasted only two days before the Tibetan troops were defeated.

Much of Lhasa lay in ruins on March 20, 1959. An estimated 800 artillery shells had pummelled Norbulingka, and Lhasa's three largest monasteries were essentially levelled. The Chinese rounded up thousands of monks, executing many of them. Monasteries and temples all over Lhasa were ransacked. The remaining members of the Dalai Lama's bodyguard were publicly executed by firing squad. In the days after the 1959 Uprising, the Chinese government revoked most aspects of Tibet's autonomy, and initiated resettlement and land distribution across the country. The Dalai Lama has remained in exile ever since.

China's central government, in a bid to dilute the Tibetan population and provide jobs for Han Chinese, initiated a "Western China Development Program" in 1978. As many as 300,000 Han now live in Tibet, 2/3 of them in the capital city. The Tibetan population of Lhasa, in contrast, is only 100,000. Ethnic Chinese hold the vast majority of government posts.

Beijing allowed the Panchen Lama, Tibetan Buddhism's second-in-command, to return to Tibet in 1989. He immediately gave a speech before a crowd of 30,000 of the faithful, decrying the harm being done to Tibet under the PRC. He died five days later at the age of 50, allegedly of a massive heart attack. Over the next two decades many Tibetans, especially Monks and Nuns, were arrested, imprisoned or killed for refusing to accept Chinese control of their country and religion.

On March 10, 2008, Tibetans marked the 49th anniversary of the 1959 uprising by peacefully protesting for the release of imprisoned monks and nuns. Chinese police then broke up the protest with tear gas and gunfire. The protest resumed for several more days, finally turning into a riot. Tibetan anger was fuelled by reports that imprisoned monks and nuns were being mistreated or killed in prison as a reaction to the street demonstrations. Furious Tibetans ransacked and burned the shops of ethnic Chinese immigrants in Lhasa and other cities. The official Chinese media states that 18 people were killed by the rioters. China immediately cut off access to Tibet for foreign media and tourists.

The unrest spread to neighbouring Qinghai (Inner Tibet), Gansu, and Sichuan Provinces. The Chinese government cracked down hard, mobilizing as many as 5,000 troops. Reports indicate that the military killed between 80 and 140 people, and arrested more than 2,300 Tibetans.

The unrest came at a sensitive time for China, which was gearing up for the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. The situation in Tibet caused increased international scrutiny of Beijing's entire human rights record, leading some foreign leaders to boycott the Olympic Opening Ceremonies. Olympic torch-bearers around the world were met by thousands of human rights protestors.

Tibet and China have had a long relationship, fraught with difficulty and change. At times, the two nations have worked closely together. At other times, they have been at war.

Today, the nation of Tibet does not exist; not one foreign government officially recognizes the Tibetan government-in-exile. The past teaches us, however, that the geopolitical situation is nothing if not fluid. It is impossible to predict where Tibet and China will stand, relative to one another, one hundred years from now.

By Kallie Szczepanski, About.com Guide

http://asianhistory.about.com/od/china/a/TibetandChina.htm

Tibet and China Now – Two different perspectives

We are going to look at the “Tibetan Question” from two different perspectives. Firstly, that of the Chinese Government who believe they have an historical right to rule Tibet, that it is part of China, also that by being part of China life for Tibetans has been improved and Tibet has been taken out of its medieval past. They also recognise that Tibet has resources that are of value to all of China and is in a very strategic position for China’s defence. On the other hand the Tibetan Government in exile (supported by many Tibetans inside Tibet and both Tibetans and non- Tibetans outside Tibet) believes that Tibet has a right to independence and that China is ignoring earlier treaties that gave Tibet an autonomous status. Their other concern is that the changes that the Chinese government has made in Tibet, including encouraging the migration of Han Chinese to Tibet and restrictions on religious practice, is destroying Tibetan culture.

Using the readings below and some videos you are going to work in groups to identify the main viewpoints of each side and why they hold those viewpoints and put forward those arguments in a short formal debate in the last week of term.

Why Tibet is Important to Non-Tibetans?

Tibet is a model of non-violence and compassion. It is extremely dangerous for The PRC to have access to the enormous amount of unused

uranium in Tibet. The Tibet-India border is an important geopolitical border to maintain. If left unchecked, The PRC will become the second largest economy in the world by the year

2010. The PRC is ruining the Tibetan environment, especially by the dumping of nuclear waste. The Tibet issue is an opportunity to stop The PRC's imperialistic policy and strategy. We all have a responsibility to relieve suffering. Tibet is important for all Buddhists and should be preserved. As members of the Free World, we are all committed to the idea of Religious Freedom,

which The PRC is entirely committed to destroying. Is there any difference between what The PRC is doing in Tibet & the state-sponsored

terrorism that the Free World has vowed to combat?

Independence for Tibet: The Only Solution

Historically, Tibet Has Been Independent Because Tibet Belongs to Tibetans Tibet is Illegally Occupied Tibetans Will Preserve Their Culture, Religion, & Environment Tibetans Must Protect Their Unique Identity To Assure Human Rights for Tibetans Tibetans Must Be Allowed to Fly Their Own Flag Tibet Deserves a Seat at the United Nations

Tibetans Have the Right to Select Their Own Lamas

International Tibet Independence MovementPO Box 592 Fishers, Indiana 46038-0592 United Statese-mail: rangzen@aol.com

Two Viewpoints

The Chinese History of Tibet

Tibet has been part of China since the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368). Centuries ago Mongol and Manchu Emperors ruled or influenced large parts of Asia. During the Tang period (618-907), the Tibetan King, Songsten Gampo, married Princess Wen Cheng. The Princess is thought to have had a lot of influence in Tibet. During the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368), Tibet was part of the Mongol Empire which was under Yuan rule. At this time, the Yuan Government implemented residence registration, levied taxes, and imposed corvee duties in Tibet. China's "White Paper" claims that the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) "replaced the Yuan dynasty in China and inherited the right to rule Tibet." During the Manchu rule (1644-1911), the Qing army on a number of occasions entered Tibet to protect it. Finally, in 1951, China and the Tibetan Local Government signed a 17-point agreement concerning the peaceful liberation of Tibet. During this time, The 14th Dalai Lama supported this liberation and acknowledged Tibet is one part of China.

The Tibetan History of Tibet

Tibet has a recorded history of statehood extending back to 127 B.C. In the seventh to ninth centuries, the Tibetans often bested the Tang dynasty in battle. Additionally, during this dynasty, the marriage of Princess Wen Cheng and King Gampo was viewed as a strategic move to achieve cooperation and peace between Tibet and China. In 821, after centuries of periodic fighting, China and Tibet signed a treaty where boundaries were confirmed, and each country promised respect for the other's territorial sovereignty. During the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368), the Mongol leader, Genghis Khan, conquered most of Eurasia including China. Thus, instead of China claiming a right to Tibet, Mongolia could assert claim to both China and Tibet. There is no historic evidence to support the assumption that the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) ruled Tibet. In fact, the Qing Emperor in 1652 not only accepted The Fifth Dalai Lama as a leader of an independent state, the Emperor also treated Him as a Divinity on Earth. During this period, Tibet was known in Chinese as Wu-si Zang or Wu-si Guo (guo meaning country). During the Manchu rule (1644-1911), the Qing army was asked by Tibetans to settle disputes. But, this does not support China's right to Tibet. If it did, then the U.S.A. should claim Kuwait and Haiti since it assisted these countries. In fact, on a number of occasions, Tibet exercised power over China, suggesting that perhaps Tibet should claim China! At the time of China's invasion in 1949, Tibet possessed all the attributes of an independent country recognized by international law, including a defined territory, a government, tax system, unique currency, unique postal system and stamps, army, and the ability to carry out international relations. Two years later, the 17-point agreement was imposed on the Tibetan Government by the threat of arms after 40,000 PLA troops had already seized Tibet’s eastern provincial capital, Chamdo. The Tibetan delegates were threatened. The seal of the Tibetan Government was forged by Peking. In Tibet, the 14th Dalai

Lama could not freely express His disapproval. However, soon after arriving in India, He repudiated this Agreement stating it was "thrust upon the Tibetan Government and people by the threat of arms." If Tibet had always been a part of China, why was there a need for the 17-point agreement? Finally, the Atlas of Chinese History Maps (published by Chinese Social Science Institute in Beijing) depicts Tibet as an independent country that was never part of China at least before 1280.

World Governments Do Not Recognize Tibet: China's Perspective

China asserts that no country has ever recognized Tibet. China also contends that Britain masterminded the Simla Conference (1913-1914) in collusion with Tibetan pro-British individuals. Both wanted to separate Tibet from China. At the time of the Simla Conference, even though the "McMahon Line" was negotiated between Tibet and Britain, at the end of the tripartite conference on Tibet's status and boundaries, Chinese officials who were present refused to recognize the "Line" on the grounds that Tibet was subordinate to China and had no power to make any treaties.

World Governments Recognize Tibet: The Tibetan Perspective

International law states that recognition can occur by explicit or implicit acts including treaties, negotiations, and diplomatic relations. Mongolia and Tibet signed a formal treaty of recognition in 1913. Historically, Nepal and Tibet had peace treaties. Tibet’s independence was also confirmed at the Treaty of Simla (1914) which was concluded by Tibet and British India. In 1949, Tibet maintained diplomatic, economic, and cultural relations with such countries as Nepal, Sikkim, Mongolia, China, British India, and to some extent, Russia and Japan. Further, Nepal maintained an Ambassador in Lhasa and told the U.N. in 1949 that it conducted international relations with Tibet. In fact, Britian, Bhutan, India, and even China also maintained diplomatic missions in Tibet's capital, Lhasa. The Tibetan Foreign Office conducted talks with President Franklin D. Roosevelt when he sent representatives to Lhasa to discuss the allied war effort against Japan during World War II. In 1950, El Salvador formally requested that China's aggression against Tibet be placed on the agenda of the U.N. General Assembly. The issue was not discussed. However, during four U.N. General Assembly debates on Tibet (1959, 1960, 1961, & 1965), many countries (e.g., Philippines, Nicaragua, Thailand. United States, Ireland) openly stated that Tibet was an independent country illegally occupied by China. In fact, the U.N. passed three resolutions (1959, 1961, & 1965) concerning Tibet stating that Tibetans were deprived of their inalienable rights to self-determination. Even Mao Zedong during the Long March admitted that Tibet was an independent country when he passed through the border regions of Tibet remarking, "This is our only foreign debt, and some day we must pay the Mantzu (sic) and the Tibetans for the provisions we were obliged to take from them." Tibetans clearly constitute a people under international law, as described, for instance, by the UNESCO International Meeting of Experts on Further Study of the Concept of the Rights of Peoples. They are a distinct people and fulfil all the characteristics of this concept: commonality of history, shared language, culture, and ethnicity.

Tibet Was Liberated: China’s Perspective

China states that its invasion and occupation of Tibet was designed to liberate Tibetans from medieval feudal serfdom and slavery. Tibetan serfs were thought to have no freedoms. They were regarded by their masters as talking animals. China argues that the masses of Tibetan serfs lived in extreme poverty. Since the liberation in 1959, China asserts that Tibetans have enjoyed all rights of

equality and they have embarked on the road of freedom and happiness. China claims that Tibet is now a modernized community benefitting from economic growth and social progress. Millions of serfs are now the masters of their fate, and large numbers of Tibetan workers, intellectuals, and officials have taken up the task of building and managing Tibet. China argues that all Tibetans now have equal rights in politics, the economy, and in their daily life. Tibetans are also thought to enjoy full religious freedom. China claims that Tibetans have greatly benefitted from their presence. There are now over 2,500 primary schools in Tibet. Moreover, according to China’s White Paper, China has invested 1.1 billion yuans to develop education in Tibet. Big strides have been made in education, science, culture, and public health. For instance, China argues that it has rebuilt Tibetan Monasteries, Nunneries, and monuments. Further, it asserts that the Tibetan population has soared to 2 million from 1 million in the 1950's. China also claims that the Tibetans fully support the Communist Party and Government officials in Tibet. China argues that negotiation is the only solution for Tibet, stating that The 14th Dalai Lama should size up the situation, go with the tide of historical development and make a correct choice.

Tibet Was Not Liberated: The Tibetan Perspective

Old Tibet was not perfect. The current Dalai Lama has admitted this. However, the 14th Dalai Lama initiated far-reaching reforms in Tibet as soon as He assumed temporal authority. Throughout Tibet's history, the mistreatment of peasants was forbidden by law and social norms. The largest portion of land in Tibet was held by peasants. Famine and starvation were unheard of in Tibet. The "liberation" has resulted in the death of over 1.2 million Tibetans and the destruction of over 6,000 Tibetan Monasteries and cultural centres. Before the "liberation" in 1959, the population of Tibet was 6 million. Prior to the invasion, Tibet was a simple and self-reliant nation with a very rich cultural heritage. Tibet’s citizens, in comparison to its' neighbours, enjoyed much greater freedom. Currently, Tibetans have become veritable serfs. In independent Tibet, over 6,000 Monasteries and Nunneries served as schools. Most were destroyed, and many have been reconstructed as result of Tibetan finances and labour. The teachers in China's "new schools" are unqualified to teach the Tibetan language, culture, or history. Chinese students are the main beneficiaries of these schools. Since 1980, over 15,000 Tibetan children have fled Tibet to receive education in India. The primary beneficiaries of China’s presence in Tibet have been the Chinese settlers, their government and military, and their business enterprises. Former Communist Party Secretary, Hu Yaobang, even admitted in 1980 that the living standard of Tibetans had declined since 1959 and that the large Chinese presence was an obstacle to development. China's policies in Tibet do not even receive full support from Tibetan cadres, let alone the Tibetan people. China has never found a trustworthy Tibetan to serve in a key government post in Tibet. For the past 21 years, The Dalai Lama and the Tibetan Government In-Exile have offered a number of proposals for negotiations for the mutual benefit of Tibet and China. All have been ignored or rejected by China.

*Note. These views were extracted from various Tibetan and Chinese printed materials.

http://www.rangzen.com/history/views.htm

Two Sides to the Tibet Issue

From Lisa Chiu, former About.com Guide

http://chineseculture.about.com/od/minoritiesinchina/i/Tibetissue_2.htm

The issue of Tibet is a centuries-old debate that appears to have no resolution at hand. At the heart of the conflict are deep cultural divisions and distrust on the part of Chinese and Tibetan alike.

Located in the Qinghai-Tibet plateau in southwest China in the highest region on earth, Tibet has long been isolated from its neighbours and existed as an independent kingdom for much of its early history. Circumstances changed when it fell under Chinese control in the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty in the 1200s.

In the modern era, the Chinese People's Liberation Army defeated Tibetan fighters in 1950, then initiated policy to bring the region of Tibet even further into the People's Republic of China. After a failed Tibetan uprising in 1959, Tibet's spiritual leader, the Dalai Lama, fled to India and leads a government in exile.

Since then, there have been tense relations as ethnic Tibetans watch as Chinese migrants populate their traditional homeland, bringing economic development and greater commercialism.

The issue flared up again in March 2008, as Tibetans led a series of demonstrations and riots in protest of the anniversary of the failed 1959 uprising in Tibet against Chinese rule. The riots were violent and when it was over, hundreds of Chinese and Tibetans were injured and there were several deaths reported on both sides.

Latest Developments

The Chinese government reported that 18 civilians and one police officer were killed and 382 were injured. Additionally there was an estimated $244 million yuan ($35.7 million) in damages.

Meanwhile, the Tibetan government in exile has said that the Chinese response to the riots have led to more than 140 deaths and thousands of arrests. Since the riots, Chinese officials and representatives of the Dalai Lama have met three times to find some solution to the conflict

The most recent meeting began in early November 2008, but during the talks, the Dalai Lama, who was visiting Japan, told reporters that his faith in the Chinese government was becoming "thinner and thinner". He also said that he will no longer talk with China about Tibetan autonomy and that he has lost faith in any negotiation between the two sides.

In response, Chinese officials blamed the Dalai Lama for failing to stop separatist activities and continuing to push independence. The talks were still taking place as of November 4, 2008.

History

At the heart of this conflict lies conflicting historical perspectives on who has the right to govern Tibet. Prior to the mid-1800s, Tibet was viewed has having a priest-patron with China where Tibet, as a vassal state that paid tribute to the emperor. In turn, the emperor protected the region when it was needed.

In the modern era, this type of relationship could not last. The relative ambiguousness of the priest-patron relationship allowed for both sides believe they were in charge, but in an era of global warfare, trans-national markets, and colonialism in China, the definitions of who governed what got more dicey.

By the mid 1800s, China had suffered greatly at the hands of foreign powers. The British took advantage of China’s weakness and took Lhasa in 1904, forcing a treaty with Tibet alone. That treaty would ultimately be rescinded, but it was a blow to China and many leaders would push for control of Tibet even more.

When the Communists won the civil war, Tibet became a special case for leader Mao Zedong who thought there could be a "liberation by agreement" by winning over Tibetans. To the atheist Chinese, Tibet was a feudal state, and its theocracy and history of serfdom was out-dated. They attempted to indoctrinate and assimilate the Tibetans through social and land-reform policy. For deeply religious Tibetans, this was a form of cultural genocide.

In May 1951, Tibetan representatives signed an agreement with China which Chinese scholars argue documents China's sovereignty over Tibet. Years later, Tibetan leaders would counter that the treaty was imposed by force and never valid. Tibetan nationalism grew in the late 1950s and aided by the CIA, Tibetans started a rebellion in 1959. They were defeated by the Chinese military and the 14th Dalai Lama fled to India and established the Tibetan government in exile.

The subsequent Cultural Revolution led to the closing of thousands of religious sites further isolating Tibetans. The ban on religious practices and monasteries lifted in 1976 after the death of Mao.

The aim of the next Chinese leadership became convincing Tibetans to industrialize. Due to economic incentive programs, Han Chinese have flooded Tibet. While this has led to greater economic opportunity for them, to many Tibetans there is a feeling that their land has been invaded and that they are discriminated against by the ruling Chinese. Skirmishes continue to erupt, only to be faced with an even greater return of force by Beijing.

The Dalai Lama's View

The Dalai Lama most recently said that he is pessimistic that a negotiated solution between China and Tibet can take place. The spiritual leader said his negotiation attempts have failed, adding that by accepting Chinese sovereignty, instead of pushing for independence, he recognizes that he has frustrated many Tibetans. That is why he is calling a special six-day meeting of Tibetan exiles and groups to discuss the future of their struggle and find new proposals. Those talks begin on November 17, 2008. Such a meeting would be the first of it's kind in more than a decade. The Dalai Lama added that he planned to remain silent on the issue so that exile leaders don't follow his lead "out of devotion."

In a statement on his website, the Dala Lama said that Beijing has accused him of trying to split Tibet and China but that he only seeks "real and meaningful" autonomy for Tibetan people within China and opposes the use of violence. The statement also noted that it was China that sent military troops to occupy the the Himalayan country in 1949, and regularly protests against countries that agree to visits by him.

The Chinese Government's View

To the Chinese leadership, Tibet is an inalienable part of China's territory and Tibetan affairs are part of the internal affairs of China.

Chinese officials are quick to describe how much the Tibetan economy has improved with recent economic policy. They cite annual growth rates of 12 percent or more in the past seven years. They also proudly tout the 700 million yuan ($1 million) spent since 1980 to maintain 1,400 monasteries and cultural relics.

In an official commentary on the Dalai Lama's remarks about losing faith in negotiations, the government said that in a meeting with his Dalai Lama's representatives in July, China gave the leader four conditions to further talks:

1. That the Dalai Lama would not to support activities that disturb the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games.

2. That he not support plots that fan violent criminal activity.

3. Not to support and pledge to contain violent activities by the Tibetan Youth Congress.

4. Not to support any activity seeking "Tibetan independence."

The commentary said: "The requirements of the Chinese central government have been concrete, simple, reasonable and explicit, which would have facilitated the contacts and negotiations to generate effective results if the Dalai Lama side had seriously carried out the promises."

The statement also urged the Dalai Lama to change his rhetoric in order to continue with favourable negotiations between the central government and Tibetan representatives.

Where It Stands

While Chinese and Tibetan representatives continue to meet, it seems unlikely a solution is imminent. The March 2008 rioting in Lhasa and the continued stalling of movement in negotiations is just the latest chapter of this conflict where mutual distrust on both sides continues to hinder a solution. This distrust has led to a history of missed opportunities. In 1988, the Dalai Lama, announced that the exile government was no longer calling for independence and instead wanted autonomy. Beijing hardliners rejected this and it was a missed opportunity for real negotiations.

Similarly, the Tibetans missed an opportunity in 1989 when Beijing invited the Dalai Lama to China to honour of the Panchen Lama who had died and he did not go.

The future of the debate seems to be more rhetoric as Tibetan leaders gear up for a more hardline stance that will only be matched by their counterparts in Beijing.

TIBET: Two Distinct Views

International Tibet Independence Movement website

Tibet http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/tibet.htm

Tibet has maintained throughout its history a national identity distinct from that of China. On October 1, 1949, the People's Republic of China was formally proclaimed in Beijing and the following year launched an armed invasion of Tibet. When China's People's Liberation Army invaded Tibet, Tibet was an independent state.

Under the 1951 Seventeen Point Agreement between the People's Republic of China and representatives of the Tibetan Government, which incorporated Tibet into China, China guaranteed no alteration of Tibetan political, cultural, and religious systems and institutions. The failure of the People's Republic of China to adhere to or uphold the Seventeen Point Agreement, and the imposition of so-called democratic reform, led to the March 1959 uprising in Lhasa. On March 10, 1959, the people of Lhasa assembled together and called for the Chinese to leave Tibet, thus marking the beginning of the uprising. The Chinese crackdown was harsh. An estimated 87,000 Tibetans were killed, arrested, or deported to labour camps and many more went into exile.

Since the revolt against Chinese rule in Tibet that began in 1956 and through the end of the Cultural Revolution in 1976, an estimated 1,200,000 Tibetans were killed and more than 6,000 religious sites were destroyed. In 1959, 1960, 1964, and 1997 the International Commission of Jurists examined Chinese policy in Tibet, violations of human rights in Tibet, and the position of Tibet in international law. The International Commission of Jurists found that the People's Republic of China had committed `acts of genocide . . . in Tibet in an attempt to destroy the Tibetans as a religious group' and that Tibet was at least `a de facto state' prior to 1951.

The United Nations General Assembly adopted resolutions in 1959, 1961, and 1965 calling on the People's Republic of China to ensure respect for fundamental human rights of the Tibetan people and for their distinctive cultural and religious life, and to cease practices which deprive the Tibetan people of their fundamental rights and freedoms, including the right to self-determination.

The United States, along with every other nation, considers Tibet to be a part of China. This policy appears to be consistent with that of the Dalai Lama, who has expressly disclaimed any intention to seek sovereignty or right of nationhood for Tibet, but rather wishes for greater autonomy within China.

Subsequent to 1980, the executive branch has consistently embraced the position that Tibet is part of China, rather than an independent foreign state. A meeting between President Clinton and President Jiang, June 27, 1998 expressing President Clinton's "agreement that Tibet is a part of China, an autonomous region of China". The President's News Conference with President Jiang Zemin of China, expressing United States commitment that there will be "no attempt to sever Tibet from China” At a Human Rights in Tibet: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Human Rights and International Organizations, J. Stapleton Roy, Deputy Assistant Secretary of State "The United States Government considers Tibet to be a part of China and does not in any way recognize the Tibetan government in exile that the Dalai Lama claims to head”

His Holiness, the XIV Dalai Lama, met at the White House on 21 May 2001 with the President and the National Security Advisor to discuss Tibet. The President commended the Dalai Lama's commitment to nonviolence and declared his strong support for the Dalai Lama's tireless efforts to initiate a dialogue with the Chinese government. The President said he would seek ways to encourage dialogue and expressed his hope that the Chinese government would respond favourably. The President also reiterated the strong commitment of the United States to support the preservation of Tibet's unique religious, cultural, and linguistic identity and the protection of the human rights of all Tibetans. The President and the Dalai Lama agreed on the importance of strong and constructive U.S.-China relations.

The United States Congress, however, has at times expressed a different perspective. "It is the sense of the Congress that . . . Tibet . . . is an occupied country under the established principles of international law [and] Tibet's true representatives are the Dalai Lama and the Tibetan Government in exile as recognized by the Tibetan people . . . .".

The Chinese Government strictly controls access to and information about Tibet. Thus, it is difficult to determine accurately the scope of human rights abuses. However, according to credible reports, Chinese government authorities continued to commit serious human rights abuses in Tibet, including instances of torture, arbitrary arrest, detention without public trial, and lengthy detention of Tibetan nationalists for peacefully expressing their political or religious views. Tight controls on religion and on other fundamental freedoms continued and intensified during the year, especially during sensitive anniversaries and occasions. These included the 40th anniversary of the 1959 Tibetan uprising against Chinese rule in March, the June visit of Gyaltsen Norbu, the boy recognized as the Panchen Lama by the Chinese Government, the Dalai Lama's birthday on July 6, the August National Minority Games, and the 50th anniversary of the founding of the Peoples' Republic of China on October 1.

Although the authorities permit many traditional religious practices and public manifestations of belief, activities viewed as vehicles for political dissent are not tolerated and are promptly and forcibly suppressed. The security clampdown throughout China is being felt in Tibet, and Tibetan Buddhism came under increasing attack. Individuals accused of political activism faced ongoing and serious persecution during the year. The Government continued its campaign to discredit the Dalai Lama and to limit the power of religious persons and secular leaders sympathetic to him.

The Government maintains tight controls on religious practices and places of worship. While it allows a number of forms of religious activity in Tibet, it does not tolerate religious manifestations that advocate Tibetan independence or any expression of separatism, which it describes as "splittism." The Government harshly criticizes the Dalai Lama's political activities and leadership of a government-in-exile. The official press continued to criticize vehemently the "Dalai clique" and, in an attempt to undermine the credibility of his religious authority, repeatedly described the Dalai Lama as a separatist who was determined to split China.

Both central government and local officials often insist that dialog with the Dalai Lama is essentially impossible and claim that his actions belie his repeated public assurances that he does not advocate independence for Tibet. Nonetheless, the Government asserts that it is willing to hold talks with the Dalai Lama as long as he ceases his activities to divide the country and recognizes that Tibet and Taiwan are inseparable parts of China's territory. During June 1998, both President Jiang Zemin and

the Dalai Lama expressed readiness for dialog; however, the Government later rebuffed efforts by the Dalai Lama to begin such a dialog.

According to regulations posted at the entrances of many monasteries, monks are required to be "patriotic" and sign a declaration agreeing to reject independence for Tibet; reject the boy recognized by the Dalai Lama as the 11th reincarnation of the Panchen Lama; reject and denounce the Dalai Lama; recognize the unity of China and Tibet; and not listen to the Voice of America. According to some reports, monks who refused to sign were expelled from their monasteries; others have been detained.

The Government continued to insist that Gyaltsen Norbu, the boy it recognizes and enthroned in 1995 is the reincarnation of the Panchen Lama. The Panchen Lama is Tibetan Buddhism's second highest figure, after the Dalai Lama. Since then Gyaltsen Norbu visited Tibet in June for the first time in 3 years, holding audiences for both monks and lay persons who were ordered by their work units to attend. Security surrounding the visit was extremely tight. The boy's return to Tibet received extensive coverage in the media, where he was quoted as telling believers to "love the Communist Party of China, love our Socialist motherland, and love the religion we believe in." Norbu also appeared publicly in Beijing to mark the 50th anniversary of the founding of the People's Republic of China. At all other times he was held incommunicado by Chinese authorities. Meanwhile, the Government continued to detain Gendun Choekyi Nyima, the boy recognized by the Dalai Lama as the Panchen Lama.

Foreigners, whether individually or in tour groups, must obtain permission and should be aware that all areas of the region are closed to foreign travellers except for Lhasa, Shigatze (Xigaze), Naqu, Zedong, Zhang Muxkhasa, and the main roads between these points. Special permission to visit any of the closed areas must be obtained from the regions public security bureau.

In November 2003 China conducted military exercises in Tibet, in what officials say was an anti-terrorist drill. There have been no reports of terrorist activity in Tibet in recent memory. A Chinese official said the exercises were meant to keep forces ready for a crackdown on what he called separatists allied with the exiled Tibetan spiritual leader, the Dalai Lama. The operations took place with Chinese troops engaging in drills on rescuing hostages, and handling bombs and biochemical attacks. The Communist Party chief in Tibet, Guo Jintong, was quoted by the government newspaper China Tibet News as accusing followers of Tibet's exiled leader, the Dalai Lama, of stepping up "terrorist" activities to pursue their goal of establishing an autonomous state. The comments attributed to the regional party leader were not echoed by the central government authorities in Beijing. China had stepped up its verbal attacks on the Dalai Lama and criticized nations including the United States, France, and Japan for allowing him to visit in recent months.

China's government accuses the Dalai Lama of trying to break Tibet away from China, which has controlled it since Chinese troops invaded the mountainous region in 1951. Since then, the spiritual leader has been living in neighbouring India and traveling extensively to promote non-violent opposition to Chinese domination in his homeland. His efforts to push for peaceful resistance won him the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989.

Adopting a "middle way" approach, the Dalai Lama's new stance on Tibet is for self-rule as opposed to total independence. This compromised stance was met with suspicion in Beijing and has caused

some resentment in the exiled Tibetan communities. While encouraging China to open dialogue with the Dalai Lama, western countries remain reluctant to condemn China's actions primarily because they do not wish to endanger trade and diplomatic relations with Beijing.