SEAS FOR LIFE

Sustainability

DefinitionsA good definition is: ‘the greatest good, for the greatest number, for the longest time’. Generally, sustainability is about humans having less impact on the natural world – including animals, plants and natural resources.

Sustainable development came out of the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 when global nations first got together to discuss the concept of sustainability. Sustainable development is about humans making decisions, taking action and working together to achieve solutions. Management and conservation are both part of sustainable development.

BiodiversityBiodiversity is variety of species at the gene, species and ecosystem level. There is variety within a population of one species, a community of lots of species and a range of ecosystem types. For example, a population of crabs are different sizes, shapes and colours, they live in a rockpool containing anemones, gobies and seaweed. The intertidal zone is part of the wider marine environment including shallows seas and the deep sea.

Healthy oceansEnvironmental sustainability is about the ecology of the natural world and enabling biological systems to remain productive and biodiverse over time. Marine environments like coral reefs are more complex to understand than terrestrial ones, like forests, because we can’t easily see and explore them. A long lived coral reef, covered with algae and invertebrates which feed large, varied populations of adult fish, which can reproduce and restock the ocean, is an example of a sustainable marine ecosystem.

Ecosystems

Food chainsFood chains are linear chains of species, linked by flows of energy and matter. Energy and matter are transferred between each link of a food chain. Every food chain starts with the sun, which every living thing needs for energy to grow. Primary producers (plants) transform energy from the sun into carbohydrates (via photosynthesis), which makes the sun’s energy useable by the rest of the food chain. Primary (herbivorous) consumers eat the primary producers, followed by secondary, tertiary consumers and quaternary (carnivorous) consumers.

Marine food websA typical marine food chain involves marine algae or phytoplankton (plant plankton), absorbing the suns energy. Phytoplankton are consumed by zooplankton (animals - typically small crustaceans), these are then consumed by filter feeders (molluscs, crustaceans, anemones etc.), then consumed by small

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fish, consumed by larger fish, consumed by marine mammals, birds and humans. See below for two examples of marine food chains. Lots of food chains combine to produce food webs. Many marine species are opportunistic – having a range of food sources, dependant on what is available. Also, many species are filter and suspension feeders that filter mixed food out of solution. Marine mammals, like whales for example, take large mouthfuls of mixed plankton swarms or mixed shoals of fish.

Primary producer: Phytoplankton Seaweed

Primary consumer: Zooplankton Periwinkle

Secondary consumer: Mussel Crab

Tertiary consumer: Starfish Mackerel

Quaternary consumer: Lobster Dolphin

Notes: Plankton, as primary producers, support the whole system and if they were

to disappear, the whole food chain would collapse. Secondary productivity happens via things growing and reproducing. Decomposers like bacteria and scavengers work at every level of the food

chain, recycling nutrients Large predatory species at the top of the food chain (e.g. large fish, sharks,

marine mammals) are reliant on all levels beneath functioning correctly so are more at risk than lower levels

Slow growing species and those which are slow to reproduce are also vulnerable as they require conditions to remain the same for longer periods

Keystone species are species within a food chain, or food web, which maintain the system and make food available for lots of other species. A starfish is a keystone species – it eats mussels that colonise rocky shores heavily and so their numbers need to be kept down to make space available for other species. Larger species can also eat sea urchins, which graze on kelp, which is a habitat for many marine species.

Matter passing through the food chain is recycled via the ‘biological pump’. All the dead bodies and shells of creatures in the higher levels of the ocean, falls to the seafloor, providing organic matter and nutrients for deep water species. If the marine food chain collapses this pump does not work.

Coral reefs house phytoplankton (symbiotically) within their tissues. With climate change related warming of the oceans, these plankton can flee the coral and the corals die (coral bleaching). This can collapse marine food chains.

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Fisheries

Fishing is the removal of typically large, predatory species of fish, which have commercial value. Fishing is either for pelagic (ocean going e.g. mackerel, bass), demersal (sea bed, deep sea e.g. cod, monkfish) or shellfish (crabs, lobsters) species.

Fishing method Technique Species ImpactsDemersal (seabed) trawling

One or two funnel shaped nets towed from the back of one or two boats along or just above the seafloor

Demersal species such as cod, haddock and many flatfish

Habitat disturbance and damage

Pelagic (mid water) trawling

Funnel shaped nets pulled through the middle of the water column by either one or two boats

Pelagic species at a time such as mackerel or herring

Takes whole populations

Purse seining Large vertical nets drawn together to surround a shoal of fish

Pelagic species such as mackerel or herring

Takes whole populations

Dredging Metal framed baskets, with a rake and tow bar attached are pulled across the seafloor

Shellfish species such as scallops or oysters

Habitat disturbance and damage

Drift netting Passive nets either suspended in the water column with buoys attached or staked to the seabed

Larger species typically tuna, squid and shark

Catch of non target species (bycatch)

Longlining Fishing line complete with several branches and baited hooks is towed from boat

Demersal species such as cod and haddock as well as pelagic species such as tuna

Catch of non target species (bycatch)

Handlining Single baited hook attached to a fishing rod

Pelagic and demersal species

Potting Baited baskets Shellfish such as crab and lobster

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AquacultureAquaculture (typically of shellfish species) should be considered here also. It was designed to take the pressure of wild stocks, by restocking them, however disease (spread via escapees) and habitat impacts make it typically unsustainable. There is also the issue of feed for cultured stock that is produced from wild species. Examples of better practice do exist within the industry such as certified organic salmon farms.

Typically, the majority of fish landings in the UK are by large boats, greater than 24 metres in length. The UK inshore fishing fleet is typically comprised of smaller boats, under 10 metres, which operate in coastal waters. Two of the largest UK fishing ports are Brixham, in Devon and Newlyn in Cornwall.

OverfishingFish stocks are at historically low levels, with essentially too many boats chasing too few fish. Overfishing is where too many fish are taken, or too quickly, meaning that the biological system underlying the fishery can’t function. Approximately 70% of global fish stocks are overfished.

There are different types of overfishing: Growth overfishing is where fish that are taken are too small or smaller

than the ‘maximum sustainable yield’ Recruitment overfishing is where fish are taken before they have

reproduced and restocked the population Ecosystem overfishing is where for example too many predatory species

have been taken, or too many form one level of a food chain, so that the balance within the ecosystem is lost.

Species of fishIn 2005, only 65% of assessed UK fish stocks (largely whitefish) were fished sustainably and only 35% of fish stocks around the UK were at full reproductive capacity. In 1998, UK vessels landed £137 million of cod and haddock (about 25% of UK landings by value), but this fell to just £70 million in 2002. Some species are more vulnerable than others; generally those that are long-lived and only start breeding after a relatively long period of immaturity are most at risk. Sharks, rays and skates, and many species of fish in deep water fall into this category. Also the

Sustainable choicesArguably the biggest opposition to sustainable fishing and sustainable stocks of fish is the market-led nature of the industry. Excessively high demand for whitefish species for example has decimated many stocks. Ultimately consumer led behaviour change, demanding a wider variety of seasonally and locally available fish, supported and supplied by the commercial sector would do much to allow stocks to recover.

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Ghost fishingAbandoned fishing gear that can continue to catch fish tends to include passive gear such as longlines, gill nets drift nets, traps and pots, as opposed to active fishing gear such as purse and trawl nets. These nets can also damage fishing boats via entanglement wit the propeller. The problem can be exaggerated when marine mammals approach the nets to feed of the smaller fish entangled within them. When these fish and mammals continue to struggle, they then can entangle themselves further. For baited pots, the problem for the trapped species is usually more so starvation than the entrapment itself.

Prevention is better than cure here, though clean up operations can be successful. The solution to ghost fishing is really better policing of fishing vessels as well as improved net systems and durability thereof. There is also a general lack of information as to the full extent of the problem so further research is needed.

Destructive fishing practicesAside from the damaging fishing equipment and techniques (listed above) there are certain practices, associated with fisheries management, that are damaging to marine ecosystems.

DiscardingDiscarding is the non-target parts of the catch that are returned to the sea. The level of discarding varies according to the species in question. Many fish swim in mixed shoals and mixed fisheries like this tend to be more at risk of the practice of discarding.

The two major reasons for discarding are market conditions and management regulations. Market conditions may result in fish being discarded because they are completely non-commercial species of low value and not worth keeping; or are damaged. Quota and catch regulations also restrict the retention of fish below the legal minimum landing size (MLS) or that which the vessel in question has no quota and thereby permission to catch.

BycatchBycatch is the accidental catching of non-target species because they make contact with the nets (e.g. drift nets) or collide with fishing vessels. Bycatch typically affects larger, predatory species or those that are inquisitive and/or docile e.g. dolphins and other marine mammals. Surface feeding organisms duch as turtles are also at high risk of bycatch. One species that has historically been affected by bycatch is the Common skate (Raja batis), now critically endangered as a consequence.

Black fishBlack fishing is the illegal landing of fish outside of quota restrictions. Black fish are any fish which are caught, retained and sold illegally, usually because a vessel has caught their full quota of a particular species but keep on fishing and catching it. Black fish are typically commercially viable species and often endangered, such as Atlantic mackerel, herring and tuna. For example, in the

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mid 2000s suspicions were raised that widespread illegal fishing was taking place throughout the Scottish pelagic fleet. Elsewhere, 30-40,000 tonnes of Atlantic bluefin tuna are thought to be illegally caught each year in the Mediterranean. These fish are often caught below the MLS and kept in farm pens known as ‘ranches’, where they are grown to marketable size.

Fisheries management

Fishing provides billions of people with food, jobs and livelihoods. The marine environment must be managed effectively to support a healthy marine ecosystem and fish stocks.

EU fisheries are managed through the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP). This entered into force in 1983 and has been reformed several times since then. The regulations of the CFP arise out of negotiations between governments, based on the data provided by fisheries stock assessment models produced by fisheries scientists. The CFP governs fishing by setting the following, through a process of negotiation:

Total Allowable Catches (TAC) – total tonnage of a species that can be landed in the EU

Fishing quotas – individual shares of the TAC for countries and individual fishing boats

Minimum landing sizes of various species Mesh size restrictions for fishing nets Conservation measures such as closed areas and closed seasons Minimum prices for the sale of species

There is much call to reform the CFP, which is widely regarded as ineffective. The biggest downfall of the legislation is that within Europe there are many countries that share territorial waters and many landlocked countries that all have real and perceived fishing rights. This makes negotiations desperately fraught.

The CFP has been reformed twice since its inception in the 1980s, due to overfishing and decreasing landing sizes throughout European waters. These reforms sought to, amongst other things, improve the quota system and increase the capacity for more regional management of fisheries. A third reform is currently underway until 2014, focusing on issues of sustainability and destructive fishing practices such as discarding. Many conservation organizations are striving for at least Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) for all fish stocks by 2015. Whether this is really achievable is unknown.

OwnershipEssentially the tragedy of marine environments and there inherent lack of protection is owing to the lack of ownership, real or perceived of the sea. Out of sight, out of mind, it is a deep, relatively unexplored and often misunderstood place.

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Tragedy of the Commons This is a theory first postulated in an article in Science by Garret Hardin in 1968. He refers to a commonly owned field where herdsmen graze their cattle. The field can only support a certain number of cattle before it is ruined. Each herdsman, getting immediate economic benefit from this addition, feels the cost of adding a head of cattle. However the cost of grazing, being the deterioration of the field is split between all herdsmen. The rational herdsman will always add one more head of cattle, after a cost/benefit analysis. This analogy can be applied to fishermen as well. The rational fisherman will always add one more boat to his fleet as the benefit of doing so (increased catch) is his alone, whereas the cost of doing so (less fish in the sea) is split across everyone. Ultimately fishermen will always opt for immediate economic benefit at the expense of less tangible benefits such as the availability of fisheries resources for future generations.

Often fishing and fishermen are regarded as responsible for the overexploitation of the oceans, being branded as greedy and selfish. The Tragedy of the Commons analogy more so shows that fishermen are operating rationally and that it has much to do simple market economics and human nature.

Ownership of the SeaTerrestrial ecosystems suffer far less from the tragedy of the commons, as the majority of the land is privately owned, with very few true commons still in existence. The sea, in contrast, is not owned, bar a narrow band of water around the continental shelf of coastal nations. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) governs ownership of territorial waters. Coastal states have ownership of all natural resources within the water column and on the seabed and rights to control entry out to 24 nautical miles of territorial waters. There is a further Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) out to 200 nautical miles where coastal states have exploitation rights over natural resources. Outside of this coastal strip is the high seas, with freedom to navigate at exploit for all.

SolutionsOne solution to the flawed quota system of the CFP is Individual Transferable Quotas (ITQs). ITQs are catch-sharing systems where a dedicated portion of the TAC, called quota shares, is allocated to individuals. Quotas can typically be bought, sold and leased, a feature called transferability. This is a more rational access system to a common fishery resource where fishing vessels are not competing to land the quota before other vessels get the chance, the predicament of the fixed quota system.

Bottom-up approachesUltimately however, the top-down approach to fisheries management is problematic. Engaging with fishing communities to create solutions is the ultimate goal of modern fisheries management. There are examples of best practice and more cooperative initiatives such as Project 50% for example. This is a partnership between CEFAS and fishermen to reduce discarding by 50% and to design and implement new trawling configurations and net designs.

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Marine Litter

Marine litter can be divided into two forms: Flotsam and Jetsam. Flotsam is litter, typically of natural origin, that finds its way accidentally into the marine environment. Jetsam is litter, typically of manmade origin, which is intentionally dumped into the marine environment. Though a negative presence in the environment, marine litter can provide a habitat for a range of marine species. For example, Keel worm, Spiral worm and Goose barnacles are all species that have a flotsamic lifestyle.

DisturbanceMarine ecosystems can cope with a small amount of disturbance. In fact those communities, which are disturbed to a certain degree, tend to be the most biodiverse. Communities with no disturbance, or extreme disturbance tend to be much lower in biodiversity. However, the type of disturbance here would be of natural origin e.g. waves and tides and grazing of animals. Marine litter is disturbance of human origin, putting unnatural items into the environment.

Ballast water and species transferBallast water is used by steel hulled vessels to stabilize, improve propulsion and compensates for weight lost due to fuel consumption. Though safe and efficient it poses serious ecological, economic and health problems due to the multitude of marine species carried in ballast waters deposited in the destination port. These include bacteria, microbes, small invertebrates, eggs, cysts and larvae of various species. The transferred species may survive to establish a reproductive population in the host environment, becoming invasive, out-competing native species and multiplying into pest proportions. They can also foul physical structures and have economic impacts for ports, marinas and shipping industries.

Non-native invasive species (NNIS)Invasive non-native or ’alien’ species are a global problem that presents a serious threat to biodiversity and conservation efforts. Increases in shipping, recreational boating and aquaculture activity have led to an increase in global introductions of marine aliens.

Scientists first recognized the signs of an alien species introduction in the early 1900s after a mass occurrence of an Asian phytoplankton alga, Odontella (Biddulphia sinensis) in the North Sea. It was not until the 1970s that the scientific community began reviewing the problem in detail.

Other transport routes for non-native species include aquaculture, whereby target species, transferred from country to country, are host species for or are infected by parasitic species. This is typically shellfish species such as oysters and mussels. Species can also attach to the hulls of ships as well as being held in the ballast water.

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Species Origin Method of transfer ProblemsJapweed or wireweed Japan Ballast Fast growth and

spread, blocks out light

Wakame Japan Oyster aquaculture and ship hulls

Very large, out competes other seaweed

Green sea fingers Japan Shellfish Competes with native sea fingers

Harpoon weed Australia and New Zealand

Oyster aquaculture Unknown

Chinese mitten crab China Oyster aquaculture Fast growth, outcompetes native species

Slipper limpet USA Oyster aquaculture Takes over seabedPacific oyster Asia Aquaculture Out competes

native oysterLeathery sea squirt Korea Ship hulls Fouls vessels and

marinasJapanese skeleton shrimp

Japan Ballast Unknown

Darwin’s barnacle New Zealand

Ballast and ship hulls

Out competes native barnacles

Climate change

By 2050 the temperature of our coastal waters could rise by 20C. In the marine environment the impacts of such climate change could include sea level rise, extreme weather events, flooding, sea temperature and chemistry changes and changes to ocean circulatory systems.

Sea level rise is a big potential problem for marine ecosystems because it may lead to the loss of delicate coastal habitats such as dune systems and wetlands. Other impacts of sea level rise and the increased frequency of extreme weather conditions at sea may lead to increased coastal erosion, which may further reduce the available habitat for coastal communities. Solutions to these problems are addresses in the UK by the Shoreline Management Plan (SMP). Each coastal county has its own SMP, stating the strategy for the coast in the short, medium and long term. The various approaches that can be adopted include: Do nothing, Hold the Line (of defence), Maintain the Line, Advance the Line and Managed Retreat.

Sea temperatures changes may cause the loss of native species, which retract their southernmost limits. Examples include the marine algae Dabberlocks (Alaria esculenta) and the Common tortoiseshell limpet (Tectura testudinalis). Other, warmer water species will extend their northern distribution, many of which can be found in the following table of climate change indicator species.

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Climate change also may lead to an increase in non-native invasive species, which are more suited to warmer sea temperatures.

Ocean acidification

Acid oceans

Sea chemistry changes may lead to ocean acidification, meaning some marine life will have problems in shell formation. This may include phytoplankton and invertebrates such as molluscs and crustaceans, all of which have calcium carbonate exoskeletons.

Ocean acidification is caused by increased absorption by the sea of carbon dioxide, leading to a decrease in ocean pH. CO2 absorbed by the sea, reacts with water to create carbonic acid, which further dissociates into bicarbonate and free hydrogen ions. The balance of this chemical equilibrium is dependant on the temperature of the water and its alkalinity. Basically the more CO2, the more hydrogen ions there are and the more acidic the oceans become.

CO2 + H20 = H2CO3 = HCO3 -

= H+ + CO32-

More acidic oceans mean that less free carbonate molecules are available for uptake by calcifying organisms. These span the food chain from primary producers, such as phytoplankton, to consumers and include organisms such as corals, foraminifera, echinoderms, crustaceans and molluscs. One often cited example of a group of species affected by ocean acidification is coccolithophores. These are unicellular phytoplankton, with delicate calcium carbonate skeletons, taking the shape of a series of overlapping ‘hub cap’ like plates. Such organisms are the base of and hence support the entire marine food chain. ‘ Coccoliths’, as they are also known, are extremely important ecologically as their exoskeletons form a high proportion of marine sediments and the transport of these to sea floor is an essential source of organic matter for deep sea marine life.

Toxic tides

Algal bloomsAlgae are vitally important to marine and fresh-water ecosystems, and most species of algae are not harmful. Phytoplankton, or marine algae, bloom naturally in response to warming sea temperatures and upwellings of nutrients from deep water. These typically occur in spring and autumn when sea temperatures are of adequate temperature and there is enough mixing of the water column to put nutrients in solution. Typically in summer, the thermocline is a boundary to mixing so blooms are not as common.

Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) Abnormally large algal blooms occur in natural waters when certain types of microscopic algae grow quickly, often in response to changes in levels of chemicals such as nitrogen and phosphorus in the water. These can enter the

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marine environment via run off from the land or via contaminants such as sewage entering the water. Algal blooms can deplete the oxygen and block the sunlight that other organisms need to live, and some can produce toxins that are harmful to the health of the environment, plants, animals, and people. Harmful algal blooms have threatened beaches and can poison other marine life.

Toxic algal bloomsCyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and red tides are examples of algae that can bloom and produce toxins that may be harmful to human and animal health. Other examples of specific species that are toxic and poisonous include the diatom Pseudo-nitzschia known to produce the neurotoxin domoic acid, which is responsible for the human illness called Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP). Also the phytoplankton Alexandrium catenella is the organism responsible for Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP).

BioaccumulationFilter feeding species such as molluscs including mussels, scallops and oysters and suspension feeders such as prawns and crabs can bioaccumulate toxic algae from the water column. The toxins accumulate in the tissues of these invertebrates at a faster rate than they can be broken down. Other organisms, including copepods, krill, mussels, anchovies, and mackerel, have been found to also retain toxins from phytoplankton in their bodies. These organisms are often not affected by the toxins, but act as vectors (carriers) that transport the toxins up the food web. If these species are human food sources they can causes serious illness and even death.

Many toxic phytoplankton species have a hibernation or ‘cyst’ phase, allowing them to remain dormant for a period of time, then bloom in response to favourable changes in the marine environment. The cyst phase of algal species also enables them to be transported to other areas on surface currents, often over long distances. In this way, toxic algal cysts can easily be transported, as non-native invasive species in the ballast water tanks of ships.

Sewage

Indicator speciesIndicator species are species whose presence of absence can be indicative of a certain environmental scenario, or species whose populations, abundance or characteristics change in response to certain environmental conditions.

Intertidal indicatorsMarine scientists look to the intertidal zone as a window on the wider marine world. Species on the coast often have high tolerances to a range of environmental conditions including the tidal cycle and fluctuations in temperature, salinity, turbidity etc. Intertidal species often change and adapt very quickly in response to fluctuating nature of the physical and chemical marine environment and therefore, the coast is a great place to observe and

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record changes to marine biodiversity as a response to things like climate change and pollution.

Climate change indicator speciesMany intertidal species are extending their range north in response to climate change, as sea temperatures warm. These include the following:

Honeycomb worm – a segmented worm which builds large colonial structures from sand. Found in Cornwall in places like Widemouth Bay

Peacock’s tail – brown seaweed, Nationally scarce Volcano barnacle Strawberry anemone Gem anemone Snakelocks anemone – greenish tentacles which are always extended due

to them housing symbiotic, photosynthetic algae Black footed and Tortoiseshell limpet Thick and flat topshells Montagu’s crab Worm pipefish – same family as the seahorse Shore clingfish

Many migratory marine species are being seen to change their migratory behaviour in response to climate change. Most important ecologically is plankton, blooms of which are occurring at different times and in different areas. As these support the marine food web, higher species will change their biological life histories in response. Such species include many commercial fish whose juvenile phases feed heavily on the plankton. Other species include filter feeders such as whales and basking sharks. Migratory species such as Leatherback turtles also are changing their migrations, with more individuals appearing in the Atlantic. This is likely in response to jellyfish blooms, which potentially are in response to blooms of plankton, as a consequence of climate change and nutrient pollution. Other warmer water species being observed off the UK coast, in response to warming sea temperatures include: Barracuda, Ocean sunfish and Bluefin tuna.

Other pollutantsSome pollutants introduced into the marine environment can have toxic effects and lead to obvious declines in species. For example, anti-foulant paint used on the hulls of boats caused severe damage to non-target species in the wider marine environment. Particularly noticeable was that female dog whelks, exposed to TBT, developed male sex characteristics.

Marine Conservation

Marine Protected AreasMarine Protected Areas (MPAs) are zones of the seas and coasts where wildlife is protected from damage and disturbance. Specifically, MPAs enable marine ecosystems to be protected and restored, ensuring species and habitat diversity, and reducing the impacts of physical disturbance, pollution and climate change.

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They also provide areas for safe recreational use of the sea and coastline as well as scientific study.

A range of marine habitats and species are protected under the 1992 EU Habitats Directive. These include priority habitats such as Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) and Special Protection Areas (SPAs) for bird species. In total the directive protects over 1000 animals and plant species and over 200 so called "habitat types" (e.g. maerl beds, eelgrass beds and wetlands), which are of European importance. There are also marine SSSIs under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 and non-statutory conservation areas such as the five Voluntary Marine Conservation Areas (VMCAs) in Cornwall.

About 6% of UK waters are in MPAs but often protection does not stretch to safeguarding against fishing and other activities that can take place in them.  At present, less than 1% of the UK waters are afforded complete protection for conservation reasons. Three Marine Nature Reserves (MNRs) do exist being Lundy (the first MNR designated in 1982), Skomer Island in Wales and Strangford Lough in Northern Ireland. These are the country's only No Take Zones (NTZs), places in which fishing and other extractive activities are banned. Several fisheries boxes are already in use in Europe, such as the Norway pout, mackerel and plaice boxes or boxes that protect spawning herring. Since fishing is not totally prohibited, these boxes are not true NTZs since they may be closed only seasonally, protect only some fish stocks and restrict only certain types of vessels or gears. Examples of voluntary NTZs do exist in other areas also.

Spillover effectOne of the most difficult scientific and political questions in MPA planning is that of whether no-take marine reserves can serve to increase fish catches in surrounding fished areas. The spillover effect, as proposed by many leading marine scientists basically outlines that because reserves contain more and larger fish, protected populations can potentially produce much more offspring than can exploited populations. Increased reproductive output is predicted to supply adjacent fisheries through export of offspring on ocean currents. In addition, as fish stocks build up reserves are predicted to supply local fisheries through density-dependent spillover of juveniles and adults into fishing grounds. Many fishermen are understandable concerned about Marine Protected Areas however with both ecological and economic advantages and with the correct implementation, all parties should, in theory, benefit.

Marine Conservation ZonesMarine Conservation Zones are conservation areas designated for conservation reasons, coming out of the Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009. A three-year public consultation, incorporating a range of stakeholder groups ran until March 2013. The government recently announced it only plans to protect 31 of the 127 MCZs, however discussions are ongoing.

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Future direction - The Ecosystem ApproachThe Ecosystem Approach is a concept that integrates the management of land, water and living resources and aims to reach a balance between three objectives: conservation of biodiversity; its sustainable use; and equitable sharing of natural resources. It is the primary implementation framework of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

Historically both marine and terrestrial conservation and management approaches have been very species and habitat focused. Though conservation in this vein has it’s place, the scientific understanding now is that management should be much more holistic, taking into account all aspects of both the biotic and abiotic environment, allowing ecosystem services to function. For example, management measures for cod, need to take into account changes to ocean circulatory systems, sea temperatures, plankton migrations and blooms, seabed characteristics, as well as food sources for both larval and adult populations (i.e. the entire marine food web that support cod). Management in this vein, taking into account all aspects of the marine ecosystem and involving as many stakeholders as possible, is the future direction marine conservation should take.

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References

http://www.cefas.defra.gov.uk/our-science/fisheries-information/discards-and-fishing-gear-technology/project-50.aspxhttp://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/legislation/habitatsdirective/index_en.htm http://www.fao.org/fishery/topic/14798/enhttp://www.marinemanagement.org.uk/fisheries/http://www.marinemanagement.org.uk/fisheries/statistics/documents/ukseafish/2011/landings.pdfhttp://www.goodcatch.org.uk/start-improving/gather-information/fishing-methods/http://www.imo.org/ourwork/environment/ballastwatermanagement/Pages/Default.aspxhttp://www.marlin.ac.uk/marine_alienshttp://www.mcsuk.org/what_we_do/Fishing+for+our+futurehttp://www.msc.org/http://www.seafish.org/fishermen/responsible-sourcing/protecting-fish-stocks/discards

Organisations

The Centre for Fisheries and Aquaculture Services (CEFAS) is the government’s leading marine and freshwater scientific research centre.

The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) regulates and manages ballast water transfer.

The Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) works with the fishing industry to promote sustainable fishing methods and help consumers make sustainable choices. It does this via a certification system.

The Marine Conservation Society is a UK charity that promotes the conservation of marine ecosystems and provides comprehensive guidelines for the public on eating sustainable seafood via the ‘Good fish guide’, suggesting fish ‘to eat’, ‘to eat with caution’ and ‘to avoid’.

The Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN), in partnership with Natural England, operates the Shore Thing, a programme to survey, monitor and raise awareness of intertidal life and the threats it faces. They are also responsible for the Marine Aliens project.

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