A New Nation

European powers colonized the Americas in order to gain wealth from the new land. The English

colonies established ideas of self-government and liberty. The American colonists became increasingly

dissatisfied with British rule and decided to declare their independence. With the Declaration of

Independence, the country’s leaders announced to the world the establishment of a new republic, the

United States, and justified to other countries the right to be independent.

In the Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson expands on the ideas of English

philosopher John Locke. Locke believed people had natural rights, and people formed governments to

protect these rights. According to Locke, if a country’s leaders failed to act in the interests of its people,

they have the right to revolt and replace that government with a new one. In the declaration, Jefferson

defends that the United States is a country founded on the principle of individual liberty. He states that

“all men are created equal” and all people have “unalienable rights” given to them by God, which

includes the right of liberty. Jefferson argues that the king of England has not served the interests of the

American colonists. Therefore, the American colonies had the right to declare that they are free and

independent states. In this way, Jefferson established some of the basic principles of American

government and society. Primarily, the United States would be a nation where common citizens have a

strong voice in their government.

During the approval of Jefferson’s draft of the Declaration of Independence, a debate over the

social complication of slavery emerged. Jefferson accused the king of being responsible for the slave

trade and referred to it as “this execrable commerce.” Sadly, the proponents of slavery prevailed, and all

mention of slavery was deleted from the document.

The victory of the colonists in the American Revolutionary War led to the formation of a new

republic. Leaders of the new country met at a Constitutional Convention and, after debate and

compromise, devised a new form of government. The new Constitution was subsequently ratified by the

states.

The Constitution written in 1787 has remained basically the same until today. It has survived

because it is flexible enough to adapt to social changes but specific enough about certain important

questions so as not to be misinterpreted by future generations. It not only defines the structure of

American government, but also declares its goals. The Preamble to the

Constitution begins with the three words, “We the People.” The rest of the document follows this

basic idea that in the United States it is the people who govern.

The Constitution still serves as the plan for the government of the United States. The key point

of the document deals with keeping government under control. It does this by dividing power in two

ways. First, the Framers (those men at the Constitutional Convention) established a federal system of History 1A – Discussion points

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government. In this system power is shared among state governments and national governments. Some

powers are delegated only to the national government (i.e. declaring war), some powers are reserved

solely for the states (i.e. establishing an educational system), and some powers are possessed by both (i.e.

collecting taxes). Secondly, the Constitution created what is called a separation of powers among the

legislative, executive, and judicial branches (powers) of government. Each branch has its own authority,

but no branch has complete power over the government. Furthermore, to guarantee no branch of

government gains too much power, the Framers created a system of checks and balances. This system

gives each branch of government the power to check, or stop, the other branches in certain ways. For

example, the president, who is the head of the executive branch, can veto laws passed by Congress. The

structure of the legislative branch also demonstrates its effort to preserve and limit people’s control of

government. The Constitution creates a bicameral Congress. Representation in the House of

Representatives is based on each state’s population. Members serve for only two years before they must

face another election. In this way, the people have the opportunity to change their representatives

relatively quickly. In the Senate, each state elects two members. Senators are elected for six-year terms,

which allow them some independence from popular opinion.

The Constitution created a strong executive officer, the president, who is elected to serve a four-

year term. Among the powers of the president is the role of commander-in-chief of the nation’s military

forces. This establishes the important principle of civilian control of the government. The president also

has the power to veto laws and choose, with the approval of the Senate, the judges for the national courts.

Finally the Constitution establishes a national court system. Judges were supposed to be

independent. To guarantee this, they were selected indirectly from the people (chosen by the president

and approved by the Senate). The Constitution also makes the removal of judges difficult so they cannot

be controlled by the people. Federal judges hold office for life, or as long as they do not act dishonorably.

To approve the Constitution, several accords, or compromises, had to be reached to resolve

social complications among the Framers. One of these compromises focused on the question of slavery.

Southern leaders refused to consider giving blacks the right to vote; however, they wanted to include

them as part of a state’s population. Some of the Framers considered slavery to be immoral. Still they did

little to stop this contradiction. In the end, it was agreed that three-fifths of a state’s slaves be counted for

purposes of House representation. It was also decided that the new government could not ban the slave

trade for at least 20 years.

While the Constitution was being debated by the states for its final approval, some criticized the

document because it did not specifically protect individual liberties. Consequently, it was agreed that ten

amendments would be immediately added to the Constitution after its ratification. These ten amendments

are called the Bill of Rights.

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The Bill of Rights guarantees that all Americans have basic rights. These fundamental rights

permit people living in the United States to worship as they wish, speak freely, and read and write what

they choose. Other amendments of the Bill of Rights guarantee the right to bear (possess) arms, the right

to a trial by jury, and the right not to testify against oneself. The Bill of Rights also ensures that every

person will have fair and equal treatment under the law. The Tenth Amendment guarantees that states

have all powers not specifically mentioned in the Constitution.

An early test of the republic came in the War of 1812. The war started badly. The nation could

have collapsed if American victories hadn’t ended the war quickly and favorably. As a result of the War

of 1812, a new spirit of nationalism appeared in the United States.

1820-1865 Regional Conflict and Civil War

The advance of the Industrial Revolution caused a division between the North and the South.

Geographic advantages helped the North develop more industries than the South. These northern

industries increased even more with the arrival from England of the steam engine, which created a new

era of productivity in the American workplace. By the middle of the 19th century, theeconomy of the

North was based on industrial production, while the economy of the South continued to be based on the

production of agricultural products, which depended on slavery. This division led to social complications

as Americans became more divided on the question of slavery.

One of the most influential books ever written about the United States is Democracy in America

by Alexis de Tocqueville. In his book, Tocqueville proposes the idea that the United States is an

exceptional country. He identifies five values he believed to be crucial to the success of the American

constitutional republic. These values are liberty, egalitarianism, individualism, populism, and laissez

faire.

One way that America has maintained democracy is by emphasizing the importance of liberty. An

example of this is seen in the decentralized nature of government in the United States. According

to Tocqueville, "Without local institutions a nation may give itself a free government, but it has

not got the spirit of liberty."

Tocqueville admired the high degree of equality among immigrants. He found that people are

respected on the basis of intellect and virtue. There is no aristocratic element in American society.

In times of equality, Tocqueville says that people tend to be individualistic, causing each citizen to

isolate himself or herself. Because tyrants have an interest in keeping people isolated, the

individualism resulting from equality can become a great danger to democracy. Therefore,

exercising freedom through participation in public affairs is extremely important. It gives people a

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personal interest in thinking about others in society. America’s emphasis on local selfgovernment

forces the people to act together and feel their dependence on one another.

Populism through the formation of associations is an excellent tool to combat individualism. They

allow people to exercise their freedom by taking a part in politics. Tocqueville believed that

Americans use the right of assembly more frequently and effectively than anywhere else in the

world.

Finally, Tocqueville admires the decentralized American system because of its political effects in

allowing the people to exercise their freedom. Freedom of businesses to work away from

government interference results in less chance for tyranny.

Beginning in the 18th century and continuing into the 19th century, social complication

increased between North and South as the abolitionist movement began to emerge in the North. From

1774 until 1804, every northern state, except for Maryland, passed laws that gradually abolished slavery.

All importing of slaves to the United States ended in 1808. While the abolition movement grew stronger,

southerners began to resist more firmly any effort to end slavery.

Abolitionist authors such as Harriet Beecher Stowe increased the antislavery sentiments of

Northerners. The success of Stowe’s abolitionist novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin made many Americans

understand better the evil consequences of slavery. Another writer that supported the abolitionist cause

was Henry David Thoreau. In his book Walden, Thoreau explained the philosophy of transcendentalism

and displayed the value of simple living.

Between 1820 and 1860, a series of compromises were made between to maintain an equal

number of slave states and free states. These compromises only were temporary solutions as a growing

sentiment against slavery continued in the North. In 1857, the Supreme Court’s decision in the Dred Scott

v. Sanford case affirmed that fugitive slaves like Mr. Scott had no rights because they could not be

considered U.S. citizens.

Although he received little support in the South, Abraham Lincoln, who was firmly against

slavery, was elected President in 1860. The Southern states feared that the end of slavery would ruin their

economies and seceded from the Union. Southerners were more loyal to their states than to the federal

government. The newly formed Confederate States of America chose Jefferson Davis as president.

The Civil War began when the South attacked Fort Sumter. Lincoln declared war in order to try

and preserve the Union. In the first two years of the war, the Confederate (Southern) army, led by General

Robert E. Lee, successfully defended the eastern front. In the west, the Union (Northern) army,

commanded by General Ulysses S. Grant, won significant victories.

In an attempt to win the war, Lee and his army invaded the North in the fall of the 1862. Union

forces stopped the Confederate army advance at the Battle of Gettysburg. The Union victory at the Battle

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of Vicksburg gave the Union complete control of the Mississippi River. Grant assumed command of the

entire Union army and began to attack the South. In 1865, the Confederacy surrendered.

The Civil War was the first war in which several thousand women served as nurses. Among

these nurses was Clara Barton, who later would establish the American Red Cross. The leadership of

Abraham Lincoln was essential in the victory of the North. As a consequence of Lincoln’s efforts, people

came to see the United States as a single nation rather than a collection of states.

1865-1900 Rebuilding the South

After the war the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution was passed, and slaves were

officially given their emancipation (freedom). President Abraham Lincoln, with the Congress, began to

formulate a plan to rebuild the government and society of the South. The plan to reunite the country

following the Civil War was known as Reconstruction. It was Lincoln’s intention to treatthe South

generously, as if it had never actually left the Union. Lincoln was assassinated before he could effectively

start his plan, and Andrew Johnson became the next president. One of the first organizations created

during Reconstruction was the Freedman’s Bureau, which was established in 1865 to aid the poor of the

South.

President Johnson fought with Congress about how to implement Reconstruction. Being an ex-

slave owner and from the South, Johnson favored a more soft approach with Southern leaders. Johnson

opposed the Republicans’ proposal for the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, which declared all

ex-slaves citizens. After only one of the ex-Confederate States approved the Fourteenth Amendment,

Republicans became more militant. Congress passed the Reconstruction Act of 1867, which effectively

took over control of Reconstruction from the president. This new phase, called Radical Reconstruction,

imposed military rule on the South in an attempt to establish political equality for blacks. The Republican

Congress proposed the Fifteenth Amendment, which constitutionally ensured the right to vote for blacks.

The three Reconstruction Amendments (13th, 14th, and 15th) addressed the social question of

civil rights of African Americans. These amendments gave African Americans constitutional protection

of their rights. The process had begun with the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution. It

was advanced by the abolitionist movement and the compromises to limit slavery in the West.

Unfortunately, the social complications caused by slavery only ended after the election of Abraham

Lincoln and the victory of the North in the Civil War. African Americans now had the same rights as all

citizens of the United States.

Many southern whites resisted change. Land and labor practices led to the increase of rural

poverty. The most common of these practices was called sharecropping. In this model, the landowner

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supplied the land and seed in exchange for the labor of the farmer (often an ex-slave) and a large portion

of his harvest. This way the poor farmer never escaped the cycle of poverty. In the 1870s the Ku Klux

Klan emerged with the goals of intimidating black voters, forcing blacks out of politics, and restoring

white supremacy. A deal made between southern Democrats and presidential candidate Rutherford B.

Hayes after the disputed election of 1876 formally ended the era of Radical Reconstruction. Jim Crow

laws were passed that made segregation a common part of southern life. Southern white Democrats

formed a new political coalition, referred to as the “Solid South,” and started taking control.

1865-1900 The Emergence of Industrial America

Between the Civil War and 1900, innovations and inventions revolutionized almost every area of

American life and resulted in the expansion of American industries. Innovations such as the Bessemer

process helped to create the steel industry. The development of the steel industry permitted the expansion

of railroads. The expansion of railroads had a very positive impact on industry in the United States.

Railroads offered a fast and efficient way to transport products. They also reduced the cost of transporting

goods. The expansion of railroads permitted businesses to sell products nationally, not just locally.

Similarly, resources used to make products could be obtained anywhere in the country. The development

of steel also stimulated the construction of buildings and bridges, improving city life.

Inventions like the electric light bulb by Thomas Edison revolutionized life in America. Two

inventions, in particular, had a dramatic impact upon industrial productivity. Samuel Morse’s creation of

Morse code for the telegraph made communication between individuals much faster. Customers could

place orders more quickly as inventories fell low. Investors could buy stocks faster. Railroads could keep

people informed of changes to schedules. The invention of the telephone by Alexander Graham Bell also

had a dramatic impact on industrial production. Businesses could now speak directly with customers,

reducing the number of production mistakes. Customers could receive immediate responses to their

questions. Similar to the way the Internet improved communication in the 1990s, the telegraph, and

telephone have advanced communication in their era and helped industries and the economy grow.

Seeking greater efficiency and profits, many American companies grew to enormous sizes in the

late 1800s. One great industrialist of the era was Andrew Carnegie. He built the Carnegie Steel Company

into the world’s largest steel manufacturer. His company was so prosperous because Carnegie succeeded

in controlling all processes of steel production. When a company controls all the steps involved in its

production process from raw materials to the finished good is called vertical integration.

Another important corporation at the time was the Standard Oil Company. John D. Rockefeller,

the company’s principal owner, knew that the demand was growing for oil as a fuel for lights and a

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lubricant for machines (people did not realize the true importance of oil until the development of the

internal combustion engine). Rockefeller created a giant oil company by consolidating all the oil

refineries. When a business dominates one phase of the production process, this is called horizontal

integration.

Companies in various industries united to form trusts, trying to limit competition and raise

prices. The financial support to form large corporations and trusts came from men like J.P. Morgan. In the

late 1800s, Morgan’s bank dominated the area of finances.

As some corporations and trusts grew larger and more powerful, the federal government took

steps to regulate these businesses. The Interstate Commerce Commission and the Sherman Antitrust Act

tried to halt unfair business practices by large companies by establishing regulatory standards for specific

industries. The Supreme Court blocked the efforts of the federal government to apply these laws.

Workers had to tolerate poor ventilation and excessive heat in workplaces that came to be called

sweatshops. Children were commonly employed in factories and worked long hours. By 1900, children

were entering the work force in increasing numbers.

Craft unions and workers’ unions began to make their way into the lives of working Americans.

Disagreement between workers and owners over a number of issues caused many strikes. Many of the

strikes turned violent. One famous example was the Haymarket Riot, which was the result of a

demonstration in protest of violence between police and strikers. The deaths that resulted from violent

strikes turned public opinion against the unions.

Looking to the West

During the middle of the 19th century, American settlers continued migrating west in search of

land to farm and ranch, and looking for minerals like gold and silver. In subsequent decades, the Great

Plains region, in the middle of the United States, became the destination of many Americans. Helped by

the government and new technology, settlers worked hard to farm new lands. The Homestead Act of 1862

offered free land to Americans wishing to move west. Dry farming techniques allowed farmers to grow

food under the arid conditions of the Plains. Innovations such as John Deere’s steel plow and the

mechanical reaper of Cyrus McCormick also made possible the farming of the Great Plains. Because of

these innovations and the migration west to establish farms, agriculture production in the United States

doubled from 1870 to 1900.

The westward migration of white settlers caused a conflict with the Plains Indians that resulted in

war. While the U.S. Army sent troops to defeat the Indians, settlers killed millions of buffalo, a resource

the Indians depended on. Despite the great advantages the U.S. army had with superior technology, the

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Indians resisted for almost thirty years. The last battle between the natives and the U.S. army was at

Wounded Knee, South Dakota.

While mining became a major industry in various parts of the West and Alaska, cattle ranching

also became a big business in the Great Plains. The expansion of the railroads and the development of

railheads (railroad transport stations) turned cattle ranching into a successful business. During the late

1800s, prices of farm produce fell steadily. Farmers also blamed their problems on the increasing costs

caused by tariffs. Farmers united to protect their interests. In 1867, the first organization of farmers, the

National Grange, was formed. After the Grange weakened, the Farmers’ Alliance emerged to replace it.

Leaders of the Farmer’s Alliance decided to establish a political party whose followers were

known as Populists. The Populists supported farmers’ call to increase the federal money supply by using

both silver and gold to support the U.S. dollar. This policy would create inflation in the economy, which

would help farmers that were suffering because of falling crop prices. The reform was opposed by gold

supporters, who favored a “tight money” plan for the economy.

Calls for new government policies reached a peak during the Depression of 1893. To call

attention to the plight of people hurt by the depression, Populist leader Jacob Coxey led an army of

marchers to Washington D.C. in 1894. The presidential election of 1896 became very important. For that

election, the Populists united with the Democrats and nominated William Jennings Bryan as their

candidate. Bryan’s central theme was the unlimited minting of silver to solve the nation’s economic

difficulties. In spite of his vigorous efforts, Bryan was unable to attract many urban voters, who supported

the victorious Republican candidate, William McKinley.

Immigration, Politics, and Urban Life

The end of the 1800s saw a great influx of immigration from many parts of the world. Most

immigrants found their way to America to take advantage of its freedom and job opportunities. The

immigrants who arrived in America after 1880 were typically poor, from southern and eastern Europe,

and mostly Catholic and Jewish. They mostly stayed in larger cities to work and live. In the cities, these

immigrants frequently created ethnic communities called ghettoes.

These immigrants like those before would have an important role in the development of the

nation in the 20th century. They illustrate the true meaning of the motto of the United States, E Pluribus

Unum. The phrase appears on all American coins and means “out of many, one.”

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Some Americans disliked immigrants and tried to limit immigration. They feared newcomers

would take away jobs or not adapt to American life. This hostility directed at immigrants by native-born

Americans was called nativism. American cities expanded quickly in area and population at the end of the nineteenth century.

Besides the arrival of immigrants, more people moved from their rural homes into cities. Immigrants and

rural migrants provided workers for the growing economy and new markets for commerce. The growth of

cities resulted in the development of mass transit systems, which permitted people to travel better inside

cities and move to suburbs.

As a result of rapid industrialization and immigration into the cities, urban areas became

overcrowded. A new type of apartment building called tenements appeared which were designed to house

large numbers of people as cheaply as possible. Tenement houses were cramped (crowded), dark, poorly

ventilated, and unsanitary. Disease and lack of privacy were common. A good public education system

was developed to help immigrants adapt to American society. Immigrants frequently relied on city

leaders, known as “bosses,” to provide jobs and help them with basic needs. Bosses took advantage of

immigrants to create corrupt political machines.

Herbert Spencer’s popular theory known as Social Darwinism ("survival of the fittest") said that

the laws of nature applied to society. Social Darwinism was used to support the economic theory of

laissez-faire. The theory of laissez-faire affirms that government should not interfere with business

activities.

In fact, government often helped industries. Many saw the relationship between government and

big business as a corrupt one built on the spoils system. Government contracts and subsidies were not

awarded fairly. Corruption became a common practice in government. One such corrupt political

organization was New York’s Tweed Ring, named after "Boss" Tweed, the leader of that city’s

Democratic Party. The political machine commanded by Boss Tweed was called Tammany Hall. It

wasn’t until the assassination of President Garfield that government finally acted. The Civil Service Act

of 1883 (also known as the Pendleton Act) established a commission to evaluate applicants’ suitability

for government-service jobs.

Individuals like Andrew Carnegie tried to help improve the lives of poor Americans. Andrew

Carnegie believed the rich had a duty to help the poor. He called his theory the “Gospel of Wealth.”

Blacks looked to their own race for leaders and two powerful figures emerged with different

philosophies: Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. Du Bois. Washington believed that blacks should first

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concentrate on education while learning a profession before challenging racial discrimination. With

economic independence, he argued, social and political equality would follow. Other blacks preferred the

more combative style of Du Bois, who believed blacks should fight against racial discrimination. Du Bois

and other prominent blacks supported the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People

(NAACP) to promote legal rights for blacks.

The Progressive Reform Era

In 1899, Americans began to think about the turn of the century. They had feelings of hope

together with fears and concerns about what the 20th century would bring. This mood lasted about 15

years and was known as the Progressive Era. It was a time of progress and reform in many areas of

American life. Reformers were known as Progressives because they were trying to progressively move

forward in social, economic, and political arenas. They believed in a democratic society with honest and

sincere officials. Government should control greed, corruption, and special interests that tended to exploit

segments of the society, even if it might create an expanded government bureaucracy to do it.

Many people associate the Progressive Reform Era with the writings of journalists, called

muckrakers, who exposed unfair business and government practices. One of the most famous, Upton

Sinclair, shocked the nation with his book, The Jungle, which revealed ugly secrets about the meat

packing industry in Chicago.

The Progressive Reform Era is also well known for the rise of socialism and labor unions.

American Socialists wanted to end the capitalist system, distribute wealth more equally, and have the

government own the nation’s industries. They formed the Socialist Party of America, which was

successful in electing its candidates to government offices. With the reforms of the Progressive Era, labor

leaders gained confidence. Unions organized marches to protest for better working conditions.

Progressives began to regulate business in order to protect the public interest. Influenced by The

Jungle, the President passed the Meat Inspection Act of 1906. The Pure Food and Drug Act prohibited

dangerous drugs and made it necessary to put the contents of foods and drugs on the labels of products.

The Hepburn Act gave the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) power to limit how much railroads

could charge for transporting products. Together with the ICC, the Sherman Antitrust Act also expanded

its influence in the 20th century.

Most Progressives did not support government control of businesses, except in the case of

essential services such as water and electricity. Reformers made efforts to regulate or remove the

monopolies that owned these city utilities.

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Progressive reform organizations sought to make local, state, and national governments more

democratic. They changed the structure of city governments by establishing city councils or commissions

— a board of citizens elected by the people that shared power with the mayor. Progressives also began the

practice of hiring city managers — a technical expert hired by the city council or city commission to

resolve complex problems in areas such as engineering or sanitation.

State governments were also the targets of Progressives. Many Americans believed that state

government had become undemocratic. With the slogan “give the power back to the people!”

Progressives implemented reforms: (1) the initiative gave people the power to propose a new law to

appear directly on the ballot for voters to decide or reject; (2) the direct primary system established

nominating elections to allow people to select political party candidates. (3) The referendum was a

public vote on a law proposed by state legislatures; (4) the recall permitted voters a chance to remove a

public official from office before the next election. All these reforms took power away from politicians

and gave citizens greater participation in government.

At a national level, the ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment permitted the implementation of

a federal income tax. This increased government revenues. The Seventeenth Amendment authorized the

direct election of senators, increasing voters’ power, and reduced corruption in state legislatures.

Some people wanted to extend the reforms implemented during Progressivism to moral issues

like drinking alcohol. The movement to prohibit alcohol grew with support of women and religious

groups. One famous Christian-motivated crusader, Carrie Nation, would attack saloons with an axe in

order to close them. During World War I, prohibitionists argued that a ban of alcohol would make

factories more efficient and make more grain available for food. Finally, in 1919, Prohibition was realized

with the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment, which made illegal the manufacture, sale, distribution,

and consumption of alcohol. The Congress passed the Volstead Act in 1919 to enforce the 18th

Amendment.

The struggle for women’s right to vote was a long and difficult one. The movement most famous

leader was Susan B. Anthony, who founded the National Woman Suffrage Association. Suffragettes

struggled unsuccessfully for more than sixty years. The strongest reason for suffragettes was equal rights

of men and women. On the movement’s newspaper appeared their slogan, “...men, their rights and

nothing more; women, their rights nothing less.”

By the beginning of the 20th century, the suffragette movement was growing into a potent

political force. By 1917, the NAWSA had more than two million members. Women had gained the right

to vote in various states, including New York. Such a block of potential voters could not be ignored by

national politicians.

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World War I had a large impact on winning the voting rights of women. When war began,

volunteered to help in patriotic service to the country. During the war, women showed that they could do

the same work as men. After that, most resistance against giving women the right to vote disappeared. In

1920, the Nineteenth Amendment was approved, and a woman’s right to vote became constitutionally

protected.

Gaining the right to vote reaffirmed that the role of women had already changed substantially in

American society. More women were working and going to college. Hairstyles had become shorter, and

skirts and blouses reflected the changing lifestyle of women. The divorce rate had risen in the first two

decades of the 20th century. In the 1920s, women continued to be more independent. The equality gained

with the right to vote had given some women a new confidence to express themselves. Still, most women

continued to see their primary role in society as homemakers and mothers. This attitude would not change

for some time.

Progressive reforms would not have been possible without the support of political leaders. After

becoming president, Theodore Roosevelt launched his government plan to treat Americans fairly. He

called it the Square Deal. His main interest was protecting Americans against abusive business practices.

He strengthened the Sherman Antitrust law and with it attacked “bad” trusts that he believed did not serve

the public. During his term, big trusts, like those of the railroad and oil industries, would be broken up by

the courts. While he was president, important consumer laws such as the Meat Inspection Act, the Pure

Food and Drug Act, and the Hepburn Act all were passed. Roosevelt’s policies to fight against big

business and trusts led to his nickname as “the trust buster.”

Theodore Roosevelt is considered to be one of the nation’s first conservation-minded presidents.

In 1902, the National Reclamation Act was passed. It used money from the sale of public land to build

irrigation systems in arid states. In 1905, he established the United States Forest Service to develop

policies to adequately use and protect public land and water. While president, Roosevelt allocated 200

million acres of public land for national forests, mineral reserves, and water projects. By his actions

Roosevelt established a precedent to protect the nation’s resources that future leaders would follow. In

1916, Congress embraced conservation by establishing the National Park Service to protect the nation’s

natural resources.

Taft and Roosevelt disagreed about Progressive policies. In 1912, Roosevelt challenged Taft as a

third-party candidate in the presidential election. Roosevelt and his Progressive Party received a greater

percentage of votes than any other third party in modern history. The Progressives along with the

Populists formed two of the largest third party movements of the early 20 th century. Nevertheless, the

votes Roosevelt won divided the Republicans, giving the victory to the Democratic candidate Woodrow

Wilson.

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1890-1915 Becoming a World Power

By the late 1800s, Americans were showing new interest in world affairs. Many Americans that

supported the idea of U.S. expansionism wanted to follow the British and French example of establishing

colonies around the world. The outside world offered Americans places to invest and markets for the

nation’s growing production and surplus of goods. Those leaders who favored a strong navy pushed for

expansion since warships would be needed to protect markets from foreign rivals. By the end of the 19th

century, the United States was building one of the most powerful navies in the world. Some Americans

also believed that Social Darwinism (“survival of the fittest”) gave the United States a right to colonize

other countries. Just as most Americans had accepted the conquest of Native Americans as right and

inevitable, they gradually favored the idea of expansionism.

One of the first American colonies was Hawaii. A group of American businessmen and planters

started a revolt to remove Queen Liliuokalani from power. With the assistance of the United States

military, Queen Liliuokalani was forced to surrender. The independent nation of Hawaii was officially

annexed by the United States in 1898.

Along with islands in the Pacific, American expansionists were interested in the Western

Hemisphere. Events in Cuba offered an opportunity for the United States to increase its influence as a

world power and gain territories. In the late 1800s, Cuban rebels were involved in a war of independence

against Spain. Americans became aware of Cuba through the sensational newspaper coverage of Spanish

atrocities in trying to suppress the revolt. This “yellow journalism,” led by newspaper publishers Joseph

Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst, played an important part in increasing the war sentiment in the

United States.

President McKinley did not favor intervention. However, after the U.S. battleship Maine

mysteriously exploded in Havana harbor, killing 260 sailors, the United States blamed the Spanish and

declared war. One of the heroes of the war was Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt organized a group of

soldiers that called themselves the “Rough Riders.” Two days after arriving in Cuba, Roosevelt led the

Rough Riders to victory in the Battle of San Juan Hill. In the Philippines, the American navy destroyed

the Spanish fleet. After being defeated in Cuba and the Philippines, Spain surrendered.

For the United States, the Spanish-American War of 1898 was a great success. In the treaty with

Spain that followed the war, the U.S. gained control of the ex-Spanish colonies of Puerto Rico, Guam,

and the Philippines together with hegemony or domination of the Western Hemisphere, thereby becoming

a world power.

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Long interested in Asia, the United States was taking a much more active role in the region by

1900. Several European countries at the time were attempting to exclusively control trade in parts of

China. The United States Secretary of State John Hay proposed the Open Door Policy, which called for

all nations to have equal trading rights with China.

Now that the United States had asserted its presence in both the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, it

needed a way to link the two together. Americans realized that a canal across Central America would be a

great benefit to global trading. In 1880, a French company started building a canal across the Isthmus of

Panama. The French were forced to abandon the project because it became too expensive. President

Roosevelt bought the patrimony of the French to complete the project.

At that time, the Isthmus of Panama was part of Colombia and that country wanted more money

from the Americans. Roosevelt encouraged the Panamanians to rebel against Colombia. With U.S. help,

the Panamanians won their independence and permitted the U.S. to finish and operate the Panama Canal.

The United States restarted construction of the Panama Canal restarted in 1904, bringing in

thousands of workers. Technical engineers, supervisors, and construction experts were also brought to the

site. Huge machinery, some of which was designed and built specifically for this project, was transported

to Panama. One of the biggest obstacles to completing the canal was malaria. Mosquitoes that carried the

disease had to be exterminated. The Panama Canal is still considered one of the greatest technological

achievements in United States history and further established the nation as a world power.

President Roosevelt also extended the Monroe Doctrine, which prohibited the establishment of

new colonies in the Americas. Theodore Roosevelt had a favorite slogan, “Walk softly, and carry a big

stick.” He had first used his “big stick” policy against trusts and big businesses. Now he applied this

strategy to Latin America and the Caribbean. He proposed a policy called the Roosevelt Corollary, which

declared that the United States would intervene in any Latin American country whose stability was in

question. The U.S. first applied the Roosevelt Corollary in the Dominican Republic by taking over control

of their customs duties. During Roosevelt’s years as president, the United States would become a type of

policeman for the Western Hemisphere.

Presidents Taft and Wilson continued the policy of intervening in Latin America. Taft

encouraged investment in Latin America to help their economies and to increase American influence. Taft

referred to this policy as “Dollar Diplomacy.” Wilson declared that the U.S. was firmly against

imperialism, but supported continued intervention in the region.

1914-1918 The World War I Era

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The immediate cause of World War I (1914 - 1918) was the assassination of Archduke Franz

Ferdinand of Austria Hungary by a Slavic nationalist. However, there were several other causes for the

war. Nationalism, imperialism, and militarism all contributed to the beginning of the war. The principal

reason, however, for the escalation of a regional confrontation into worldwide violence was the complex

system of alliances. The most powerful countries in Europe were divided into two groups, the Triple

Entente (Great Britain, France, and Russia) and the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and

Italy). In a chain reaction, these nations pulled each other into war.

The two opposing side were the Central Powers: Germany and Austria- Hungary against the

Allies: France, Russia, and Great Britain. The initial fighting was very intense and both sides constructed

trenches to protect themselves. Neither side was able to gain an advantage. The result was a stalemate.

The fighting was fierce and unbelievably bloody. The soldiers of World War I confronted new

types of killing machines that had never been used before. Defensive forces used machine guns to

annihilate attacking enemy soldiers. In addition to machine guns, hand grenades, and heavy artillery

killed many men. The age of chemical warfare arrived when the Germans began using poisonous gas. In

retaliation, the Allies soon started using poisonous gas on German soldiers. The generals were

unaccustomed to these new weapons. They believed that attacking enemy positions with a superior

number of troops would result in victory. This strategy only produced an enormous number of dead

soldiers.

The cost in human life of the “war to end all wars” (as World War I was ironically referred to)

was horrific. Total number of dead from combat was approximately 8 million men. Six million more were

left crippled. Another 20 million people died of disease, hunger, and war-related causes. An entire

generation of young men had been destroyed.

One of the most feared of these new weapons was the German submarine, or U-boat. In May

1915, a German submarine sunk the luxury passenger ship the Lusitania. The deaths of many innocent

passengers outraged the American public. The Germans apologized and paid reparations to the families of

the U.S. victims. Subsequently, the Germans made a formal promise to warn merchant ships before

attacking — the Sussex Pledge. Most Americans were satisfied and continued to support U.S. neutrality.

President Woodrow Wilson made it clear that the United States would remain neutral in this European

conflict. Although most agreed with the President, many Americans worried about the growing conflict.

However, by 1917, there existed strong reasons for U.S. entry into the war. First, Wilson needed to

protect American shipping after the Germans broke the Sussex Pledge in the early months of 1917, by

sinking American merchant ships. Moreover, British intelligence intercepted a note sent by the German

foreign minister, Arthur Zimmerman, to the Mexicans trying to persuade them to oppose the United

States, a direct violation of international law. Public opinion was now clearly anti-German. A final

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obstacle to American participation in the war was removed when Russia deposed Czar Nicholas II and

established a democratic government, making it an acceptable ally. Previously, Wilson had promised that

the United States would only enter the war to support democracy in the world. Wilson strongly hated war,

but feared a German military victory more.

Hundreds of thousands of American soldiers had arrived in France by 1918. The American

Expeditionary Force was commanded by General John J. Pershing. The American forces soon proved to

be invaluable to the Allies, whose own troops were worn out, ailing, and disheartened by the war. In the

spring of 1918, the Germans made an advance on Paris. The Americans managed to stop the German

attack at Chateau-Thierry, east of Paris, and, with the help of French troops, managed to save Paris from

the Germans. Then, the Americans led a massive counter-attack in the Battle of the Argonne Forest. One

of the heroes of that battle was Corporal Alvin York, who was awarded the Medal of Honor for his

bravery. The Battle of the Argonne Forest was the largest American military offensive of World War I.

The victory of the Allies put the German army in full retreat. With defeat imminent, the Germans were

forced to ask for peace terms.

United States President Woodrow Wilson proposed his “Fourteen Points,” which spelled out

strategies to prevent future wars. He believed that a new international organization called the League of

Nations should be established to promote peace. The provision for the formation of Wilson’s League of

Nations became part of the Treaty of Versailles. The terms also favored the creation of new nations based

on ethnic groups.

It was difficult for President Wilson to convince the other leaders to accept his peace plan.

France insisted that a clause be included to blame Germany for the war and to force them to pay

reparations. In 1919, representatives of the victorious Allies met at the Palace of Versailles, outside Paris,

to formally write a peace treaty. The Treaty of Versailles took land away from Germany, reduced its

military, and made Germany pay war reparations to Allied countries. The peace terms of the treaty caused

deep feelings of resentment in Germany, which would result in the rise of Adolf Hitler and the start of

World War II. The finalized treaty was signed by Germany on June 28, 1919.

When President Wilson returned home from Europe, he discovered that many senators did not

support the Treaty of Versailles. In particular, they did not like the League of Nations. To increase public

pressure on senators, Wilson began a speaking tour across the United States. While campaigning for the

treaty’s ratification, Wilson suffered a stroke and remained partially paralyzed for the rest of his

presidency. Without Wilson’s support, the Senate rejected any participation in the League of Nations and,

therefore, did not ratify the Treaty of Versailles.

During the war, almost all immigration from Europe stopped. Furthermore, millions of young

men entered the armed forces. As a result, business owners suddenly needed workers. Owners and

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managers, who had discriminated against African Americans before, now recruited them to work in their

factories. Thousands of black Americans left their farm work in the rural South for factory jobs in the

North. At this time, more than half a million African Americans migrated north. This mass movement of

people was called the Great Migration.

The United States had been deeply changed by the war. The country emerged from World War I

with new wealth and increased its status as a world power. As a result of the war workers earned more

money and had a higher standard of living, and women gained new opportunities toward equality. The

significant contribution that woman made in the war effort helped them win the right to vote. Yet again,

American blacks saw only temporary gains. African Americans remained segregated and discriminated in

many states. The movement to consumer materialism had begun.

1919-1929 Postwar Social Change

One of the most dramatic changes of the new era was the changing role of women in American

society. A group of women known as flappers appeared on the scene with shorter dresses, shorter hair,

and changed social behaviors. Flappers became a symbol for this new independence of American women.

After World War I, many young men and women moved to urban areas in search of new jobs

and careers. Traditional religious beliefs clashed with modern science. The most famous example

occurred in the Scopes Trial. John Scopes, a biology teacher, was accused of violating a state law that

prohibited teaching evolution. The two key figures of the Scopes trial were lawyers Clarence Darrow,

who defended Scopes, and William Jennings Bryan, who led the prosecution.

Americans looked to individual heroes to confirm their sense of American values. The greatest

hero of the decade was aviator Charles Lindbergh. In 1927, he became the first man to fly non-stop from

New York to Paris aboard his plane, the “Spirit of St. Louis.”

Together with the growth of radio, a new style of music became popular: jazz. This new style

was based on lots of improvisation and creative energy. Jazz music reflected the vitality of the decade,

and the 1920s became known as the Jazz Age.

A more critical view of society began to shape art, literature, and fashion. Two important writers

of the time were Ernest Hemingway and F. Scott Fitzgerald. Fitzgerald’s novel The Great Gatsby

described the hypocrisy and greed found in the lifestyles of wealthy Americans during the Jazz Age.

The literary movement known as the Harlem Renaissance celebrated the lives of African

Americans. One of the leaders of the movement was poet and author Langston Hughes. His poem “I, Too,

Sing America” celebrates the contribution of African Americans to the history of the United States.

After World War I, the U.S. had trouble adjusting to peacetime. Factories were unable to

produce enough to equal the demand for goods after the war, and inflation occurred. In 1919, violent

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labor strikes erupted, principally in the steel industry. Terrorist incidents made some Americans fear a

worldwide communist revolution. These events were attributable to a national mood of anxiety that

became known as the Red Scare. Americans supported the government’s strong actions to protect

American values and to fight the communists.

Newly elected President Warren G. Harding called for a return to “normalcy" - a new period of

peace and quiet. While Harding was president, the economy improved, and internal agitation declined.

However, accusations of corruption occurred, such as the Teapot Dome scandal, which ruined Harding’s

reputation. Upon Harding’s death in 1923, Vice President Calvin Coolidge took over the office of

President.

President Coolidge believed that “the business of America is business,” and, as a result, his

policies were designed to help business interests and other large investors in the American economy.

Industries made expensive purchases more affordable with installment plans and by buying on credit. The

success of mass advertising techniques brought about an increase in demand for consumer goods. Henry

Ford installed the first moving assembly line as a way to streamline the production process and to mass-

produce cheap and reliable automobiles, like the Model T.

The American economy was booming in the 1920s. The GNP grew at an average rate of six

percent per year. During the 1920s, the national per capita income also increased dramatically. The results

of the 1928 election showed Americans satisfaction with the economic prosperity. The Republican

candidate Herbert Hoover won by a significant margin, and people expected the same conservative

leadership to continue in the White House.

1929-1933 Crash and Depression

In the beginning of 1929, Americans were full of confidence. They thought that the nation’s

prosperity would continue. They were wrong. In reality, the American economy had fundamental

problems that would soon provoke an economic depression. There was an unequal distribution of wealth

and a large amount of personal debt caused by people buying on credit. Finally, the American economy

was starting to suffer the effects of a problem that was even more serious: overproduction in industry and

agriculture.

In the 1920s, many people made money due to the rise in the value of the stock market.

However, this rise was primarily because of speculation. Americans were so confident that the price of

stocks would continue to increase that they not only invested their savings but borrowed money (buying

on margin) to buy stocks. With so many investors, stock prices became artificially high. In October 1929,

the stock market crashed and many people lost their life savings practically overnight.

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The fact that many Americans lost money in the stock market crash had a profound impact on

the economy. Factories were unable to sell their products. Consequently, businessmen reduced production

and began to lay off workers. A vicious circle started developing as less consumer spending caused

factories to make more production cuts and lay off more workers. Many businesses and banks failed. The

era of the Great Depression had begun.

Congress did not help the situation when it passed the Hawley-Smoot Tariff in 1930. The law

imposed high tariffs on imported goods thinking this would stimulate the national economy. On the

contrary, the high tariffs dampened1 trade and worsened the situation not only in the United States, but

also around the world.

The Great Depression caused terrible suffering among all Americans, especially women, African

Americans, and farmers. Many unemployed and homeless Americans were forced to camp out in

shantytowns, which were referred to as Hoovervilles by their residents. The Great Depression was

particularly hard on women and African Americans. Many workingwomen were accused of taking jobs

away from men. Companies refused to hire women or dismissed them. African Americans had to confront

discrimination at work and when looking for a job. By 1932, fifty percent of the Negro population in the

United States was unemployed.

Falling prices for farm products led many farmers to despair. To make matters worse, many

Great Plains farmers were ruined by a severe drought. Years of poor farming practices in that region had

eliminated the native prairie grasses. The severe drought dried the remaining soil. Strong winds blew

away the earth in enormous clouds of dust that ruined farmers’ crops. The vast region from the Dakotas to

Texas became known as the Dust Bowl.

The automobile was often the only hope for the future to many families fleeing from the Dust

Bowl in the Southwest during the Great Depression years of the 1930s. Thousands of farmers loaded all

their family possessions onto their cars and left the southern Great Plains. It is estimated 450,000 people

moved out of the state of Oklahoma, and almost 300,000 left Kansas. Many of these refugees looked for

work and a better life in California. These migrants were called “Okies” because so many of them came

from Oklahoma.

The American people blamed Hoover for not doing enough to combat the Great Depression.

Hoover, following his laissez-faire economic principles, did not believe in direct government assistance.

His philosophy called for voluntary aid and individual action to reverse the crisis. It was the voters’

negative reaction to Hoover’s response to the worsening economic situation that helped Franklin D.

Roosevelt to win the 1932 election by a large margin. President Roosevelt’s plan to revive the economy

during the Great Depression era was called the New Deal.

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