ICAS3234ACare for computer

hardwareStudy Guide

Key Terms and Concepts

business requirementscleaning materials and techniquescomputer hardwarecorrect manual handlingdiagnostic testingdiagnostic tools and softwareenvironmental conditionshardware and software interoperabilityhardware components and their functionhardware problemslegal requirementsmaintenance and storage of hardware,

peripherals and mediamaintenance requirementsmaintenance schedules manufacturer requirementsmediamove/relocate hardwareoccupational health and safety (OHS)

principles and responsibilities

OHS standardsperipherals problem-solving quality standardsreloading of softwareremoval and replacement of

componentssafe work practicesselection of hardware and peripheralsset-up proceduressiting requirementssoftwarespan of quality levelssystem protection deviceswarranty, replacement and upgrade.

ICAS3234A - Care for computer hardware

Establish safe work practices in the IT environment

Introduction 4

An overview of the Occupational Health and Safety Act and Regulation5

Determine any requirements as specified by the hardware manufacturer 7

Example: Safety instructions 7

Determine safe working practices 10Training 10Risk assessment 10

Summary 15Check your progress 15

Introduction

Regardless of the industry in which you work, there are legal requirements that insist on establishing a safe work environment. There exists an Occupational Health and Safety Act in all states of Australia. It describes the general requirements necessary to ensure a safe and healthy workplace. It is also designed to reduce the number of injuries in the workplace by imposing responsibilities on employers, employees and others.

Manufacturers of equipment will also provide health and safety information related to their products. It is advisable to review some of the typical requirements that a manufacturer may put forward.

In order to effectively promote a safe work environment, it is prudent that safe work practices be adopted. We will also take a look at how to determine safe work practices.

An overview of the Occupational Health and Safety Act and Regulation

The fundamental purpose of Health and Safety legislation is to:

secure and promote the health, safety and welfare of people at work

protect people at a place of work against risks to health and safety arising out of any activities of people at work

promote a safe and healthy environment for people at work that protects them from injury and illness and that is adapted to their physiological and psychological needs

provide for consultation and cooperation between employers and workers in achieving the above

ensure that risks to health and safety at a place of work are identified, assessed and eliminated or controlled

develop and promote community awareness of occupational health and safety issues

provide a legislative framework that allows for progressively higher standards of occupational health and safety to take account of changes in technology and work practices

protect people (whether or not at a place of work) against risks to health and safety arising from the use of machinery that affects public safety.

In New South Wales, the Occupational Health and Safety Regulation 2001 is intended to support the earlier Occupational Health and Safety Act 2000 in achieving reductions in the incidence of workplace injuries and disease. It replaced all the regulations made under the Occupational Health and Safety Act back in 1983 and others. Much of the legislation being replaced was outdated and overly restrictive.

This current set of regulations adopts a performance-based approach to occupational health and safety while still maintaining specific controls in highly hazardous areas. The best practice approach requires that regulatory proposals:

have clear objectives and focus only on fixing identified problems

regulate the ends and not the means

minimise the number of government agencies involved

promote certainty through clearly stated criteria for the assessment of applications for approvals, permits, licences, etc and publicly indicated timeframes for the assessment process

are simple for users to understand

are easy to enforce

have a high voluntary compliance rate

are subject to regular review

do not restrict competition

maximise benefits and minimise costs

Use commercial incentives rather than command and control rules, for example by:

– information provision– encouraging quality assurance backed up by a statute only where necessary– providing accessible legal remedies so that consumers, rather than government,

can act to enforce their rights without prohibitive costs– shifting risk management from government to the private insurance market.

Determine any requirements as specified by the hardware manufacturer

If the manufacturer produces substances that may be deemed hazardous, then additional obligations apply. There are documents known as Material Safety Data Sheets or MSDS. A MSDS should be prepared by the manufacturer and include information on the recommended use of a substance, its physical and chemical properties, relevant health hazard information and information concerning the precautions to be followed in relation to the safe use and handling of the substance.

In a more general context, with virtually all equipment produced, the manufacturer is required to provide relevant safety information. This information is often provided as part of the user instruction/manual for safe operation. The following is a typical set of Safety Instructions for a combined Printer/Scanner/Copier.

Example: Safety instructionsRead all of the instructions on this section when setting up and using the product.

When choosing a place for the productAvoid places subject to rapid changes in temperature and humidity. Also, keep the product away from direct sunlight strong light and heat sources.

Avoid places subject to dust, shocks and vibrations

Leave enough room around the product to allow for sufficient ventilation.

Place the product near a wall outlet where the plug can be easily unplugged.

Place the product on a flat, stable surface that extends beyond this product base in all directions. If you place the product near the wall, leave more than 10cm between the back of the product and the wall. The product will not operate properly if it is tilted at an angle.

When storing or transporting the product, do not tilt it, stand it on its side, or turn it upside down; otherwise, ink my leak from the cartridge.

Leave more than 22cm between the base of the product and the edge of the surface on which it is placed; otherwise, the product may fall if tipped forward possibly causing injury.

When choosing a power sourceUse only the type of power source indicated on the label on the back of the product.

Be sure your AC power cord meets the relevant local safety standards.

Do not use a damaged or frayed power cord.

If you use an extension cord with the product, make sure that the total ampere rating of the devices plugged into the extension cord does not exceed the cord’s ampere rating. Also, make sure that the total ampere rating of all devices plugged into the wall outlet does not exceed the wall outlet’s ampere rating.

When handling ink cartridgesDo not open the ink cartridge packages until just before you install them.

Do not shake used ink cartridges; this can cause leakage.

Keep ink cartridges out of the reach of children. Do not allow children to drink from or otherwise handle the cartridges.

Be careful when you handle used ink cartridges as there may be some ink remaining around the ink supply port. If ink gets on your skin, wash the area thoroughly with soap and water. If ink gets into your eyes, flush them immediately with water. If discomfort or vision problems remain after a thorough flushing, see a doctor immediately.

Do not touch the circuitry that is located on the back of the cartridge.

Do not remove or tear the label on the cartridge; this can cause leakage.

Store each ink cartridge so that the bottom of its packaging faces down.

When using the productDo not put your hand inside the product or touch the ink cartridges during printing.

Do not block or cover the openings on the product.

Do not attempt to service the product yourself.

Unplug the product and refer servicing to qualified service personnel under the following conditions:

The power cord or plug is damaged.

Liquid has entered the product.

The product has been dropped or the cover damaged.

The product does not operate normally or exhibits a distinct change in performance.

Do not insert objects into the slots on the product.

Take care not to spill liquid on the product.

Leave the ink cartridges installed. Removing the cartridges can dehydrated the print head and may prevent the product from printing.

If the product has a LCD panelUse only a dry, soft cloth to clean the display. Do not use liquid or chemical cleansers.

If the display on the product is damaged, contact your dealer.

If the liquid crystal solution contained in the LCD panel leaks out and gets on your hands, wash them thoroughly with soap and water, if the liquid crystal solution gets into you eyes, flush them immediately with water, if discomfort or vision problems remain after a though flushing, see a doctor immediately.

Determine safe working practices

TrainingAll staff members undertaking tasks that may be hazardous should be given, or have, the appropriate experience and/or qualifications. Organisations should have recruitment procedures that should ensure that persons chosen to undertake tasks have the necessary competencies. All employees should receive training where appropriate to ensure they possess the required skills and experience to carry out their tasks safely.

Training should include the knowledge of the Safe Work Procedures (SWP). Safe Work Procedures are written guidelines for all work activities that have been identified as posing some form of risk. It may include:

lifting and carrying

handling hazardous substances

working in confined spaces

use of particular equipment, eg drill, measuring device, cutting tool or even a computer.

If a serious accident or injury occurs, and the matter is taken to court, it would be wise if the employer were able to prove that the appropriate training had taken place. So upon completion of training (or an evaluation of competencies) the employee should sign a form acknowledging that they are aware of the particular safe working procedure. This can also form a safeguard for the employee, ensuring that management are fulfilling their responsibilities.

Risk assessmentOne of the easiest ways to achieve safe working practices is to be prepared in advance. Being prepared means to: gain knowledge of the things that can go wrong and how to correct them. In other words there must be some form of risk assessment undertaken. The simplest and most practical form of implementing safe practices is to create checklists which cover the areas that need particular attention. By using a checklist you will avoid oversight and possible legal ramifications in the event of serious injury to a person, or damage to expensive equipment.

The more questions, and the more specific the question, the more likely that all risks will be identified. If a risk is not identified, then it stands to reason that preventative measures

will not be taken to minimise injury. Carefully consider and compare the two checklists below for detail, clarity and ease of use.

Manual handling checklistYes No Comment

All manual hazards in the workplace have been documented.

Control measures have been implemented to eliminate the risks associated with manual handling or steps taken to minimise risks.

Adequate information, instruction, training and supervision are provided to ensure that risks from manual handling are minimised.

Control measures have focussed on job or task redesign, so that work may be carried out without the risk or to reduce the risk of manual handling.

Mechanical or other manual handling aids (trolleys, ramps etc) have been provided where these can reduce the risk of manual handling.

A system is in place to: monitor & review control measures encourage employees to report activities that

could present the risk of injury.

A system is in place to ensure that all accidents, incidents and near misses, injuries and ill health involving manual handling are reported, investigated and recorded, and appropriate corrective measures are implemented.

Office/workstation environment safety checklistDepartment: _________________________ Area: ____________________

Inspected by: ________________________ Signature: ________________

Date: _______________

1. LAYOUT 1.1 Area is tidy and well kept 1.2 Adequate storage area 1.3 Floor is free of obstructions 1.4 Floor coverings in good condition

Y/NY/NY/NY/N

5. WORKSTATION ERGONOMIC5.1 Workstation assessed using the Keyboard Workstation Assessment Checklist

Y/N

2. ENVIRONMENT 2.1 Temperature is comfortable 2.2 Lighting is adequate2.3 Area is free from odours2.4 Noise level is acceptable 2.5 Ventilation is adequate

Y/NY/NY/NY/NY/N

6. GENERAL FACILITIES6.1 Washing facilities are adequate 6.2 Lockers available for staff6.3 Cleaning of area is adequate

Y/NY/NY/N

3. EMERGENCY PROCEDURES 3.1 Written procedures posted and regularly updated 3.2 Staff are aware of procedures and know emergency personnel 3.3 Staff are inducted and records kept 3.4 Extinguisher of appropriate type is close by; ie within 20 M 3.5 Extinguisher is checked 6 monthly 3.6 Extinguisher is mounted within 1.2 M of the floor 3.7 Alarm can be heard in the area 3.8 Escape routes are in good order 3.9 Emergency and hazard signage is clearly visible 3.10 Has an evacuation drill been held in the last 12 months3.11 Are emergency phone numbers displayed on telephones

Y/N

Y/N

Y/NY/N

Y/NY/N

Y/NY/NY/N

Y/N

Y/N

7. MANUAL HANDLING7.1 Operations are assessed using the Manual Handling Checklist7.2 Often used items are within easy access, between knee and shoulder 7.3 Heavy items stored at waist height7.4 Step –ladders or -stools are used to access items stored on high shelves 7.5 Repetitive operations minimised 7.6 Regular rest breaks are taken 7.7 Trolleys are available and used to Transport items7.8 Book trolleys are labelled to prevent use of lower shelf

Y/N

Y/N

Y/NY/N

Y/NY/NY/N

Y/N

4. FIRST AID FACILITIES 4.1 Location of kits is known to staff 4.2 Kits accessible within 5 minutes 4.3 Kits are checked regularly 4.4 Qualified first aiders available 4.5 Staff know first aid personnel

Y/NY/NY/NY/NY/N

8. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES8.1 Use of energy sources minimised, Electricity, Gas and Water8.2 Bins provided for paper recycling 8.3 Electronic mail used when possible 8.4 Toner Cartridges re-cycled 8.5 Double sided photocopying and Printing used8.6 Glass and other materials are being recycled where possible

Y/N

Y/NY/NY/NY/N

Y/N

9. ELECTRICAL SAFETY9.1 Equipment is in good condition 9.2 Extension leads are used only for Temporary power supply 9.3 Powerboards used, not adaptors 9.4 Power leads kept clear of floor

Y/NY/N

Y/NY/N

10. OTHER COMMENTS

11. RECOMMENDATIONS

Signature of person responsible: _______________________________

Date of next review: ________________________________________

Notice that the second checklist (Office/ergonomics) is more specific in its questions. Also the questions are simpler and easier to understand. From a practical point of view, the style and wording make the Office/ergonomic checklist easier to use. A point of criticism of this checklist would be that no space is provided for individual comments, if the response to the question is a No.

While the development and use of training and risk assessment is time consuming and expensive, the costs are truly negligible compared to the pain and suffering experienced through serious injury, as well as the expense of legal action that may also follow. So there is truth in the saying ‘It’s better to be safe than sorry’.

Summary

There exists legislation in every state in Australia that places legal obligations on employers and employees to ensure that a safe working environment is provided.

When a manufacturer supplies a product, they are obligated to provide information on the safe handling and use of that product.

Two of the main ways to ensure that safety in the workplace is implemented correctly is in training and risk assessment. The development of Safe Working Procedures (SWP) and having employees demonstrate an understanding of those SWP can fulfil the employer’s responsibility in providing adequate training. Risk assessment is an essential part of providing for a safe work environment. If risk assessment is carried out then problem areas can be identified and remedial action taken.

Check your progressNow you should try and do the Practice activities in this topic. If you’ve already tried them, have another go and see if you can improve your responses.

When you feel ready, try the ‘Check your understanding’ activity in the Preview section of this topic. This will help you decide if you’re ready for assessment.

Determine appropriate quality standards when selecting computer hardware

Determining your needs 19Undertake a requirements analysis 19Evaluate your alternatives 19Making recommendations 20

Standards 21Compulsory standards 21Standardisation 22

Quality 24Example: purchasing a ‘quality’ motherboard 25MTBF — a measure of reliability 26Quality assurance (QA) 30

Supplier evaluation 32Time in business 32Supplier and product reputation 33Financial stability 34References and referrals 35Pricing 35Stock levels and out-of-stock policy 36Other factors for selecting a supplier 37Customer service 38Communication methods and efficiency 38Fulfilling orders 39Website quality 40Guarantees and return policies 41Product return policies and procedures 42

Warranty service and warranty policies 43Warranty length and coverage policies 43

Summary 45Check your progress 45

Determining your needs

Before any venture into selecting any new equipment or services, it is important to have a clear understanding of your needs. If you don’t fully understand your needs then it is not possible to ensure those needs are correctly met. In other words, know exactly what you want before you try to get it.

Undertake a requirements analysisWhile we will not be examining all the finer details of performing a proper requirements analysis, it is worthwhile covering some of the basics.

Firstly, it is vitally important to put your goals into clear and concise terms. This might be in terms of a problem definition, or business plan for expansion, or upgrading your capabilities. Your definition should not include any details of specific solutions as far as equipment, suppliers etc.

You should also include a set of criteria such as time and cost limitations, types and levels of support, etc. If you document all these requirements, when you finally make your decision and implement it, you will be able to determine if it constitutes a successful project or not.

After considering your overall goals and criteria, you can then put into simple and uncomplicated terms what would be a solution to the problem or requirement.

Evaluate your alternativesCollect all the information you can about the types of equipment available, the suppliers of that equipment, the training required to use the equipment or associated programs.

You need to have an open mind about the alternatives. Do not think that there is only one right choice, as there are always viable options. For example, you may not need to purchase all new equipment when a few upgrade options may be both acceptable and economical. There is always more than one option!

Once you have a comprehensive list of what is available, compare that list with any organisational guidelines and policies that are in place. Many large organisations and government departments have set criteria for purchasing equipment. It’s necessary to

familiarise yourself with those guidelines before making any recommendations or purchases. There may be organisation guidelines on the minimum standards required for equipment. Those standards might relate to:

international or industry standards

supplier restrictions, approved suppliers or other requirements

purchasing guidelines (there may be different guidelines depending on the amount of money to be spent)

minimum warrantees and/or guarantees

support levels required

how often equipment should be automatically reviewed or updated etc.

Making recommendationsAfter reviewing all the information above, you would then make recommendations, or make the purchases.

The important point to note is that if you do not have clearly in mind the equipment and services that you need, it is unlikely that you will make the best choices. In addition you may make the best choices in equipment, etc but there may be organisational reasons why your selection will not be approved.

Standards

Compulsory standardsIn Australia, as in the rest of the world, there are many standards with which equipment needs to comply. These standards may be from both International and Australian government bodies or from industry groups.

Some of the most important standards organisations are:

International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO)ISO is the world’s largest developer of standards. An ISO Standard can be anything from a four-page document to one several hundred pages long, and they will be increasingly available in electronic form. It carries the ISO logo and the designation ‘International Standard’. In most cases, it is published in A4 format — which is itself one of the ISO standard paper sizes.

Australian Communication Authority (ACA) The Australian Communications Authority (ACA) is responsible for regulating telecommunications and radio communications, including promoting industry self-regulation and managing the radio frequency spectrum. The ACA also has significant consumer protection responsibilities.

Standards AustraliaStandards Australia is an independent organisation, not directly associated with government, although the Commonwealth Government and State governments are listed among its members.

Australian Electrical and Electronics Manufacturing Association (AEEMA)Australian Electrical and Electronics Manufacturing Association (AEEMA) is the leading industry body representing Australia’s information and communication technology (ICT), electronics and electrical manufacturing industries. AEEMA members supply

infrastructure, products and manufacturing-related services to Australian and world markets.

Federal Communications Commission (FCC)The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is an independent United States government agency. The FCC is charged with regulating interstate and international communications by radio, television, wire, satellite and cable.

Institute of Electronic and Electrical Engineers (IEEE)The Institute of Electronic and Electrical Engineers (IEEE) promotes the engineering process of creating, developing, integrating, sharing, and applying knowledge about electro and information technologies and sciences.

There are many more bodies that determine standards in a wide range of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) related products and services. When selecting any product, whether for domestic or commercial use, meeting the appropriate standards should be the first thing that is checked. Often compliance with the standards is easily recognised by the stickers and stamps on the products and its packaging.

Standardisation One of the most beneficial features about the general design of computer systems is that they are modular. While for many they seem like black boxes and the inner workings are a mystery, they are in fact made of mostly standardised components that are connected in standardised ways. This is called an open design and is generally considered to be responsible for the success of the PC (Personal Computer) platform over the last two decades.

Standardisation enables the relatively easy interoperability of different components within the computing world. It is the single most important factor that provides the choices that make the PC so flexible and accommodating. It is what makes it possible for the average person to make his or her own custom machine or to repair one that uses standard components. It’s not always perfect, but it beats the alternative: a closed design, where one company or group of companies controls what hardware you can use in your system.

In order to get the real benefits of standardisation, however, one must make use of standard components and designs. Unfortunately, some PC designs abandon the open nature of standard PC designs by incorporating proprietary designs. These are systems where the PC maker has decided to use components that are not standardised, or has implemented standard components in a non-standard manner.

The designers of such systems usually have good intentions. They typically decide to make use of proprietary designs because they feel they can deliver a better product to the customer at a lower cost if they do this. Sometimes this is the case as some people like the special features of certain proprietary designs.

The problem with proprietary designs is that they aren’t standard. By moving away from standardisation, proprietary designs give up the advantages of standard components. Here are some of the more important issues with such systems:

Choice and flexibility: Proprietary designs are less flexible than standard ones. You usually have fewer choices in components when you buy the system, because the design will usually be based around specific choices made by the company’s engineers.

Expandability and upgradeability: Proprietary systems are more difficult to expand or upgrade than standard ones. If they are not designed to use standard components then you are limited in your expansion and upgrade options to whatever the manufacturer allows. This means you have fewer options, and you will also usually pay significantly more for any components you try to buy. If a new technology comes along a year after you buy your machine, you have to hope that the manufacturer will decide to support it.

Service: PCs made from standardised components can be repaired by any competent PC technician, with some research and assistance. Proprietary systems must be worked on by those who have been specifically trained in how they are constructed. Again, this reduces your options and usually increases your costs.

Repair: With a proprietary system you must go back to the manufacturer for any replacement parts for the system. These usually cost far more than standardised replacements, if they are available at all.

Comprehension: Proprietary systems are more difficult to understand than standard ones, which matters if you want to really know what’s going on. Worse, in some cases the proprietary nature of some subsystems is often not made available. As an example, standard IDE/ATA hard disk channels, found in virtually all PCs, support two devices (such as a second hard disk or CD/DVD drive). Some companies create their systems so that their IDE/ATA hard disk channels only support one device, but they don’t mention this in the product manual. This leads to much frustration when someone tries, for example, to add a second hard disk to that system and it doesn’t work. They will usually think it is a problem with the hard disk.

It’s not the case that a system is either ‘standardised’ or ‘proprietary’, there is much scope for movement along those two points in design. Some PCs are made entirely of standardised components, but proprietary machines may still use at least some standardised parts. It can be a voyage of discovery to find out what is standard and what is not in such a machine.

The most proprietary designs are the all-in-one systems that include everything in one physical case, which are sold like appliances. Be very careful of such designs, because if anything goes wrong, everything is affected. If your PC has the logic components and the monitor in the same case, what happens if the monitor fails, or you decide you want a bigger one?

As for the more specialised notebook PCs, they all should be considered proprietary. This is one of the reasons why you should only consider a notebook if the portability of these units can be justified.

Quality

One of the most difficult tasks in the selection of computer components, or systems, is in determining quality. What represents a quality product? Possibly one of the most important things to about quality is that you need to define and determine it for yourself, and ignore the claims made about it.

We could attribute certain aspects to a product that help determine its quality. Attributes such as performance levels, typical failure rate during manufacture, durability, etc. What is high-quality for you depends entirely on what is important to you. Here are a few different aspects of quality to keep in mind. You have to decide which of these, if any, are important to you. And for most people, there may well be other critical issues not mentioned:

Features: One aspect of quality may be the features of a product compared to competing products. Most would consider a product that has significantly more capabilities than another to be superior, all else being equal. Very often it is not equal. For example, it is quite common for product X to have more features than product Y while sacrificing other quality aspects.

Form, fit and function: For many, quality is in part defined by the way the item looks, how its parts fit together, and its overall feel. Does it look professionally made? Do the components mesh together smoothly? Does it seem solid? This is the ‘kick the tires’ school of quality, and it definitely has some validity. These are rather subjective notions, but no less important for being a matter of personal judgment.

Design and build: While the capabilities of most computers are defined primarily by their constituent components, the whole is still greater than just the sum of the parts. How the unit is designed and the care with which it has been assembled can be very important. Some manufacturers may add special enhancements to their products that some people consider to improve the quality.

Reliability: Everyone who buys a product wants it to last a long time and work without problems. Products that break frequently or wear out quickly are of lower quality than those that last a long time and remain trouble-free. But once again it may not be that simple, as a product with more features has more potential parts to fail. It’s easier to make a highly reliable simple widget than a highly reliable complex one.

Service: The quality of a product is definitely affected by the quality of the company that sells and supports it.

Quality, like many other key attributes of any product, is an exercise in tradeoffs. More quality usually costs more money, whether you are talking about computers, clothes dryers, cars or anything else. Quality is also a matter of the pride of the company making the product, and that’s not strictly a matter of how much money you throw at a problem.

Example: purchasing a ‘quality’ motherboardLet’s consider the example of purchasing a motherboard. The one factor in choosing a motherboard that is probably over-emphasized by most suppliers and by many high-end users is performance. Often the word performance is commonly interpreted as speed. But that is deceptive, as performance should not only encompass speed but stability, reliability, compatibility and other factors that are important to the individual user. A board that can run every application thrown at it and never crash may be described as a great performer by one user, but be called a poor performer by another who only wants to run a limited number of programs extremely quickly.

Most users look at the various benchmarks provided on the hardware-oriented websites and choose one of those that get the higher marks. Unfortunately, these comparisons focus strictly upon the speed of the motherboard, and completely ignore the other important issues such as reliability, compatibility and stability. Basically any number of motherboards using the same chipset will almost certainly be within a few percentage points of each other as far as benchmarked speed is concerned, and not noticeable to most users. Actually, benchmark results should probably be the last consideration when selecting a motherboard, not the first.

While some of the hardware-oriented websites also claim to test motherboards for stability and reliability, this is very likely not the case. In order to test for either of these, the motherboard would need to be exposed to many days, or even weeks, of stress testing under various conditions. You can be certain that any reputable motherboard manufacturer has probably already done this with their prototypes, so once again we can assume that most motherboards from major manufacturers will be very close in this regard.

Hardware compatibility is the ability for various components from different manufacturers to seamlessly integrate, ie work together without problems. Hardware compatibility is an area that is extremely difficult to test, even for the manufacturer. The main reason for this is that the open architecture of the PC platform allows manufacturers to vary in how they implement certain standard features, to best suit their own particular needs. Because of the large number of manufacturers and components, testing every possible combination is virtually impossible. Because of this, compatibility testing will typically consist of testing those components that are determined to have a large market share. In this case, only time in the field will truly determine how compatible the motherboard is with various components. If you have the need to use a device that is not one of the most commonly used, you may wish to find out if the manufacturer has tested it already. Most vendors and manufacturers will not warranty compatibility problems unless they have specifically stated that the device in question will work.

Hardware compatibility list (HCL)One offering by Microsoft, that is of real assistance, is their Hardware compatibility list (HCL). A HCL is provided with most of their operating systems. In an environment where significant investment in equipment is to be made, it is a worthwhile resource to use in product selection.

Just to complicate the issue of quality a little further, some hardware websites claim to evaluate the quality of a motherboard by looking at the components used (SIMM/DIMM slots, capacitors, etc). Using this definition, it is impossible to determine quality based upon a single motherboard, and certainly impossible by merely looking at it. It is entirely possible to design and construct a motherboard out of average quality components that has a higher quality in the finished product than one that is poorly designed or constructed using high quality materials.

Quality should be a measure of the overall percentage of equipment that meets or exceeds their stated specification. It is no coincidence that industry quality awards are given to those companies with the best process, not the ones that use the best materials.

MTBF — a measure of reliabilityThere are some measures that can be applied that will provide some form of standardised comparison of products. One of these measures is the Mean time between failure (MTBF).

Remember that high performance without high reliability is a poor bargain. High performance may result in short term favourable reviews, but this could be at the expense of poor reliability.

MTBF ratings are a primary consideration in selecting components. However, MTBF is one of the least understood ratings used in the computer industry. So let’s take a moment to describe what MTBF means and, more importantly, what it does not mean.

What does MTBF mean?Many end-users assume that a component with an MTBF rating of 100,000 hours means that the component can be expected, on average, to operate for 100,000 hours before it fails. The user then reasons that this component will work without failures for 100,000 hours/24 hours per day or 4166.67 days which is 11.42 years. The reasoning may follow that this is far longer than the user expects to own the computer system so a 100,000 hour MTBF product is just as good as a 500,000 hour MTBF product as far as the user’s needs are concerned. But this is not what MTBF means and increased MTBF ratings for components in the user’s system are fundamental to how reliable the system will prove to be … beginning from the first day the user turns it on.

Some buyers use MTBF ratings of components as a primary tool in the selection process because MTBF is widely used by suppliers of components used in Intel/Microsoft based PCs. It is regarded throughout the industry as an effective gauge of reliability. It is also

important that customers be able to interpret the relationship between MTBF claims and customer expectations for component reliability in their own applications. In general, higher MTBF correlates with fewer component failures, but an MTBF claim is not a guarantee of product reliability and does not represent a condition of warranty.

MTBF is the mean (average) of a distribution of product life times, often estimated by dividing the total operating time accumulated by a defined group of components within a given time period, by the total number of failures in that time period.

A defined group of components is a group of components that:

have not reached end-of-life (typically five to seven years)

are operated within a specified reliability temperature range

operate under specified normal usage conditions

and have not been damaged or abused.

A failure is any event that prevents a component from performing its specified operations. This includes components that fail during shipment and during what is referred to as the early life period (failures typically resulting from manufacturing defects). It does not include components that fail during integration into OEM (original equipment manufacturer) system units or as a result of mishandling, nor does it encompass components that fail beyond end-of-life.

Consider this question:If you purchase a component with an MTBF of 1,000,000 hours (114 years), can you expect the component will operate without failure for 1,000,000 hours?

The answer to the question is no. No, because the component will reach its end-of-life long before reaching 1,000,000 hours. For example, a continuously operated component with a five-year useful life will reach end-of-life in less than 45,000 hours. But, theoretically, if the component is replaced with a new component when it reaches end-of-life, and the new component is replaced with another new component when it reaches end-of-life, etc, then the probability that 1,000,000 hours would elapse before a failure occurs would be greater than 30 percent in most cases.

Predicted MTBFA manufacturer may report a predicted MTBF. What is meant by predicted MTBF? It is very costly and time-consuming to measure high MTBFs with a reasonable degree of precision. Therefore, to assess the reliability of a new component prior to volume production, reliability information from past products and component and assembly tests may be merged to create a mathematical model of the reliability characteristics. The outcome of the modelling process is the ‘predicted MTBF.’ After volume production gets under way, actual field failure data is used to check the validity of the model.

To pose a slightly different question to the one above:If you buy components that have a ‘predicted MTBF’ of 1,000,000 hours, can you expect to achieve 1,000,000 MTBF from those components?

The answer to the question is yes. The actual MTBF measured from any specific set of components will depend on the usage and the environmental conditions the components experience.

The catch! Stressing a component beyond normal usage conditions may reduce the actual MTBF to a point below the ‘predicted MTBF.’ Generally, reliability decreases as temperature increases, so components that are operated in warm environments with poor airflow will tend to have a lower MTBF than those operated in cool environments with good airflow. Components that are operated at the extreme limits of their design tend to lower reliability. For example, constant read/write operations on a hard disk drive, where the data is at the extremities of the disk surface (called thrashing) will tend to lower reliability. Also, drives that are in portable equipment tend to be subject to higher levels of shock and vibration, which would also degrade reliability.

Cumulative distribution function (CDF)In the case of disk drives, the term CDF is sometimes used to characterise the reliability of drives. CDF is an acronym for cumulative distribution function. CDF is a mathematical function that defines the probability that a drive will fail prior to some point in time. For example, a drive with a CDF equal to four percent at five years has a four percent chance of failing sometime within its first five years of operation.

CDF can also be used to determine the number of expected failures within a group of drives files. For example, assume that 1,000 drives are put into service simultaneously. If the CDF equals four percent within five years, then four percent (ie 40 drives) can, on average, be expected to fail between zero and five years. It should be noted that if a drive fails, it is replaced with a new drive, the total number of failures over the five year period will, on average, be higher than 40 since some of the replacement drives may also fail. Given the difference between CDF and MTBF, you can safely compare the predicted MTBFs reported by one manufacturer with MTBF claims by other manufacturers. Of course that depends on the assumption both claims are the same.

There is no established industry standard for calculating or reporting MTBF, so some manufacturers may not include early life failures and/or may not specify the same end-of-life. In general, differences like these will affect the MTBF claim. However, provided that all of the manufacturers are playing by the same rules, MTBF is an excellent indication of the short and long term reliability of groups of components.

It is important to note that while a predicted MTBF provides a reliability indicator for disk drives and other similar components, it is not a guarantee of product reliability and does not represent a condition of warranty. The warranty is separately specified by the various manufacturers and these vary greatly in duration as well as terms and conditions.

Quality assurance (QA)Quality assurance (QA) systems were first widely introduced during World War II. There was a need to tighten controls on industry output, particularly in the munition industry. The controls used were initially just inspection and testing, and they relied on catching the defect at the end of the process.

As the demand for better quality and more reliable products and services increased, the quality systems evolved to become the ISO 9001 quality assurance standard. It now relies on prevention rather than cure. It is applicable to all industries, including service industries like health, education and even to technology service and repair industries.

In 1987, the International Standards Organisation (ISO) developed the ISO 9000 quality assurance series of standards. These standards have been recognised and are in use in over 90 countries including Australia, USA, UK, the European Community and Asia and is now the most popular standards in use.

In 1994, organisations could be certified to one of three Quality Assurance standards: ISO 9001, ISO 9002, or ISO 9003. The two most commonly used standards in the ISO 9000 quality series were ISO 9001 and ISO 9002.

ISO 9001 Sets out the requirements to be met by the Quality System when a business is involved in design, development, production, installation and/or servicing.

ISO 9002Sets out the requirements of the Quality System when a business is involved in development, production, installation and/or servicing.

The only difference between the two quality standards is the design element. As typical service businesses are not normally involved in detailed design, ISO 9002 would be the appropriate standard.

In December 2000, the International Standards Organisation released an upgraded version of the Quality Assurance Standard: ISO 9001 2000. This standard effectively replaced the previous three quality standards and made the choice of standard simpler for organisations wanting ISO 9001 quality assurance certification.

In Australia, organisations were able to be certified to the ISO 9001/ISO 9002 1994 version of the quality standards until December 2003. However, if they wanted to retain their certification after that date, they needed to upgrade to the new ISO 9001 2000 standard by December 2003. So look for the latter version if ISO standards become a relevant issue in decision-making.

For the certificate to have real value, people must have confidence that only businesses with processes that comply with the ISO 9001 quality standard can receive the certificate. To ensure the ongoing confidence in the certification, there exists an audit process. The audit process is very thorough.

Quality Assurance certification is important for the following reasons:

1 It provides you with confidence that your quality system is correctly implemented to the ISO 9001 standard.

2 A certified business can then provide customers with the same confidence.

3 The regular audit required to maintain accreditation gives motivation to keep the Quality Assurance system up to date and not to cut corners.

As a result of this international standard it is strongly recommended that, when selecting a product or service it is a worthwhile to verify that there is a Quality Assurance certification in place. If there is not, then it might be worth asking … why not?

Supplier evaluation

Now we’ll discuss the various factors you should consider when selecting a supplier to source your products. This includes the vendor’s reputation and past history, pricing and selection, policies for handling various situations, customer service, and issues related to returns, guarantees and support.

In most cases, not all of these evaluation factors will apply to every situation, and how important one is relative to the others depends a great deal on your personality and your priorities. Generally the more money you are looking to spend, the more you need to consider all these factors. Some government and larger organisations may have a preferred supplier list which was created based on some of the factors we will discuss. If there is no preferred supplier list then you will need to consider these factors in your selection process.

Time in businessFor any supplier you are considering using, you should determine how long they have been in business before you make your purchase. While time in business is not a perfect indicator of the quality or stability of a company, it’s a useful snippet that tells you something about the company’s legitimacy.

If you are looking at a company that is strictly a vendor (ie they are just selling items made by others) the length of time they have been in business is of less importance. It provides an indicator of their soundness and to what degree they have been able to build a loyal customer base. Few companies stick around for years unless they are doing something right.

Time in business becomes much more important when dealing with a PC or component manufacturer. This is because you need to count on them being around in the future to provide support and service. For the purposes of this discussion, consider a company that also sells what they manufacture.

A rough rule of thumb that’s worth considering is this: A company should have been in business in the past, at least as long as the length of the warranties it offers going forward into the future.

So for example, if a PC maker is offering a two-year warranty, then look to see if they have been around for at least two years. While you don’t necessarily use this as a hard-and-fast rule, if a PC maker offers a three-year warranty and they’ve only been in

business for two months, you may be understandable hesitant to trust that they’ll be around in three years to honour that warranty.

The easiest way to determine how long a company has been in business is simply to ask them. Most companies will be honest about this because they know how easy it is to verify the figure, and they don’t really figure they have any reason to lie. If a company doesn’t want to tell you, consider that a danger sign.

If you find a vendor that appears in all other respects to be very good but has not been in business for very long, you may still have a good experience with them. Many new companies are quite excellent, and everyone starts out new at one point. But you should take precautions to protect yourself, by thoroughly researching the company to ensure that it is legitimate. The less time the company has been in business, the more important this is.

Supplier and product reputationIt can be difficult to define exactly what reputation means. The reputation of a product, a vendor or a manufacturer represents what the marketplace as a whole thinks of that product, vendor or manufacturer.

The very first issue to consider about a vendor is its reputation and its past history. It’s reasonable to suggest that a company is most likely to be a good vendor in the future if it has been a good vendor in the past. To assess how likely the vendor is to provide you with a good buying experience, it pays to take the time to do some research on them ie to find out what they have been like for others. In so doing, you want to determine how stable the company is, and how likely it is to be around in the future.

Reputation is most important when it is either very good, or very bad. If you find that most people consider something to be junk, it probably is, if most consider it great, it probably is. In the middle things become a bit more uncertain, and you have to exercise more judgment.

Before making a major purchase, you should determine what the market thinks of the product, vendor and/or manufacturer you are considering. Of particular value are the online independent research resources, because they quickly provide the most data from the most sources. The more information you can gather about a company, the better your picture of their reputation will be.

A very important thing to remember when assessing the reputation of a company is to be sure that the impressions you are reading are based on personal experience and not just on the company’s claims and marketing. Many companies spend millions of dollars in marketing to create the impression that they and their products are market leaders and trustworthy. It is not unheard of that some companies, that on the surface seem to be big names and industry leaders, but when you dig deeper you find that they have an enormous base of dissatisfied customers.

Another important issue is negative feedback. Be careful not to overvalue one or two dissatisfied customers. Every company has the occasional problem and the occasional

difficult customer. What tends to happen is that many people react very emotionally to a problem with a product. They won’t say ‘this product has a problem’ but rather ‘don’t buy this product, it sucks!’. If hundreds of people are saying this, that may well be true, but if only one or two are, it may well not be the product that is the problem.

People that are unhappy tend to talk more than ones who are satisfied. If your telephone went off for a day, or your credit card was declined at a restaurant, you’d take action, and if it happened frequently, you’d be justifiably upset, and tell others. But when’s the last time you called up your telecommunications provider, to tell them what a good job they are doing? We are all busy and have better things to do with our time than congratulate people just for doing what we expect them to do as a result of our paying them.

Similarly, most people expect good quality and good service today. As a result, negative feedback dominates most discussions, except in certain forums where positive feedback is specifically encouraged, such as www.resellerratings.com. It can appear at times that nearly every product on the market is junk unless you interpret the feedback you read in context.

Remember that when you read five good comments and five bad ones, the good comments probably represent a much larger number of satisfied customers than the bad comments represent dissatisfied ones.

Financial stabilityThe financial stability of a company refers simply to whether it is doing well in business or not. If it is, then the company is probably a quality one that will continue to be viable into the future.

However, even the largest companies can appear to be in fine shape right up until they close their doors. In fact, this is done intentionally. Potential customers can be told to avoid purchasing from companies on shaky financial footing. For example, stock analysts tell investors to sell the stock of troubled firms, and employees start to get jittery when bad times are on the horizon.

Therefore, executives will never admit that a company is in bad shape until it’s too late. You can’t rely on the company to tell you anything that is not favourable to itself. Any detrimental reports would simply be denied. But you can be assured that the supplier’s competitors will be only too forthcoming with that type of information.

As with the issue of how long a company has been in business, how important financial stability is depends on how long your relationship will be with the company. If you are walking into a retail store to buy a printer cable, do you really care about the vendor’s financial stability? Buy the item, pay for it, walk out, and deal with the manufacturer if the cable fails (rather unlikely). If you are buying five new computer systems with a three-year warranty, would you want to buy from a firm that was on the brink of bankruptcy? How about if you were setting up a server for a company with 100 employees?

In general, smaller companies go out of business more frequently than larger ones, and newer companies go out of business more frequently than older ones. Financial stability is also much more important when dealing with smaller companies than larger ones. Small companies have an unfortunate habit of disappearing when they get into serious financial trouble. Larger companies usually do not. Larger businesses are restructured or sold to other companies. In many cases you may still have some sort of continuity of service, when the troubled company is sold. Often warranty coverage and service contracts will continue to be honoured.

Unfortunately, determining the financial stability of companies can be difficult, and it is even more difficult for smaller companies. At best, this is an effort that will yield only approximate information.

Very small, non-local mail-order suppliers are probably the riskiest.

References and referralsIt is extremely useful it is to get personal recommendations and referrals when selecting a supplier. In most cases you will find a company you like through other avenues. It can still be useful to have the benefit of communicating with a real customer of the company, especially for smaller companies, or for companies you’ll be spending a lot of money with or working with closely.

A good test of a company’s willingness to provide service, and work for your satisfaction, is to ask them for references of satisfied customers. In essence, this is like ‘word of mouth’ only backwards. It’s generally not needed for larger companies, because it’s relatively easy to find feedback from some of these business’ customers online or elsewhere. It’s essential for smaller or newer companies that you want to establish a relationship with.

Of course, when you ask for a reference, don’t expect them to give you the name of a customer who hates them. Still you might be surprised how honest references will be about a supplier ‘s strengths and weaknesses; just because they are happy with the company, that doesn’t mean they are in the company’s back pocket. In the business world, most people who give references take them very seriously.

Obviously, if a company refuses to give you references, that speaks for itself! Some companies won’t have them readily available, but they may have to ‘get back to you’. This by itself shouldn’t cause concern, because few people today bother to ask for references when dealing with new companies.

PricingObviously, one of the most important differentiating factors between suppliers is pricing. Determining the general pricing level of a supplier, as opposed to their specific price on

one or two items, is not always all that easy. There are some important rules of thumb to keep in mind when evaluating pricing.

Look for trends: If performing an overall assessment of a vendor’s pricing, or comparing overall pricing between two vendors, take a look at several of the products in each category of interest to you. While pricing varies between products, after about a dozen items, overall trends become clear. Don’t jump to conclusions by just comparing one or two products.

Beware the unusual: If a price you are looking at for a specific product seems strangely too high or too low, it probably is. Verify the price by calling the company. It is quite common for companies to have typographic error policies that state that they will not honour prices that are excessively low due to errors. For example a monitor listed for $29 instead of $299.

Call for updates: Due to the flux in the market, prices listed in flyers or magazines are usually out of date by the time you read them. Prices on the web are usually pretty current, but not always.

Price matching: Since companies know that both they and their competitors change thousands of prices every week, it’s impossible for them to know if they become underpriced on certain items and start losing sales. So they declare that they will match the prices of their competitors, in the hopes that you will shop with them instead of their competition. Of course, often the competition does the same thing.

Never shop solely on the basis of price, or you risk doing business with a company that is disreputable or that ranks poorly in other areas.

Stock levels and out-of-stock policySome suppliers have a better selection than others. However, there is a big difference between listing something as ‘for sale’, and actually having the item available to ship. If you need the item in a hurry, you may want it to ship immediately. Companies often differ substantially in terms of how well they keep popular items in stock.

Most retail stores keep all the items they sell in stock if they can. If an item is out of stock they will usually be able to give you an approximate date when the item will show up, with backorders normally on a schedule. Ask if they would be willing to call you when it shows up.

With online vendors it can be quite different. The market changes so frequently and costs for carrying an inventory are so high, that many companies try to keep inventory levels to the minimum. In fact, some don’t keep any inventory at all any more. This is why you have to take specific steps to verify what, if anything, the company actually has in stock when you order. That’s especially so if you are in a hurry.

If you are concerned with prompt order filling, the biggest customer service feature to look for is a phone number (preferably toll-free) that you can use to call and ask about stock status. Failing that, you are stuck with placing your order and hoping for the best. Since a big problem with many online vendors is that they have websites that say items are in stock when they really are not, this is unwise if you need the item in a hurry.

You should find out in advance a company’s policy on handling out-of-stock (ie back ordered) items. This is especially so if you decide to order knowing the item is out of stock, or if you don’t verify the stock level before placing the order.

Other factors for selecting a supplierHere are some other factors that are worth investigating when selecting a supplier.

Handling mistakes: If you place an order for an item that is supposed to be in stock and it isn’t, what does the company do? It is quite common for many suppliers to simply back order the item and not tell you. Doing business with companies that do this can be frustrating. You want a vendor that will send you email or call you if an item is not in stock when they said it would be. At the very least, you should be able to check the status of the order online in some way.

Cancellations: Some companies will automatically cancel a backordered item if it stays in their system for more than say 30 days, unless you tell them that you want the item to remain on order. Other suppliers are the opposite, as they will keep the item on backorder for a very long time unless you tell them to cancel it. There may be laws in some places that prevent companies from just leaving items on backorder indefinitely without notification of some sort. You should check with a Consumer Affairs/Fair Trading government body to verify what related to your state.

Product substitution: Some suppliers have a substitution policy for certain items. While this might sound undesirable, it often works to the customer’s advantage. Companies know they can’t substitute something worse than the customer ordered without causing them to be upset or to return the product, so they will often substitute something better instead (for example, a faster CD-ROM drive, or a slightly larger hard disk drive). Just make sure to find out what they are proposing as an alternative and if it’s not what you want, don’t accept it.

Shipping charges: Traditionally, most online and catalogue companies charged shipping once and then sent any backordered item at their own expense. This is still the standard you should look for in an online vendor. Some suppliers, even large popular ones, will add additional shipping charges with every physical shipment. It’ best to find out before you finalise the order.

Customer serviceA very important consideration when selecting a supplier, especially one that you would like to establish a long-term relationship with, is its commitment to customer service. It is very common for the ‘lowest quote wins’ policy to be the dominant factor in decision-making. However, it can be very short sighted to purchase solely on price, especially for larger purchases.

Time is money, and a company that cares about service and treats you well often more than makes up for having slightly higher costs. If you look for them, you will find companies that still care about servicing their customers. A company that focuses on service can provide you with a much better overall buying experience than one that has great prices but makes the purchase a headache.

Another important reason to assess a company’s customer service level is that it demonstrates strongly what the company thinks of service overall. As a general rule, the service, support and manner of treatment that you get from a firm will be its best before you buy, because they know they are competing for your business. After they have your money, you may be locked in and many companies will treat you worse than they did before the sale. But if the service is bad to begin with, you could assured that it will be much worse after you’ve ordered.

There are some factors you can take into account in determining a company’s service levels. Such as how they communicate, how they fill your orders and even the helpfulness and quality of their website.

Communication methods and efficiencySuppliers vary greatly in terms of both the different ways that they communicate with their customers, and how well they use those communication methods. Depending on your preferences in terms of media, some supplier s will be a better match than others to the way you like to communicate.

There is nothing more frustrating, when ordering than not being able to get a hold of the company if there is a problem or if you have a question, so be sure to test out a company’s ‘communications skills’ before making major purchases. Here are the most common ways that companies communicate with their customers.

In person: When shopping retail, the most important interactions will be made in person. While this seems simple enough, some companies do a remarkably poor job at this. The most common problem is understaffing, making it hard finding anyone who will actually help you, or you may have to fight with a dozen other customers for the attention of the staff. Other places have no problem letting you wait for 20 minutes in a queue while they have people in the back room taking a break. The best way to assess a business is to visit the establishment and see for your self.

Telephone: The ability to reach someone who can answer questions or help you with your order is essential for most online, direct-market or catalogue sources. While online

methods are important for online suppliers, nothing replaces the speed and ease of communication that personal voice contact represents. Assess the contact ability of every company by phone. Ask:

Do they have a toll-free number?

Do you have to pay by the minute?

Can you get through to a human quickly, or do you have to wade through ten levels of touch-tone menus?

How long do you have to wait on hold before you get through? Long waits on hold sometimes mean the company is overwhelmed with unexpected demand, but just as often mean they are too cheap to hire more phone staff.

Email: You should expect that most companies would be using email extensively to handle communications with their customers. This has advantages for both the customers and the company, such as a better use of a customer’s time, compared to waiting on hold. It makes replying in a matter of minutes to product questions, requests for quotes or stock status inquiries. But it would not be satisfactory if responses take a day or more to arrive. Send an email question and see what the reply time is like before you rely on a company’s claims that they respond promptly to email. A large company that takes a full day to respond to email order questions isn’t taking the medium seriously.

The Web: The Web is a more passive communication method, and usually inferior to the others listed above. You can read static (mostly) information about the company or its products, and you can provide information about yourself or place orders. While this is useful, it is very limiting. From the supplier’s point of view, if you have to order products or services over the Web, it saves them money. Some companies will give discounts if you order online using the Web, as opposed to on the phone. You may still want to call if you want to verify stock status, then you can go back to the website and order. Sometimes the person on the phone will give you the discount anyway if you ask.

Fulfilling ordersFulfilling orders should be simple. If you order items that are in stock, the order should be filled and sent out in a prompt manner. Every company goes through a different internal process to fill orders, however, and you should try to assess how the prospective company does this, in general terms.

You can determine something of how the company works with its orders by asking questions. An important question to ask is how long the company takes to ship out orders. If you order an item that is in stock, early enough in the day, better companies will send the order out the same day. Sometimes there is a time deadline that you must order before in order to get same-day shipment. If orders aren’t sent on certain days of the week, or there are other issues, the company should be able to tell you.

It can be worthwhile to do a little research into the company to see what experiences others have had with getting orders filled. What you are particularly looking for is the

company’s past history of processing orders accurately and quickly. Some companies don’t do a very good job, dropping items from orders, sending the wrong items, or misplacing orders for days causing frustrating and sometimes costly (for you) delays.

Website qualityThe Web is now an essential part of the business world. At first, most companies put up websites just to establish an Internet presence. Some companies do all (or most) of their business online, making their websites of great importance.

When you use an online supplier you will rely on their website to provide most of the information needed for your order, such as product and pricing information, stock status, company policies, customer service, order tracking and more. How well the company implements their site will have a direct impact on your experience with that company. A supplier that has a website that is of poor quality, or that is difficult to use, or that is frequently down, may be one that you will wish to avoid even if it is great in other respects.

Here are some of the different quality attributes you will want to look for in a website:

Accuracy: Most sites get product information correct, but not all, which can cause confusion. Most accuracy problems relate to pricing and especially stock status. Some companies may say items are in stock on their websites when they really are not.

Completeness: Some companies that don’t do most or all of their business online include only a selection of their products on the website. Such a site is fine for casual browsing, but of limited use for real-world Just In Time (JIT) solutions.

Detail: Consider how much information the website include about the products being sold. Is it just a one-liner, or a complete description? Are photographs provided? For a vendor, can you find out the model number of a product easily, and are there links to the manufacturer’s site for more information? For a manufacturer, is there a place to find out where the product is sold?

Speed: Does it take forever for every page to load? Is the company’s server overloaded, especially during busy times? Does the company load down their pages with fancy graphics and splashy nonsense that makes every page take forever to load?

Ease of use: Some websites are just inherently easier to use than others, due to better structure or a design that is simpler. This is largely a matter of personal taste, but a primary reason why some people avoid certain online suppliers is that they find their websites hard to use.

Search capability: Consider if the site will let you search for particular products, or products by specific manufacturers. Can you easily locate technical information about specific products, such as driver updates and compatibility issues. How well does it work? You might be surprised how useless some search facilities are.

Help facilities: Test to see if the website includes assistance on navigating the site, a site map, a place for feedback or to ask questions, and other support features.

Evaluating websites is best done by using them. You will be able to tell quickly if a given site meets your needs or if it does not. Also compare websites of different suppliers against each other to see how useful they are, and look for comments on websites.

There are some large companies that have very limited websites, but that make up for it in other ways. For example, if the company has truly excellent phone or email support, and good salespeople, this can compensate for a limited website in most ways.

Guarantees and return policiesIt seems reasonable to expect that when purchasing goods, whether it’s a toaster or a fileserver, that the products will work properly and suit their needs. However, if you buy enough products you will occasionally have problems that necessitate the return of a product for exchange, refund or warranty service.

This is the point where many customers get a nasty surprise. They find out that they had made assumptions that turn out not to be the case: they can’t return an item they thought they could, or there is an exorbitant charge for doing so, or they don’t have the warranty coverage they thought they had.

No evaluation of a supplier would be complete without examining guarantees, product return policies and warranties.

Guarantees and return periodsAn important distinguishing characteristic to consider when choosing a new supplier is the type of guarantee they provide on their products. A guarantee is a statement by a vendor that they will, guarantee your satisfaction for a period of time after the sale. If you are not satisfied with the product they will offer you some form of return recourse, usually a refund or exchange, depending on their particular policies. This is sometimes called a money-back guarantee or satisfaction guarantee.

It’s important to realize that a guarantee is not the same as a warranty. A guarantee is usually a short-term policy offered by vendors to ensure the satisfaction of customers with the products they buy and with the buying process. A warranty is usually longer in term and is offered by the manufacturer of a product to cover the quality of the product.

It would be a mistake to think that if buying an item with a manufacturer’s warranty, you don’t need to worry about a supplier guarantee. Having an item repaired or replaced under warranty can be frustrating and leave you without the item (unproductive) for weeks.

The guarantees provided by suppliers vary greatly. The most common term for a guarantee is 30 days. Larger suppliers will allow you to return an item with which you are not satisfied for refund or exchange within this time frame. Some only offer a 14-day guarantee, while others offer none at all. You may be expected to go to the manufacturer if there is any kind of problem with the product.

The most important thing to remember about guarantees is to find out in advance exactly what the terms are. Read the supplier ‘s website, or call for assistance. Some aspects to consider would include guarantee type (no-questions asked or conditional), time or term (the term of the guarantee), coverage (are all items covered, or only some of them) and what your responsibilities are as a customer.

When using a guarantee you will also need to know the company’s policies and procedures for returning items, which are closely related.

The most important area where you should look for a 30-day money-back guarantee is when you are buying a complete computer system. A company willing to offer such a guarantee is making a strong statement about their commitment to quality and your satisfaction, as well as their overall stability.

Even if a company does not explicitly offer a money-back guarantee, they are still responsible for sending you the correct product, and one that works properly. If you are sent the wrong item, or within 30 days a product you are sent fails, you should insist upon a refund or exchange regardless of the company’s policies.

Product return policies and proceduresAll companies have specific policies and procedures that govern their handling of items that are returned to them. In terms of how they handle returns, companies vary from cheerful to reluctant, helpful to difficult, and lightning quick to unbelievably slow. You should read the processes they use for handling returns, and avoid companies that are unreasonable.

There are a number of different facets to look at when considering a company’s handling of policies and procedures for returning products. Be sure to review a company’s procedures in advance, to let yourself know what your responsibilities will be, and help you avoid companies that have onerous policies. Here are some things to look for.

Issuing RAN: Returning items to a supplier requires a Return Authorisation Number (RAN). It can also be referred to as a Return of Material Authorisation or RMA. Never send a product back to a company without some form of authorisation number.

Shipping: Determine if the company pays for you to ship back the product to them, or whether you have to pay the shipping. Most will by default make you pay the shipping, but some will cover it if the problem is their fault. Better companies will do this. Most will not do this for a new item that is defective in the box, since that really isn’t something they did wrong. Some will only do it if you insist upon it or speak to a manager.

Refund or exchange: Will the company refund your purchase price, or just offer exchange for a like item. Some companies will only take back items for credit, which only helps you if you plan to purchase there again.

Speed: If exchanging, will they send the new item out immediately as you send the old one back (cross-shipping) or will they insist on waiting for the old item to be received back. Insist on cross-shipping if in a hurry for the product, especially if the supplier is at fault. The company may ask for a credit card number as surety that the old item is in fact sent back.

Keep all of your packaging, and be sure not to discard or damage anything in the package until you are sure you won’t need to return the item. Discarding the box or immediately sending in the warranty card on a new product are common mistakes. Some companies won’t accept products back if any of the components in the box are missing.

Warranty service and warranty policiesAs mentioned earlier, warranties are provided by manufacturers, while guarantees are provided by vendors. The purpose of a warranty is to protect your purchase against defects in manufacture or assembly. Whenever you buy a large item, such as a complete computer system, you will want to investigate thoroughly its warranty and the policies of the company that will provide it.

Some types of computer systems are manufactured and sold by the same company. With these machines you need to pay close attention to warranty issues, since your choice of vendor and manufacturer is made simultaneously. Other types of computer systems are pre-made by a manufacturer and sold by a second company. For these types of PCs the warranty offered by the manufacturer will be the same regardless of where you buy the machine. For these kinds of machines warranty isn’t so much a vendor-selection criteria, but of deciding between brands.

Warranty length and coverage policiesThere are common standards in how warranties are provided for most PCs, but companies can vary significantly in terms of how they provide warranty coverage.

One-year warranties are typical with PCs, but terms of up to three years are also common. The longer terms are usually a result of some form of extended warranty that is purchased additionally. It could be said that a longer warranty means the company feels more strongly about its products and they are therefore likely to be of higher quality. However, warranty length is often used as a marketing and sales tool, so this isn’t strictly accurate. The extended warranty is often simply an insurance policy disguised as a service that you have to pay extra to receive.

While a longer warranty period is generally better, it is also true that most problems with electronics occur in the first few weeks of use. Consequently, the first 90 days of the warranty are the most important. While a three-year warranty will provide more security than a one-year, you won’t use the extra two years nearly as much as you might think. Certainly, far more than one-third of the problems encountered during a three-year warranty occur in the first of those three years.

The term of the warranty is important, but the other details must be considered. It is important to find out what is covered and what is not, and are parts and labour covered or only parts. Labour costs can quickly overwhelm part costs especially on complex systems or whether a service technician resides locally or travel from a major commercial centre.

Here are a few questions related to warranty service that you may want to ask.

Turnaround: How quickly does the company promise to turn around the repair from the time you make the call? Do they have a track record for hitting these targets?

Costs: Are you required to pay any extra costs? For example shipping costs.

Location: Where is the service performed? Do you have to send the faulty component back to the supplier (known as ‘back to base)? Will there be some on-site repairs, which is particularly desirable for businesses.

Authorisation: How readily does the company agree to perform warranty service? Are they interested in satisfied customers or just in keeping their warranty claim costs down?

Loaners: If a repair will take days or weeks, will the company provide an alternative device or system for you to use? Most do not.

Replacement components: What does the company use for replacements in the event that components go bad, ie used parts, new parts or repaired parts?

Tracking and management: How easy is it to track the status of your repair?

A warranty is only as good as the company that sells it. If you buy a five-year warranty and the company goes out of business after 18 months, you may well find that the other 3.5 years of warranty coverage is now gone. There have been some high-profile cases of large extended warranty providers going bust. It would be a mistake to assume that the warranty is provided by the company that sells the policy. Also, many suppliers are eager to sell extended warranties, but not so keen on honouring them.

Summary

In order to accurately select the most appropriate hardware, you first need a clear idea of your needs. Once your needs are known you are able to make valid comparisons on equipment that best suits your needs.

The advent of international standards has enabled a rapid growth in technology. There are many official standards with which equipment should comply. Standardisation has resulted in the beneficial modular design of computer systems. In comparison, the problem with proprietary designs is that they aren’t standard. By moving away from standardisation, proprietary designs give up the advantages of standard components and their interoperability.

As a result of international standards, it’s recommended that, when selecting a product or service, it is a worthwhile to verify that there is a quality assurance certification in place.

Assessing the quality of an individual component, or system, can be a difficult process. Often the word performance is commonly interpreted as speed. But that is deceptive as performance should encompasses not only speed but stability, reliability, compatibility and other factors that are important to the individual user.

Mean time between failure (MTBF) can be used as a quality measure. You can compare the predicted MTBFs reported by one manufacturer with MTBF claims by other manufacturers.

Never shop solely on the basis of price, or you risk doing business or you may get what you pay for. Very small, non-local mail-order suppliers are probably the riskiest in terms of ongoing support and confidence.

A warranty is only as good as the company that sells it. So it is reasonable to suggest that a company should have been in business, at least as long as the length of the warranties it offers going forward into the future

Check your progressNow you should try and do the Practice activities in this topic. If you’ve already tried them, have another go and see if you can improve your responses.

When you feel ready, try the ‘Check your understanding’ activity in the Preview section of this topic. This will help you decide if you’re ready for assessment.

Establish location, handling and storage requirements for computer equipment

Environmental conditions 48Temperature 48Humidity 49Dirty environments 49Electromagnetic interference (EMI) 50

Keeping your cool 52Internal airflow 52External ventilation 53

Power conditioning 55Typical power problems 55Protection from power problems 55

Electrostatic discharge (ESD) 57

Storage and handling 58Manufacturer’s requirements 58Locating equipment 58Security 58Accessibility 59Services 59Storing equipment 60

Summary 61Check your progress 61

Environmental conditions

Just like the environmental conditions affect us as humans, computer equipment can also be affected. In order install and maintain equipment to gain the maximum useful life, the environmental conditions need to be considered — factors such as temperature extremes, humidity, dust, electromagnetic interference (EMI), and so on. The following notes are a discussion of these factors.

TemperatureOne of the single most important factors in prolonging the life of your computer hardware is the temperature of the components. Components that run hot, have a much shorter life than those that stay cool most of the time. To keep components cool you could use cooling equipment or ensure certain procedures or actions (discussed later). A more general approach is to provide a room environment that is appropriate for the hardware.

A rule of thumb for room temperature is that computers like the temperatures that most people like. That is temperatures between 15 and 24 degrees Celsius. Having computer equipment operating in a hot room that is over 25 degrees Celsius will make general cooling equipment, such as fans, fairly ineffectual.

Some businesses have their air-conditioners on a timer that will shut off at night. In this situation you might want to make sure that computer equipment is switched off overnight, or that a special computer room is designated with independent controls.

Obviously most computer hardware can tolerate being at more extreme temperatures when they are not running. If you are transporting equipment or storing it, the temperature concerns are far less than if the equipment is actually in use. However, if you have equipment that has been exposed to very low temperatures and is then immediately turned on, you risk permanently damaging the equipment. It is essential that very cold equipment be brought up to room temperature slowly before use. This is called acclimation.

When receiving new equipment during very cold weather, it is worth considering that the equipment has been sitting in very cold warehouses or trucks. You may be risking permanent damage if you switch power up the equipment while still very cold. Of particular concern are monitors, hard disks, motherboards, and chips of all kinds (processor, memory, etc.) This covers most of the computer of course.

Thermal stress is a leading cause of premature failure of electronics components. This is bad enough when the components are raised from 20 degrees to 60, but when they are raised from 0 to 60 it is much worse.

Condensation can be even more destructive. Think about how moisture condensates on a cold bottle, on a warm day, when you take it out of the fridge (usually around 5 degrees Celsius). It is quite possible for this to happen with electronic equipment as well. This does not need to cause any problems, so long as you give the condensation enough time to evaporate. If your hard disk platters have moisture on them when you spin them up, you risk destroying the drive.

The colder the equipment is, the longer it needs to sit to ensure that it comes up to a reasonable temperature before turning it on. In temperatures down 5 degrees, then you might want to wait up to 12 hours. If the device has been allowed to go to below-freezing temperatures, then wait 24 hours for the device to acclimate before plugging in the power.

A more humid environment will make condensation more of a problem.

HumidityAs with temperature, computers prefer moderate humidity as opposed to either extreme. While computer equipment is not as sensitive to humidity as temperature, they can still be affected by it.

Obviously, computers are best kept dry. That means keeping it away from places or things that can get it wet. Consider the inappropriate positioning near a window if it is frequently opened, and be wary of beverages placed near the computer that could spill on it and short it out.

Using computer equipment in a humid area can be problematic, if the climate is extremely humid. Using a computer in a tropical rainforest is an example of extreme humidity. Humidity leads to corrosion and possible condensation risk, which can damage equipment. It also makes cooling the computer more difficult.

Conversely, air that is too dry can cause problems in two different ways. First, it increases the amount of static electricity that is in the room, increasing the chances of a discharge. Second, it can cause faster wear on some components that dry out over time. This includes some types of capacitors, as well as rubber rollers on laser printers.

Dirty environmentsComputers operate best when they are used in a clean environment, and when they are cleaned regularly. Most offices and homes are clean enough that a computer requires no special treatment other than regular cleaning as part of routine preventive maintenance. Industrial environments however can be quite destructive on computer equipment.

Computer systems that are going to be used in dirty environments should be protected or cleaned often. Cleaning would also mean taking the covers off and cleaning the inside. If you get the chance to see the inside of a system unit that has been in an industrial environment, you will be amazed how much dirt accumulates.

One easy preventive measure is to use an air cleaner in the room where the computer is located. There are also special cases and enclosures for computer hardware designed for industrial environments to safeguard against damage due to dirt. The typical office owner only has to remember to clean their equipment occasionally and no problems will generally result

Now this might be stating the obvious, but cigarette smoke is bad. The simple fact is that cigarette smoke, especially in high concentration, contaminates and damages computer equipment. The smoke particles are very small and work their way into all sorts of places that they do not belong. The most common problems relate to storage devices. The very fine particles accumulate on read/write heads and the storage media, such as floppy disks.

Electromagnetic interference (EMI)Probably everyone at some stage has had a radio on when there is an approaching thunderstorm. You would clearly hear the crackling and noise distortion coming from the radio. That crackling is the result of electromagnetic interference, often referred to as EMI.

All electronic devices give off electromagnetic emissions. This is radiation that is a by-product of electrical or magnetic activity. Unfortunately, the emissions from one device can interfere with other devices, causing potential problems. Just like the crackling on the radio, interference can lead to data loss, picture quality degradation on monitors, and other problems with your PC, television set or other devices.

EMI emissions are a two-way problem; emitted by the computer system, and EMI received by the computer system. PCs generally do not cause very much interference with other devices. As with many other electronic devices, they should be certified as Class B compliant with the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). This certification shows that the PC conforms to standards that limit the amount of EMI that a PC can produce. As metals absorb EMI, you have to keep the metal covers on the computer.

PCs can be affected by electromagnetic interference from other devices, in two major ways. One is direct effects through proximity with other devices; another is electrical interference over the power lines.

Try this quick test:

1 Hold a mobile phone near next to an operating monitor

2 Send an SMS message to someone you know.

3 Watch the effects on picture quality.

While a more colourful test would be to place a strong magnet next to a monitor, it is not recommended as sometimes the effects can be long-lasting. Degauss is the process that demagnetises the metal components in the cathode ray tube (CRT), eliminating image distortion that can result from magnetic charges acquired by the components. Some new monitors degauss automatically whenever you turn on your monitor.

Most PCs generally do not have many problems with EMI, but for those that do, there are things that you can do to reduce EMI:

Physical isolation: Devices that emit electromagnetic radiation should be kept a reasonable distance from your computers, peripherals and media. This includes television sets, radios, lights, kitchen appliances, and stereo speakers. Speakers designed for use with PCs are generally shielded and are much less of a problem.

Use dedicated circuits: Some office buildings have separate power circuits that are intended for use by computer equipment. Keeping your computer on a circuit that is separate from the circuit running your refrigerator, arc welder, air conditioning unit etc., means that there will be much less interference passing to the computer from the other devices. The added benefit is this will also improve the quality of the power being sent to your machine in general.

Power conditioning: The use of a line conditioner or uninterruptible power supply can filter out interference caused by other devices that share a line with your computer.

Keeping your cool

Keeping your system cool is very important. A cool system runs more reliably and lasts longer than one that runs hot. Overheating of the internal components can lead to data loss or even damage to your equipment. As processors in particular have become faster and hotter, cooling has become more important than ever.

Internal airflowThe typical desktop computer system has a fan which provides overall airflow within the system case. This is normally the fan located within the power supply at the back of the case. Some newer machines, especially full-tower cases, employ more than one fan, to provide more cooling.

It’s important to realise that the fan(s) used in the power supply work by establishing a flow of air through the case. There are two basic designs used. In the older baby AT style case, the power supply fan blows out the back of the power supply, and in doing so it draws air through the rest of the case and thereby, cools the components inside the case. In now more common ATX style of case and power supply, the power supply fan is on the inside of the case and blows inwards, pushing air throughout the case and drawing it in through the back of the power supply, exactly the opposite. In both cases, for the cooling to work properly, the flow of air must not be interrupted. The better, and stronger, the flow of air, the more cooling it will accomplish.

The flow of air also has an impact on keeping the inside of the case clean. In a standard baby AT case, the air is pushed out the back of the power supply, and replacement air is drawn in through all the small cracks and holes in the case. This tends to cause dust and dirt to be drawn into the case. Apparently one reason why the ATX form factor design was changed was to blow air into the case instead of out of it, is that this isolates the in-flow of air in the case to one point, making it possible to use filters and other mechanisms to reduce dirt intake into the system unit.

Here are some rules of thumb and tips that you can use to ensure that the flow of air in your system is good, and to increase airflow in your case:

Keep the cover on: It is a common fallacy to think that running the system with the case cover removed will improve cooling since the components are exposed to the outside air. In fact, this can make cooling worse. When you remove the case, the air that the power supply fan is pushing out the back of the case is replaced by air drawn from the room instead of being drawn across the components. As a result, many components will sit in stagnant air with little cooling.

Cover exposed expansion slots and holes: Any unused expansion card slots, drive bays, or other crevices in the system case should be covered with inserts, faceplates or tape, to ensure that airflow is not being short-circuited. Air will follow the path of least resistance, and if you have a big hole in your case near the power supply unit, most likely air will flow in there and right out the power supply, resulting in poor flow for the rest of the case.

Add additional fans: Some cases provide mounting positions for installing additional fans. These can be useful, depending on what they are and how you set them up, although they are not necessary for most people if they follow the other suggestions listed here. A fan on an expansion card (such as a video card) will improve airflow in the proximity of the card, but not between the case and the outside world. An extra fan venting to the outside can improve airflow and cooling.

Use a large system case: Larger cases have more room and therefore generally allow for better airflow and cooling of components.

Arranging your internal components: Devices that generate a great deal of heat should be kept as far away from each other as possible. If you install two hard disk drives in adjacent drive bays in a typical system, they may end up with less than a few millimetres separating them. This is simply not going to provide for cooling as good as if you had them several centimetres apart.

Keep the inside of the case clean: Good airflow in the box doesn’t help very much if none of the cool air can reach the components because they are covered with a thick layer of dust.

External ventilationIn order for system cooling to be effective, it is important that there be good airflow not only within the system case but also immediately outside it as well. If the system is located somewhere where it will not get adequate ventilation, it can overheat no matter how many fans you have on the inside of the unit.

Ventilation is closely related to ambient temperature of course, since airflow outside the box is more important in a hot room than a cool one. The best environment for the computer is one with regulated temperature settings, air conditioning, and active ventilation of the entire room. In practice, ventilation isn’t a problem as long as you use

common sense. The most important part of is simply making sure that you provide space for the power supply fan to blow, without blocking it off. Sometimes this happens for example when a system unit is jammed against the wall when placed on a desk.

There is also the obvious:

Don’t put papers on top of the ventilating grating on your monitor.

Don’t enclose the entire system unit in a box, or desk shelving, that will not let air circulate properly.

Power conditioning

There are many issues with computers that are ultimately related to power problems. Providing a good, reliable power source to your computer, and peripheral, is another aspect of system care. We should take a look at how to avoid power problems, as well as energy conservation and other issues related to the use of power.

Typical power problemsThere are a number of terms related to power and problems, some of the most common are:

Blackouts: When power levels drop to virtually zero, or in other words there is NO power.

Brownouts: Also called sag. A brownout occurs when power levels drop below that which is suppose to be delivered, for a sustained time. For example if you have a 230-240 volt power outlet, but the measurable level drops below 230 volts. Typically experienced in switching on of heavy equipment.

Surges: Is the opposite of a brownout. It is where voltage levels increase above that which is specified at the outlet eg above 240 volts

Spikes: A short sharp and very sudden increase of voltage, that also drops just as quickly eg a 240 volt supply jumps to 1000 volts or more for a period of as little as 20 milliseconds (1/50th of a second). This is typical of a lightning strike.

Line noise: Line noise consists of small variations in the voltage level. A certain amount of line noise is normal (no power generation circuits are perfect) and for the most part power supplies will deal with them without difficulty. However, in some areas the power quality is worse than others. Also, if the computer is sharing a circuit or is physically located near devices that cause electromagnetic interference (motors, heavy machinery, radio transmitters, etc.) then line noise can be a serious concern. Noise that the power supply cannot handle can cause it to malfunction and pass the problem on to your motherboard or other internal devices.

Protection from power problems When power problems strike, they can cause permanent damage. The damage could be to your equipment or your data. The only effective way to deal with power problems is to

prevent them from happening in the first place. Here are some steps you can take to greatly reduce the chances of power problems with your computer:

Use power protection devices: There are many different types of devices on the market that can be used to protect against power problems; these include surge suppressors, line conditioners and uninterruptible power supplies (UPS). Some are much better than others, and accordingly, cost much more. You can get fairly reasonable protection for your computer systems, without huge expense. You need to decide how much protection you need based on what you are willing to risk. You will need to do something. Just plugging computer equipment into the wall socket is asking for trouble.

Check protection devices regularly: At least once a year, you should inspect your power protection devices to make sure that they are functioning properly. Most good ones will have a signalling light to tell you when they are protecting your equipment properly, but it is only of use if you look at it on occasion!

Use dedicated circuits: Putting the computer on its own power circuit, so it isn’t sharing the power with your air conditioner, space heater, and vacuum cleaner, greatly improves the power quality and insulates the system from power sags when these devices are turned on. It also reduces electromagnetic interference from these devices that might be carried over the power line.

Turn off power during a blackout: If you lose power, when the power comes back on the signal can initially be inconsistent, which can make things difficult for your power supply. It is not unusual to see false starts, where the power comes on and then goes off again, during storms. If you have a blackout, turn off your equipment so you can control when it comes back on, not the electricity supply company. Turn the equipment back on once you feel the power has returned and is stabilised.

Turn off and disconnect the power cord during an electrical storm: This is a simple precaution that protects your system from possible problems during a thunderstorm. While this is impractical in a business situation, the solution is to install an uninterruptible power supply (UPS).

Electrostatic discharge (ESD)

Ever stepped out of a vehicle and experienced a sudden sharp zap when touching the door handle? Or perhaps scuffed your feet along a carpeted floor wetting your fingers then gently touching someone’s ear? While making yourself popular you are also demonstrating the effects of an electrostatic discharge.

Electrostatic discharge or ESD is caused by the build-up of an electrical charge on one surface that is suddenly transferred to another surface when it is touched. This discharge is actually typically several thousand volts. As there is very little current passed, the zap doesn’t kill you.

While ESD won’t kill you, it can certainly kill your computer components. Especially sensitive to ESD are integrated circuits: processors, memory, cache chips, and expansion cards. You can deal with ESD in two basic ways:

1 reducing its build-up

2 draining it away so it cannot cause any damage.

One way to reduce the build-up of ESD is to increase the relative humidity of the room where the computer is located. Static builds up more readily in dry environments than in moist ones. This is why you get zapped much more often during dry weather than in rainy weather. Another way to reduce static is to avoid doing the well-known things that cause it, such as wearing socks on carpeted floors, etc.

Draining static is usually a simple matter of touching something that is grounded, such as the metal of your case when it is plugged in. This will drain off any static build-up in your body that might cause damage to your components. Protection from ESD is important enough when performing repairs on computer systems that it is recommended that you wear an anti-static wrist strap.

Under normal working conditions it generally isn’t much of a concern, since any static zapping you give your system unit will normally be drained to ground through the case.

Storage and handling

Manufacturer’s requirementsWhen handling computer equipment, it is advisable to follow the manufacturer’s guidelines on handling and storage. The most obvious place to find that information would be the User Guides/Manuals that accompany the product.

While some documentation can be difficult to find, in a cupboard full of manuals, it is also common to have no documentation for the equipment in printed form. These days, many of the manuals and manufacturer guidelines are in electronic form supplied on floppy disk or CD-ROMs.

One of the best avenues, to locate the current information, would be the Internet. If in doubt, go to the manufacturer’s website. While some manufacturer’s websites can be difficult to locate, there are many Internet directories that can be used to find them. For example, The Computer Information Centre at: www.compinfo-center.com/cmanuf.htm. Apart from documentation, the Internet provides user groups that discuss all manner of issues, where some will raise a question and others will provide the answers.

Your supplier is the other main avenue for valid information. A good supplier will already be aware of specific issues that relate to your product purchases. If your supplier is reluctant to provide relevant product information, find a new supplier.

Locating equipment Sometimes when determining the most appropriate location, there are competing interests. From a security viewpoint, it may not be advisable to locate important network servers within easy access from the general public, or even unauthorised employees. But from an accessibility viewpoint, it maybe convenient for service personnel to have easy and unsecured access to all equipment. Still, there are the physical services (such as power, phone, network communications etc.) where equipment could be placed in the most convenient and cost-saving location close to outlets and connectors.

SecurityWhen locating equipment you would need to determine the priorities and adjust or compromise the competing interest accordingly. For example, if you have a network

server that contains sensitive accounting and/or payroll data, you would not want general staff (meaning those that should not be handling account/payroll data) to be able to gain access. You could of course restrict access by software such as username/passwords etc., but that would not stop someone from physically taking the hard disk drive in order to steal or copy it.

Where sensitive or critically important hardware is concerned, it would be advisable to locate the equipment in a secure location, such as a lockable cupboard or room. Access can then be more traditionally controlled by security key access.

AccessibilityConsider for a moment that you are a service technician where you go out on location to various businesses. You are called to fix a problem with a server or other equipment, but when you arrive you find the equipment is locked in a tiny cupboard, where the person with the key is out. When you finally gain access you find it buried under a pile of boxes and papers etc. Get the picture!

When locating equipment, take into account that from time to time someone will need to physically access it. If a service person arrives to such a welcome then the chances are that that person will simply walk away without doing whatever needed to be done. It is not reasonable to expect them to perform their work under such conditions, especially when you consider they may have a dozen other jobs to go to.

So when locating equipment, you will need to ask yourself the question ‘Is this site easily accessible?’.

ServicesThe term services relate to the parts of infrastructure like, general power outlets (GPO), phone, facsimile and network connections. There are of course other services more related to peoples needs.

It is generally easier to design and install all the services to be located you need (want), when you are starting with an empty room or building. But that does not always happen. If there are insufficient power outlets (which is almost always the case), then you will have to use power boards. But this need not be totally negative, as this will mean you can easily ensure that equipment is protected through uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), surge protectors, line filters and other conditioning equipment.

It’s an extremely bad practice to have cabling (of all sorts) running around a room, across floors, under chairs etc., rather than having it encased in a protective covering. This practice is advocating damage to equipment, communications, as well as Occupational Health and Safety issues. The cost of having wiring professionally installed is easily justified in terms of possible damage to equipment and downtime through poor network communications.

Storing equipmentYou will find that manufacturers will almost invariably require that equipment should be stored in the same packaging in which it was delivered. While this is valid, in principle, often it can be impractical. Empty packaging can consume significant storage space, which may seem not justifiable on a cost basis. However, if you do not have on-site support then to return equipment to the supplier, you will need enough to cover the basics. For example, if you have five printers from one manufacturer, you may choose to keep the packaging of one printer.

Just like locating equipment, when storing equipment you must consider the factors of temperature, humidity, dust etc. Although if equipment is not in use then such factors as temperature are less of an issue than if the equipment were in service ie in current use.

If unused or stored equipment is packaged similar to its original state, this will usually suffice. Any partially used consumables like ink or toner cartridges should not be stored, but disposed in the manner prescribed by the manufacturer. While this may seem wasteful, after a short time it is unlikely that the consumables will be in a useable state.

Summary

Just like the environmental conditions affect humans, computer equipment can also be affected by temperature extremes, humidity and dust. Electromagnetic interference (EMI) emissions can be emitted by a computer system, and be received by a computer system. Computer systems generally do not cause very much interference with other devices if they are to be certified as Class B compliant with the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). FCC certification means that the device, equipment, or system conforms to standards that limit the amount of EMI is capable of producing. As metals absorb EMI, you should keep the metal covers on the computer to maintain compliance.

Electrostatic discharge (ESD) is caused by the build-up of an electrical charge on one surface that is suddenly transferred to another surface when it is touched. While the discharge may be several thousand volts, there is very little current so it is not likely to cause a person any damage, can certainly kill computer components. Especially sensitive to ESD are integrated circuits such as processors, memory chips, and expansion cards. Protection from ESD is important enough, when performing repairs on electronic components, that it you should wear an anti-static wrist strap.

When choosing a location for equipment, there are competing interests such as serviceability and security. To support the location of equipment, adequate professionally installed services need to be made available. Power, networking and other communication cabling should be properly enclosed for both trouble-free service and Occupational Health and Safety considerations.

Many manuals and manufacturer’s guidelines are now provided in electronic form. The manufacturer’s website or your supplier are the best places to find the most current and accurate information.

Check your progressNow you should try and do the Practice activities in this topic. If you’ve already tried them, have another go and see if you can improve your responses.

When you feel ready, try the ‘Check your understanding’ activity in the Preview section of this topic. This will help you decide if you’re ready for assessment.

Determine and carry out preventative maintenance

What is maintenance? 65Types of maintenance 65

Preventative maintenance 67Protecting critical hardware 68Protection from environmental conditions 68Protection of data — backup 70Protection of data from threats 71Keeping software updated 72Checking integrity and performance 72

Determining your organisation’s maintenance requirements 74Organisational policies 74External service level agreements 75Equipment documentation 75Procedures for internal clients 76

Preventative maintenance tasks 77Safety first 77

Common hardware maintenance tasks 78Cleaning 78Whole system maintenance 78Hard disk maintenance 79Printers 80Tape backup systems 80Low maintenance devices 80

Scheduling maintenance 82

Developing a preventative maintenance schedule 82When should tasks be scheduled? 83How often should tasks be scheduled? 83What should be recorded? 84Reporting problems 84

Summary 85Check your progress 85

What is maintenance?

When we talk about maintenance, our aims are to:

preserve our IT systems in optimal condition

fix problems that occur

upgrade the existing systems to minimise future risks to the business.

This will require maintenance of hardware, software and data.

Types of maintenanceMaintenance falls into two broad categories:

preventative (or routine maintenance), and

reactive (or non-routine).

Preventative maintenanceFor example, you periodically have your car serviced, which involves changing the engine oil, air filter, spark plugs and so on. If you don’t do this, chances are at some later time your car’s performance will suffer, and you may even be stranded at a great inconvenience to you! This is preventative maintenance, and the situation is really quite similar with IT equipment. We need to carry out preventative maintenance on a periodic basis to prevent problems occurring in the future that may interrupt business continuity.

A simple example of IT preventative maintenance is changing the drum in a laser printer.

Reactive maintenanceReactive maintenance refers to actions taken to fix problems after they have occurred. To continue with the car example, when you get a flat tyre and have to replace it, this is a simple example of reactive maintenance. You can probably think of many IT examples. Replacing a broken cable is one.

Apart from preventative and reactive maintenance, there is another type of maintenance that deals with upgrading the organisation’s infrastructure to minimise the level of risk to business continuity.

Maintenance of softwareIt’s not only the hardware in an organisation that needs to be maintained — software maintenance is also required. An organisation that has custom-built software needs programmers to maintain it. This will include:

preventative maintenance to detect and correct code that may cause future errors (eg to validate input data)

adaptive maintenance to adapt the software in line with changes to business requirements (eg to make it run on an Intranet)

perfective maintenance to simply improve the performance of the software

reactive maintenance to fix software bugs.

But apart from custom-built software, organisations need to maintain other software. There may be patches, version updates, driver updates, etc to be installed. Upgrading packaged software across an organisation to standardise software versions is a good way of helping to reduce the level of support and maintenance required.

Maintenance of a hard disk is really a form of software/data maintenance. A variety of tools are available for ‘cleaning up’ a disk, removing unwanted programs and data, backing up data and so on. Protecting the system from viruses and malware is also part of this sort of maintenance.

Preventative maintenance

Specific devices require different preventative maintenance procedures. However, there are a few broad areas that can be considered which require preventative maintenance practices. These include:

Protection of equipment due to changes in electrical supply: Surges and ‘brownouts’ cause major damage to computer devices. Un-interruptible power supplies (UPS), power conditioners and surge protection devices are all valuable preventative maintenance tools for any computerised device.

Protection from environmental conditions: Humidity, temperature variation and dust are major causes of computer device failures. Actions taken to limit these factors in the workplace are valuable preventative maintenance tasks.

Protection of data using backups: It is vital that backups of both user data and system configurations are done regularly.

Protection of data from threats: Data needs to be protected from viruses, malware, hackers and so on, through the use of both hardware and software security measures.

Keeping software updated through service packs, patches and driver upgrades

Checking integrity and performance by using diagnostic tools: Routine running of any in-built diagnostics and/or checking for display of maintenance messages generated by the device.

Next we’ll look in more detail at some strategies for dealing with these.

Protecting critical hardware

Facility protectionStrategies must be in place to protect IT equipment from water damage, fire, contamination, power failure and theft. Some of these strategies include:

the implementation of early warning systems to detect water leaks, fire and air-borne contaminants

devices to continue power supply should there be a power failure such as a UPS (uninterruptible power supply) as well as on-site power generation

security access to computer facilities such as swipe cards or entry of a security number

recording serial numbers, asset numbers, location and allocation details of workstations.

RedundancyIf part of a network is interrupted, critical business processes need to be stored as soon as possible. One way of doing this is by implementing and maintaining full or partially redundant systems.

This means having an identical hardware infrastructure that can be activated should the main hardware infrastructure fail. Redundant systems can range from the duplication of entire networks to the duplication of cabling runs. Where entire networks are duplicated, system backup facilities are not required. However, full network redundancy is extremely expensive and, as such, not a commonly used option.

Partial redundancy is a common option for critical IT hardware.

An organisation’s disaster recovery plan will include such procedures for recovering network systems.

Protection from environmental conditions

TemperatureThe tolerance of computer components for extremes in temperature is limited — subjecting them to temperatures outside this range is likely to reduce their life. The room environment as well as cooling and ventilation systems are, therefore, important in maintaining computer equipment in optimum operational condition.

HumidityComputers are also sensitive to humidity and should be kept dry. Protective measures would include keeping them away from windows, and avoiding food and drinks spills. Ventilation systems also help prevent problems with humidity.

Dirt and dustComputers should be kept in a clean environment. Dust build-up around fans and on electrical components becomes a problem because it tends to prevent heat dissipation, and interferes with the fan’s cooling function. Regular cleaning is, therefore, important. If the equipment is kept in an industrial environment, additional measures must be put in place to protect it — use of air cleaners is one useful strategy.

Cigarette smokeThe particles from cigarette smoke have the same effect as dust — they build up on the surface of equipment, causing the same sorts of problems.

Electromagnetic interferenceAll electronic devices are capable of producing electromagnetic interference that can cause data to be lost, problems with picture quality on monitors, and other problems.

Protection of data — backupAll organisations need strategies in place to:

backup critical data, and

ensure that data backup is being undertaken according to organisational policies.

This will involve both server backup and workstation backup.

Server backup options

Backup option Benefits Limitations

Backup to tape using backup/restore software such as Windows: the tape backups from the server can be sent to an off-site backup storage facility for restoration if backup files on-site are destroyed.

Simple; software readily available in Windows

Additional risks in transportation and storage; time to restore in the event of loss of data, ie time to data, can be too long and very costly

Backup server data to a remote tape unit via a WAN

Time to data much shorter; risks reduced due to less manual handling

Can be expensive

Backup data to a remote mirrored disk via a WAN

Time to data instantaneous; risks lowered further

Costs are high

Workstation backupWorkstations in an organisation are often standardised with respect to operating system and common applications. An ‘image’ or ‘build’ is created, making it much easier to restore the workstation to a re-usable state. There is usually an IT policy that specifies a ‘Standard Operating Environment’ for workplace PCs. Uncommon, or specific, applications are usually installed separately after the standard image is loaded.

However, users tend to customise their PCs with shortcuts, background images and screensavers, taskbar options, mouse speed and a variety of other options. Also, though it may be against company policy, there may be company data lurking on a user’s PC. Therefore, before any changes are made to a workstation PC, the hard disk should be backed up.

As mentioned, staff in a client/server organisation are generally encouraged not to store data on their own hard drives. However, where an organisation’s data is stored on a workstation hard drive, there must be some procedure in place for regularly backing it up.

Types of backup An organisation will have policies that relate to:

the frequency of backups (daily, weekly, monthly)

the time of day backups are done

how long backups are kept

where backups should be stored.

Also, there are different types of backup. You may not need to back up all files every time you back up. Different options include:

backup of selected directories

incremental backup – backup of only files that have been created or changed since the last full or incremental backup

differential backup – backup of files that have been created or changed since the last full backup.

Backup scheduling is an important part of any preventative maintenance plan. Windows provides a backup and restore tool, and this type of software is also provided by third parties.

Protection of data from threatsBecause of the widespread interconnectivity of computers today, and the potential for intrusion, theft, damage, and so on, organisations need to have clear policies and procedures to be followed to minimise these threats. Central to this will be a number of preventative maintenance procedures, as outlined below.

Service packs, patches and operating system updatesIt has become obvious in recent years that when operating systems are released, they are not finished products. Because they are so complex, even after a period of rigorous testing, security flaws are often discovered after distribution. Anti-virus and other security tools cannot protect the system from operating system holes.

For critical security holes, as soon as the flaw is discovered, the software manufacturer quickly develops and releases a patch, which is a small software update to eliminate the hole. A group of patches is sometimes released as a major update, or service pack.

Microsoft makes these updates available for free.

Anti-malware softwareMalware has increased in significance over recent years. Included in this category are:

Trojans, which appear to be harmless programs, are actually designed to either do damage or carry out a range of malicious activities

Dialers, programs that change the number you use for a dial-up modem, causing increases in charges

Worms, generally spread as email attachments

Spyware, adware and browser hijackers collect information from your computer or change the Internet options in the browser.

Anti-malware software helps to prevent a computer from these attacks. However, installing it and forgetting about it provides insufficient protection. Regular updates need to be carried out.

Antivirus softwareViruses have been around for a long while, and have been overtaken somewhat by other types of threat. However, using antivirus software which is regularly updated is still an important preventative maintenance measure for computer systems.

FirewallsThere are two types of firewalls — hardware and software firewalls. Hardware firewalls offer the best protection against intrusion, but they are expensive for small companies. Desktop or a software firewall is useful, but malicious software may find ways to bypass it.

Keeping software updatedToday’s IT equipment is complex, and so is the software that supports it. Often a device is purchased with a projected life of several years, but in the mean time, other equipment and operating systems that it is used with are updated. Sometimes this means that a perfectly good piece of equipment no longer works, or works unsatisfactorily.

So new software for these devices (drivers) is developed and released. Keeping abreast of these various driver updates is also important in preventing problems before they arise.

Checking integrity and performanceComputer operating systems are generally provided with an array of diagnostic tools that can be used to check whether there are either hardware or software problems with the machine, or whether steps can be taken to improve its performance.

For example, Disk Defragmenter and Disk Cleanup are tools available in Windows operating systems. A whole range of other utilities is also available from other software

manufacturers. Visit a website like download.com (http://www.download.com) and browse the range of software available.

Determining your organisation’s maintenance requirements

We have so far discussed some broad areas of preventative maintenance. From the point of view of an IT Support person, how do you determine exactly what maintenance should be done, and how often it should be done? What information should you refer to?

To start with, your organisation will have specific procedures that deal with maintenance and how it is scheduled. These procedures will be either as a result of, or in conjunction, with the following:

Organisational policies, for example, a particular procedure may be in place because of your organisation’s policy on the management of risk.

Equipment, in particular specialised equipment, is covered by warranties and maintenance contracts. These will often involve an agreed level of support for the equipment, also called a service level agreement (SLA).

Both equipment and software are provided with documentation regarding their handling and maintenance requirements.

Support is also often provided by phone or website, and may even involve the provision of training.

If you work in IT Support within your own organisation, the service you provide to your internal clients will also be governed by a service level agreement.

Organisational policiesThe maintenance procedures in an organisation will be determined by a number of factors, including:

how critical the IT components and/or software are

cost constraints

the risk to business continuity

pre-existing commitments

expectations of service by the organisation’s business units.

External service level agreementsMaintenance agreements are a way of ensuring that the business is supported to an agreed level at a known cost.

As a result, the business may enter into an agreement with an IT support organisation. All critical hardware components and software should be covered by either a warranty or maintenance agreement. There are a number of things to consider:

1 New purchases. A warranty agreement comes automatically with the purchase of hardware components and software. You usually have the option of extending the warranty when you purchase the item.

2 Extension of warranty. You can enter into a maintenance agreement when the initial warranty expires rather than extending the warranty.

3 Type of cover. A maintenance agreement is an agreement negotiated between the organisation and the supplier to maintain the hardware or software. Maintenance agreements can be on a fixed service basis, eg 24 hours a day, 7 days per week (24/7); 8 hours a day, 5 days a week (8/5); 12 hours a day, 5 days a week (12/5) or on a per-call basis.

Fixed service versus per-call coverThe benefit of the fixed service type of maintenance agreement is that you receive a dedicated and, typically, faster response. Depending on the terms of the agreement, your maintenance costs are also likely to be covered.

A per-call basis means you receive maintenance services from the supplier as required. The problem with this type of agreement is that you have to wait until a technician is available and you are charged for labour and parts. A benefit is this cost can often be less expensive than a maintenance contract.

Software warranties and maintenance agreementsSoftware should also be covered by a warranty or maintenance agreement. Software warranty only lasts for a short period of time, so a maintenance agreement for critical software should be in place. If customised software has been developed in-house, a maintenance agreement will not be necessary because it will be maintained internally.

A software maintenance agreement may include, for example, a free or discounted upgrade of packaged software.

Equipment documentationEach item of IT equipment should be accompanied by documentation. This may be provided in hard copy, as a manual, on CD, or on a support website. If original documentation provided as hard copy is missing, it can usually also be downloaded from

the manufacturer’s website. IT Support staff need to be able to read and interpret all such technical documentation.

Documentation for a system should outline the manufacturer’s recommended maintenance procedures for the unit. The procedures should state:

how often maintenance procedures should be done

any equipment/material/consumables that are required

the actual steps to complete the maintenance task, including all relevant safety precautions for the task.

The system’s documentation should also identify any components of a system that should not have any preventative maintenance applied to it for safety reasons. Generally speaking, hardware manufacturers will include instructions for:

cleaning

care

consumables — handling, installing and disposing

making adjustments

troubleshooting.

Apart from documentation, the supplier’s website will supply software patches and driver updates as they become available.

Procedures for internal clientsSince your external suppliers and internal clients involve different service level agreements, procedures for handling them are usually different, but one may depend on the other. Some of these procedures detail:

the way service requests are reported

how fast you can respond to requests — how fast you respond to an internal client will depend on the agreed response time with an external supplier. For example, let’s say a workstation monitor needs replacing. If your external supplier says it will be done within two days, then you can’t do it any faster for your client!

how requests are escalated — an external supplier will have specific, agreed escalation procedures, and these may be different from your own internal ones.

Preventative maintenance tasks

Having discussed the organisational factors and reference documents that help to determine an organisation’s maintenance procedures, we’ll now concentrate on those tasks that would be included in most preventative maintenance programs.

Don’t forget that highly specialised equipment will need specialised maintenance procedures and may require independent technical qualifications and personnel to maintain it. As you are now aware, this will involve an external maintenance agreement.

Safety firstRemember that ALL preventative maintenance must be carried out within the regulations associated with the Occupational Health and Safety Act, 2000 and relevant government licensing frameworks. Your own safety is far more important than the preventative maintenance of any device.

Common hardware maintenance tasks

While it is beyond this topic to identify all types of maintenance across the range of devices available in the IT workplace, the following devices and preventative maintenance tasks are included here as common tasks.

CleaningThe following table gives suggestions for cleaning the parts of a computer.

Device Type of maintenance Resources

Keyboard Keyboard covers; regular ‘dusting’ with compressed air

Original system documentation will recommend cleaning material instructions

Mouse Cleaning mouse ball and rollers; replacing ball mice with optical mice will solve most problems

Original system documentation will recommend cleaning materials

Monitor Wiping of screen — be careful of the cleaning products used as some may damage the screen. Consult the manufacturer’s instructions for the monitor.

Original documentation will recommend cleaning materials

CD/DVD drives

Cleaning drives with CD/DVD cleaning kit CD/DVD cleaning kit documentation

Floppy disk drives

Cleaning drives with FDD cleaning kit FDD cleaning kit documentation

Whole system maintenanceMaintenance of a computer system will also involve:

checking system event logs regularly

viewing POST results

routine checking using system monitoring utilities that track system temperatures, voltages and fan speeds

checking for dust accumulation, particularly around fans and vents

updating drivers for printers, modems, soundcards, video cards and so on, as needed

updating operating system and application software with the latest service packs; eg later versions of Windows allow updates to be automatically downloaded and installed, but this can be disabled

updating anti-virus software and virus definitions.

Hard disk maintenanceSoftware for carrying out hard disk maintenance is provided by the operating system utilities, as well as by third party software. Typical maintenance will include:

removal of unwanted files — this can include old files, temporary files, downloaded files, corrupt files, Internet cookies, and browser history

removal (uninstalling) of unwanted software

backup — this may be by means of standard backup/restore software, or through imaging software such as Norton Ghost

cleaning up the registry

defragmenting files

creating system restore/boot disks

scanning for viruses, spyware, adware, malware, and so on

disk checking using standard diagnostic tests.

Many of these activities can be scheduled to occur automatically. We’ll discuss scheduling in the next section.

PrintersMost maintenance on printers relates to print quality and paper handling. Maintenance on printers may include the following.

Component Type of maintenance Resources

Laser printer drum

Cleaning/replacement. Some printer replacement cartridges include the drum, requiring less maintenance. Others may require a separate maintenance procedure for the drum. Consult the manufacturer’s instructions.

Printer documentation

Ink print heads

Cleaning/replacement. Some printer replacement cartridges include the ink print heads, requiring less maintenance. Others may require a separate maintenance procedure. Some print heads also require alignment. Consult the manufacturer’s instructions.

Printer documentation, in-built printer cleaning utilities

Paper rollers and feed path

Purchasing quality paper, ensuring a dust free environment and regular cleaning. Consult the manufacturer’s instructions.

Printer documentation

Tape backup systemsTape backup systems are listed as a separate item here due to their importance in the IT workplace.

Device Type of maintenance Resources

Tape drive Cleaning drive heads. This should be done regularly. Consult the manufacturer’s instructions.

Head cleaning kit and original tape drive documentation

Backup software

Regular viewing of backup logs for errors Backup software documentation

Tape media Checking media for errors and tape age against the recommended tape life. Perform test restores to confirm reliability of media and backup process.

Backup software documentation and media specifications

Low maintenance devicesMany devices such as hubs/switches, scanners and USB devices are normally considered ‘maintenance free’. However, these units may benefit from the following types of maintenance.

Device Type of maintenance Resources

Hub/switch Checking systems log and port statistics for large error counts

Original manufacturer’s documentation

Scanner Glass cleaning with recommended products; Viewing POST diagnostics test

ensuring a dust free environment results

Other devices Viewing POST diagnostics test results; running regular tasks to ensure the device is functional

Viewing POST diagnostics test results

Scheduling maintenance

Many organisations with a preventative maintenance program will have maintenance tasks organised on a schedule. The goal of a schedule is to ensure that regular maintenance occurs. Given the time pressures of working as an IT Support person, a schedule will assist you in organising your workload to ensure that the best possible service is provided to the client.

If a maintenance schedule does not exist, consider designing one. A schedule should simply include:

1 each preventative maintenance task that should be completed

2 how often the task should be repeated

3 an estimate of the time required to complete the task.

These tasks can then be allocated time in your schedule at the required intervals.

Developing a preventative maintenance scheduleIn developing a preventative maintenance schedule, it is important that as an IT Support person you are aware of the main aims of preventative maintenance. They are:

to meet the needs of the business

to extend the working life of equipment

to reduce the amount of emergency downtime caused by faults that can be prevented

to be practical

to make the IT system more cost effective.

Cost effectivenessIt is important that any preventative maintenance be cost effective. It is possible to spend significant amounts of time cleaning and testing devices such as keyboards and mice to extend their life. However, the replacement cost of those devices, including the cost of having an inventory of such items on hand, may mean that it is cheaper to purchase new devices rather than extend the life of the existing devices.

Every maintenance issue must be examined from a cost point of view.

Minimise downtimeIt is important that preventative maintenance focuses on items that may cause significant downtime and cost to the business if they were to fail. Such items may include hard disk drives (HDD) of servers. Should they fail, emergency downtime may occur at a significant cost to the business. As a result, such devices should be considered high priority in a maintenance schedule.

PracticalityPreventative maintenance must be practical within the working of a business. If the process of preventative maintenance causes a major interruption to the daily working of a business, the maintenance program will fail. Always try to consider the impact on the users of the computers when considering a preventative maintenance program.

Meet business needsAny maintenance program must meet the needs of the business if it is going to be successful. While this should have been considered when an SLA was written, the maintenance work must be carried out within the organisation’s guidelines and requirements.

When should tasks be scheduled?Scheduled maintenance should obviously impact as little as possible on normal business operations, and should therefore be carried out at periods of low activity, such as during the night, at weekends or holiday periods. It is possible to carry out many tasks with very little client awareness or involvement.

If client involvement is required, they should be informed in advance of when they will be affected, for how long, and how it will impact them. You may need to give them instructions, such as logging out of their PC, leaving it on, rebooting, and so on.

There are some useful operating system or third-party tools which allow maintenance tasks to be automatically scheduled. This is the case with later versions of Windows.

How often should tasks be scheduled?To determine how frequently maintenance tasks should be done, you should first refer to the types of documentation mentioned earlier in this topic. The preventative maintenance strategies in place would also help determine the frequency of tasks. You should also bear in mind the principles listed above. However, if your organisation is small and you are in the process of developing your own schedule, you’ll need carry out research and then make these decisions yourself.

For example, how often should a hard disk be defragmented? You’ll find opinion divided on this one, as it depends on a number of different factors such as hard disk size, how much space is on the disk, and how much disk and file activity there is. Suggestions range from daily, to three monthly! If it can be scheduled to run automatically during a period of non-activity, a more frequent schedule can do no harm.

Similar decisions need to be made with respect to the scheduling of backups.

What should be recorded?Scheduling can be a formal process, where preventative maintenance is carefully scheduled for various business units within the organisation and formally documented and signed off. It can also be an informal process.

The following should be documented in a preventative maintenance schedule:

1 dates for maintenance to occur

2 business unit/floor/building/computer facilities where the maintenance will occur

3 the IT staff member responsible for completing the maintenance

4 dates for completion

5 notification that maintenance has been completed

6 comments or notes where problems are detected.

Reporting problemsYour preventative maintenance schedule will occasionally alert you to potential problems. When this happens, you should be aware of the appropriate person to inform. Your organisational guidelines and/or service level agreements should indicate who this is. It may be your supervisor, authorised business representative, external supplier, or client.

Summary

Preventative maintenance is an important component of many IT Support positions. A preventative maintenance program should be a commonsense schedule that aims to provide the regular maintenance required for devices in an IT installation.

Check your progressNow you should try and do the Practice activities in this topic. If you’ve already tried them, have another go and see if you can improve your responses.

When you feel ready, try the ‘Check your understanding’ activity in the Preview section of this topic. This will help you decide if you’re ready for assessment.

Use system diagnostic tools

Standard diagnostic programs 88Using diagnostic tools 88

Booting the computer 89Power On Self Test (POST) diagnostic tool 89

Loading the operating system 91Log files and OS booting tools 91

Manually checking the system 93Device management tools 93Management of hard disk drives 94Checking the file system 95Checking the drive 95Defragging the drive 95

Summary 96Check your progress 96

Standard diagnostic programs

Using diagnostic toolsEach computer system has built into it a range of tools to help the user determine its ‘status’. By ‘status’ we mean that they help determine if the system is working correctly or not. If a system is not working correctly, diagnostic tools can provide information vital to solving the problem. The most common types of computer problems will be found during these processes:

booting the computer

loading the operating system

manually checking the system.

Diagnostic tools are available at each of these stages and are outlined in the following sections. These tools provide the foundation of any troubleshooting that involves the malfunctioning of a computer.

IMPORTANT: You will be directed to use a number of diagnostic and configuration tools to gather information about your system. Changing any of the settings using these tools may cause your computer to malfunction. If you are in any doubt about the use of a particular tool, contact your supervising teacher.

You may also be required to make system changes to solve problems identified by the diagnostics. Again, the types of changes required, if incorrectly applied, may cause your computer to malfunction. If you are in doubt about how to proceed with system modifications, consult your supervisor.

Booting the computer

Booting a computer system involves turning the machine on, checking that power LEDs come on and that the screen reflects the expected activity of the system start up procedure. In a PC system, part of this procedure is the Power On Self Test or POST diagnostic tool. The POST diagnostic tool is built in to the system and starts automatically when the system is turned on.

Any failure related to a major component, such as motherboard, video, keyboard or drive failures, will be detected during the POST phase of a computer system. The total failure of a major hardware component is easily detected. Less crucial devices that fail will normally be detected by the operating system as it loads and are dealt with in the next section.

Most hardware systems such as computers and printers have a POST tool to check that their major components are working properly.

Power On Self Test (POST) diagnostic toolDuring the PC computer system’s loading phase, each of the main components are tested. The failure of any one of these systems would impair the computer’s ability to operate. Such critical devices include the graphics card, motherboard resources, drives and Input/Output (I/O) interfaces such as keyboard and graphics (video cards).

Figure 1: Power On Self Test (POST) diagnostic tool

On a PC based system, this provides feedback on the screen about the type of video card detected, the type and speed of the processor detected, the type and number of drives

detected, as well as the amount of Random Access Memory (RAM) detected. It checks the presence of peripheral devices such as keyboard and mouse devices. It also internally tests the correct performance of many motherboard components.

Any failures at this level may result in an error message on the screen, or may be heard as a series of coded ‘beeps’. The beep codes are often unique to a motherboard model and should be interpreted by information found on the motherboard manufacturer’s website.

The POST screen will only briefly appear at the start of the booting process. The CPU’s type and speed will be listed here with other device information. On many systems, pressing the Pause key during this process will freeze the screen, and the space bar key releases it. If you cannot pause the screen, check with your supervisor or teacher as it may take several restarts to view the information fully. If you must reset the computer, be careful to do so by pressing the reset button before the operating system begins to load, as this will prevent it from recording failed loading attempts.

To view the systems detected configuration more fully, examine the system Setup or CMOS tool. Some references may prefer to use the term BIOS in place of the term CMOS. They refer to the same tool. To enter this tool, users are normally required to press a key or key combination such as the DEL (Delete) key or Shift + F10 during the POST sequence. Because these settings effect the operation of the PC, many companies password protect this tool so unauthorised users cannot access this area.

The Setup or CMOS tool for your PC holds the configuration of your computer. It lists how much memory the system has, how many drives are detected and which drive it should load the operating system from. It will also have configuration options for a range of other items such as power management and I/O interfaces, just to name a few.

The motherboard manual that came with the PC holds information about the CMOS tool and its use.

At this level, the tool is simply used to determine that the system has detected its elementary components such as RAM, HDDs, FDD, etc. The CMOS settings should reflect the known configuration of the PC. Normally the IDE drives should be set to ‘AUTO’ which stands for Automatic Detection. Any errors such as RAM or drives not being recognised by the system should be recorded and reported to a supervising technical support person.

The default or factory settings can normally be restored by choosing the relevant menu option. When you exit the CMOS, exit without saving your changes, unless you have deliberately changed a setting. This prevents accidental changes from occurring.

For a MacIntosh system, when you boot the PC will either show a happy face and load, or show a sad face and refuse to load.

Fixing faults detected here, on either a PC or Mac system, may require the case to be opened and can effect the warranty of the computer. It must be authorised by your manager who will refer it to an appropriate technical person.

Loading the operating system

Once the POST sequence has been completed, the system then looks for a boot device as the CMOS configuration dictates. From here the computer begins to load the series of services or programs that together form what is called the operating system (OS). Normally the operating system’s name and version (or service pack number) will be displayed during this process.

Log files and OS booting toolsCommon failures at this point may relate to the failure of minor hardware devices or incorrect configuration of devices that are physically OK. Any services or devices that fail to load are usually noted in a log file by the operating system. This file can then be examined at a later time to help determine what went wrong. Most Windows and Unix systems create log files during the loading process. These log files provide details that will alert you to errors. Many of the system log entries are fully explained in the operating system’s documentation or the support section of their Internet site.

ExerciseThe following screen is from the system log of a Windows XP system.

Figure 2: System Log of a Windows XP system

Examine entries in the log to determine which (if any) represent possible errors in the booting process. Each entry has an Event ID number that can be searched for in the Microsoft Knowledge Base. Search the Knowledge Base at http://support.microsoft.com for Event ID 1007 and determine the nature of the event warning.

If the system failure is so bad that the operating system fails before it loading process is complete, most systems provide tools that allow the computer to boot in restricted or

‘Safe’ modes, or alternatively provide emergency recovery disks. Using these options, the system then boots with a reduced set of services, allowing you to examine boot logs or device management tools to help detect problems.

Entries in the system log may require further research to explain their full meaning. Most operating system companies provide documentation on their website to assist in the interpretation of log file messages. For Windows 2000/XP, Microsoft’s Knowledge Base website has many articles about different Event Viewer messages.

Manually checking the system

Device management toolsMost operating systems now work with the concept of ‘Plug and Play’ devices. This simply means that when a new device is installed, the system will automatically detect it and install the most appropriate software drivers for it.

A driver is a small piece of software written for a specific device. To make life simpler, many standard drivers are built into operating systems so they automatically work when installed. However, special features of that particular device model may only be available if the manufacturer’s device driver is installed.

All current PC and Mac operating systems provide you with tools to look at the devices installed on your computer. In this context, a ‘tool’ is a small program that is designed to perform a limited, specialised role — such as providing information about a hardware device.

In a graphical user interface (GUI), which Windows, MacIntosh and most Unix-based operating systems have, the tool may be represented by an icon. It may also form the properties of an object represented on the desktop, such as ‘My Computer’.

In a text-based system, which Unix and Windows based systems also have, the tool may be in the form of a specific command related to a specific device.

Examples of tools are shown in the following screen shot.

Figure 3: Configuration tools

Device Management tools provide you with information and configuration options for devices attached to your system. They should provide you with a list of devices attached to your system and information about their status.

In a PC system these tools should also list the resources that devices use, such as an Interrupt (IRQ), Input/Output (I/O) memory range and Direct Memory Access (DMA) channel, etc. In a Mac system, the resource allocation for devices is automatic. Device Management tools may provide information about the software driver that was installed to manage the device.

In some operating systems, many different tools may be required to find this information. In other operating systems, this information may all be available from one tool.

Management of hard disk drivesHard disk drives are a vital part of any computer system. They retain data saved as files and can have a directory or folder system to organise files into a logical system. The constant writing, modifying and deleting files may cause errors from time to time. These errors often relate to file processes, such as saving a file that has been interrupted before it could be completed. This interruption could be caused by a power outage, application crash or shutting down a system incorrectly.

Checking the file systemEach operating system provides you with standard tools to check the integrity of the file system. While different operating systems may support a range of different file systems, the basics remain the same. There is some master record of what files are on a drive and where those files can be found. This is called the File Allocation Table (FAT). The FAT holds the list of files contained on the drive and the address of the first block where that file is stored. It is effectively a ‘table of contents’ to the disk drive.

Checking the integrity of the file system involves matching the FAT against the drive’s contents. Should this become damaged, or incorrect, the results for your data could be devastating.

Checking the driveYour operating system may also provide you with an option, or separate tool, to check the actual integrity of the drive. By this we are referring to a process where the actual data blocks on the drive are checked to ensure that they store data correctly. Originally this is also done when you format the drive, which is why it can take so long to format large hard disk drives.

Defragging the driveIt is also possible that your drive becomes ‘messy’ which is known as fragmentation.

Imagine your drive as a book, where information (or data) saved as files is written on the first available page (or block). When saving is complete, the file name and the page it starts on are entered into the ‘Contents’ page (or File allocation Table) of the book. The next file saved will take the next available page and so on.

However, when we wish to add more data to the first file we may require more than one page to hold the additional information. It can’t be stored on the next page as it is already used by another file. So the next available blank page is used and we must link the first page of the file to the page number that is the second page of the file.

Having a file spread over a series of ‘non-contiguous’ blocks slows the reading and writing processes. The term ‘non-contiguous blocks’ simply means a series of blocks which are not stored next to one another. This is called fragmentation.

The process of de-fragmentation refers to a tool which tries to rearrange files into contiguous blocks to improve the performance of the file system. It can be dangerous as any interruption to this process may result in data loss and corruption. Always ensure that a backup exists for a drive before running a tool to de-fragment your disk.

Summary

We have covered the three basic areas in which standard diagnostic tools are available: during the booting phase (when the operating system loads), then when using the user interface once the system is running, or manually checking the system.

Some of the diagnostic tools you have examined have been built into the hardware, such as the CMOS setup program that is located on a chip on the motherboard. Others have been log files tracing the execution of a process. Others have been executable programs run within the operating system you are using.

Whatever type of diagnostic is run, the results need to be interpreted and used to decide if any action needs to be taken to improve the system or fix identified problems.

It is important that you closely examine your operating system to find these features within it.

Check your progressNow you should try and do the Practice activities in this topic. If you’ve already tried them, have another go and see if you can improve your responses.

When you feel ready, try the ‘Check your understanding’ activity in the Preview section of this topic. This will help you decide if you’re ready for assessment.

Perform basic diagnosis and repair/replacement of faulty computer hardware

Introduction 100

Booting up 101The POST 101Loading an operating system 102

Error messages 105BIOS beep codes 105

Typical hardware level errors 109

Typical faultfinding procedures 113Flowcharts 113Communicate 113Read and respond 113KISS principle 113Diagnostic tools 114A POST card 114Diagnostic software 115Use built-in tools 115Check for conflicting devices 116Swap devices 116Update drivers 119

Warranties 120Getting support to work for you 121

Summary 123

Check your progress 123

Introduction

When caring for computer equipment you will inevitably be faced with a computer, or peripheral, that is not operating as it should. You will be looked upon to provide the answer to ‘What’s wrong with it?’. In order for you to answer that question, you will need to know a basic diagnostic approach to faultfinding.

In this section we will examine what a system usually does when nothing is wrong, list some of the typical faults encountered and what to do about it, and what to do if you can’t fix it. If you are not able to effect repairs then you should be able to give the user some indication on how long their system will be down.

Firstly, let’s look at what normally happens, before looking at what can go wrong.

Booting up

The POSTWhen first turning the computer on, you will notice that there are certain lights flashing, beeping sounds and text displayed on the screen. When power is applied to a computer system, the first thing that happens is that the computer performs a Power On Self Test, commonly called a POST. After performing this self-check, the system will try to load an operating system. Loading the operating system was traditionally known as loading the bootstrap loader, or pulling the system up by the boot-straps. While the terminology has been dropped, we still use the term ‘Booting Up’ to refer to starting the system.

The BIOS (Basic Input Output System) is responsible to perform the POST. The BIOS is a program that is built-in to the motherboard and is responsible for the low level operations of the hardware, such as placing data from a hard disk and writing it into RAM (Random Access Memory), or sending video output to the video card, or handling a mouse movement, or event like a click. Without the BIOS, nothing would happen when you turn the power on.

After the initial POST, assuming that the BIOS is able to boot the system far enough to gain access to the video subsystem, it will display information about the computer system as it boots. It will also use the video system to communicate error messages. In fact, most non-critical boot problems are displayed via video error messages, as opposed to audio beep codes.

Some errors in the POST may simply generate an error message on the screen and continue, while others will halt the system until the error is dealt with. If the POST is passed successfully, then the system is ready to load an operating system.

Loading an operating systemTo load an operating system, the BIOS will seek out a boot device in a set order. A boot device is usually a hard disk drive, but may be a floppy disk, CD-ROM drive, network interface card (NIC) or USB flash disk etc. That is where the terms ‘Boot Disk’ and ‘Disk Operating System’ (DOS) are derived.

There are a number of hardware level settings that are stored on a special chip called a CMOS chip. CMOS stands for Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor and is usually identified as one of the chips, with a sticker with the BIOS maker’s name, on the motherboard. CMOS technology is just one type used to make semiconductors (integrated circuits) such as processors, chipset chips, DRAM, etc. CMOS has the advantage of requiring very little power, compared to some other semiconductor technologies. This is why it was chosen for this use, so that the amount of power required from the battery would be minimal, and the battery would be able to last a long time.

It is common for the terms BIOS and CMOS to be used interchangeably, even though it is not technically correct. The BIOS is the program and the CMOS is the memory that stores the BIOS settings. When a program is written to a chip it is known as firmware ie software put into hardware.

To gain access to the CMOS settings, you should see some sort of message on the screen that tells you which key to press. For example ‘Press <Delete> to run Setup’. Most systems use the Delete key, some use F1 or F10 and even Escape. If the screen does not show any message (there is sometimes an option in CMOS to turn this off) then try each key in turn. If all else fails, then read the manufacturer’s instructions.

Boot device optionsYou can change the boot device order from the standard:

Floppy disk

Hard disk drive 0 (master hard disk)

CD-ROM.

For instance, if you had to install an operating system from new, like Microsoft Windows XP, you should change the boot device order to make the CD-ROM the first boot device. This is because the operating system is usually supplied on a bootable CD-ROM disk. In fact many other operating systems are originally installed from CD-ROM disk.

When the operating system loads, it too may generate error messages and either continue or halt. If the error messages flash by too quickly, or the system hangs at a certain point, you can try a step-by-step boot process by pressing F8 key just after the POST.

The system boot sequenceThe following are the steps in a boot sequence. Of course this will vary by the manufacturer of your hardware, BIOS, etc, and especially due to the peripherals you have connected. Here is what generally happens when you turn on your system power:

1 The internal power supply turns on and initialises. The power supply takes some time until it can generate reliable power for the rest of the computer, and having it turn on prematurely could potentially lead to damage. Therefore, the chipset will generate a reset signal to the processor (the same as if you held the reset button down for a while on your case) until it receives the Power Good signal from the power supply.

2 When the reset button is released, the processor will be ready to start executing. When the processor first starts up there is nothing at all in the memory to execute. Of course processor makers know this will happen, so they pre-program the processor to always look at the same place in the system BIOS ROM for the start of the BIOS boot program.

3 The BIOS performs the POST. If there are any fatal errors, the boot process stops.

4 The BIOS looks for the video card. In particular, it looks for the video card’s built in BIOS program and runs it. The system BIOS executes the video card BIOS, which initialises the video card. Most modern cards will display information on the screen about the video card. This is why on most systems you usually see something on the screen about the video card before you see the messages from the system BIOS itself.

5 The BIOS then looks for other devices’ ROMs to see if any of them have BIOSes. Normally, the IDE/ATA hard disk BIOS will be found and executed. If any other device BIOSes are found, they are executed as well.

6 The BIOS displays its start-up screen.

7 The BIOS does more tests on the system, including the memory count-up test which you see on the screen. The BIOS will generally display a text error message on the screen if it encounters an error at this point.

8 The BIOS performs a ‘system inventory’ of sorts, doing more tests to determine what sort of hardware is in the system. Modern BIOSes have many automatic settings and can dynamically set hard drive parameters and access modes, and will determine these at roughly this time. Some will display a message on the screen for each drive they detect and configure this way. The BIOS will also now search for and label logical devices (COM and LPT ports).

9 The BIOS will detect and configure Plug and Play devices at this time and display a message on the screen for each one it finds.

10 The BIOS will display a summary screen about your system’s configuration. Checking this screen of information can be helpful in diagnosing setup problems, although it can be hard to see because sometimes it flashes on the screen very quickly before scrolling off the top or behind an operating systems splash screen. Try being quick to press the <Pause> key.

11 The BIOS begins the search for a device to boot from.

12 Having identified its target boot device, the BIOS looks for boot information to start the operating system boot process. If it is searching a hard disk, it looks for a master boot record (MBR) at cylinder 0, head 0, sector 1 (the first sector on the disk); if it is searching a floppy disk, it looks at the same address on the floppy disk for a volume boot sector.

13 If it finds what it is looking for, the BIOS starts the process of booting the operating system, using the information in the boot sector. At this point, the code in the boot sector takes over from the BIOS. If the first device that the system tries (floppy, hard disk, etc.) is not found, the BIOS will then try the next device in the boot sequence, and continue until it finds a bootable device.

14 If no boot device at all can be found, the system will normally display an error message and then freeze up the system. What the error message is depends entirely on the BIOS, and can be anything from ‘No boot device available’ to ‘No ROM BASIC—System Halted’.

When diagnosing hardware problems you will need to keep in mind the steps above, particularly for errors that halt the system from starting up.

Error messages

An error message can be produced by different parts of the system, depending on how far into the boot process the system gets before it is produced. Most error messages are produced by the system BIOS, as it is responsible for most of the functions of starting the boot process. However, other error messages are operating system specific.

Error messages that crop up while the system is operational can be generated by different sources, including the system BIOS, the operating system, hardware driver routines, or application software. It is usually possible to determine roughly what is causing the error, since application-specific messages usually mention the application that is generating them. However, error messages that crash a specific application can sometimes be caused by hardware or system problems, especially if the problem occurs in many different applications. This can make diagnosis very difficult.

Even sticking to hardware, there are many thousands of individual error messages; some are more common than others because there are only a few different BIOS companies that are used by the majority of systems in use. However, since the exact wording of an error message can be changed by the manufacturer of each system or motherboard, there are a lot of variations.

In most cases, the messages are pretty similar to each other; you may see a slightly different wording in your error message than the ones listed here, but if the messages meaning will be substantially the same. For example, ‘Disk drive failure’ and ‘Diskette drive failure’ are virtually identical messages.

You may want to consult with your owner’s manual regarding some unusual messages, or to ensure that your manufacturer means the same thing with their messages compared to others.

BIOS beep codesThere usually is a single quick beep sound when a system is turned on, and that often is an audible acknowledgement of a good power supply ie the Power Good signal. However, when diagnosing fatal errors in a system, knowledge of the beep codes, and their meaning, can be the key to quick repair or replacement. Unfortunately not all manufacturers use the same set of codes to mean the same error, so we will have a look at some of the most common.

AMI BIOS beep codes The American Megatrends Inc. (AMI) BIOS is one of the most popular in the personal computing world and is quite consistent in its use of beep codes, across its many different versions.

Beep Code Meaning

1 beep There is a problem in the system memory or the motherboard.

2 beeps Memory parity error. The parity circuit is not working properly.

3 beeps Base 64K RAM failure

4 beeps System timer not operational. There is problem with the timer(s) that control functions on the motherboard.

5 beeps The system CPU has failed.

6 beeps Keyboard controller failure.

7 beeps Virtual mode exception error.

8 beeps Video memory error. The BIOS cannot write to the frame buffer memory on the video card.

9 beeps ROM checksum error. The BIOS ROM chip on the motherboard is likely faulty.

10 beeps CMOS checksum error. Something on the motherboard is causing an error when trying to interact with the CMOS.

Continuous beeping

A problem with the memory or video.

Phoenix BIOS beep codesPhoenix uses sequences of beeps to indicate problems. The ‘-’ between each number below indicates a pause between each beep sequence. For example, 1-2-3 indicates one beep, followed by a pause and two beeps, followed by a pause and three beeps. Phoenix version before 4.x use 3-beep codes, while Phoenix versions starting with 4.x use 4-beep codes. This list is by no means comprehensive.

4- Beep Code Meaning

1-1-1-3 Faulty CPU/motherboard.

1-1-2-1 Faulty CPU/motherboard.

1-1-2-31-1-3-21-1-3-31-2-1-2

Faulty motherboard or one of its components.

1-1-3-2 Failure in the first 64K of memory.

1-1-4-1 Level 2 cache error.

1-1-4-3 I/O port error.

1-2-1-1 Power management error.

1-2-2-1 Keyboard controller failure.

1-2-2-3 BIOS ROM error.

1-2-3-1 System timer error.

1-2-3-3 DMA error.

1-2-4-1 IRQ controller error.

1-3-1-1 DRAM refresh error.

1-3-3-12-3-1-1 2-3-3-3

Extended memory error.

1-3-3-3 Error in first 1MB of system memory.

4- Beep Code Meaning

1-3-4-1 1-3-4-32-2-4-1

1-4-1-3 1-4-2-4

CPU error.

2-1-2-3 BIOS ROM error.

2-1-3-1 2-1-3-3

Video system failure.

2-1-1-3 2-1-2-12-2-3-1

IRQ failure.

2-1-2-3 BIOS ROM error.

2-1-2-4 I/O port failure.

2-1-4-3 2-2-1-1

Video card failure.

2-3-4-1 2-3-4-32-3-4-1 2-3-4-3 2-4-1-1

Motherboard or video card failure.

3-1-4-1 3-2-1-1 3-2-1-2

Floppy drive or hard drive failure.

3-3-1-1 Real Time Clock error.

Award BIOS beep codesAward BIOSes do not have many error beep codes, instead most errors are reported on the screen.

Typical hardware level errors

While the range of possibilities is enormous when it comes to errors and computing problems, there are a few typical errors. For each of the errors, there may be a simple solution, or at least a way of determining the actual cause of the problem. Let’s look at some of them:

System appears deadListen to the power supply and determine if the internal fan starts up. If the fan does not start up then the cause of the problem could be:

The system is not plugged into a power outlet, or the outlet has no power.

The power supply unit is faulty.

There is an internal short circuit and the fan does not start as a protective measure.

The computer is dead!

No videoNo video appears on the screen when the system is performing its POST. Often an audible beep is heard if the BIOS detects the video error, but other likely causes are:

Video card is faulty — swap it out with a known good card.

There is a fault in the motherboard.

The video card is not inserted correctly.

The monitor is turned off or has no power.

No boot device or unable to bootThe system could not find a bootable device; the most likely cause is the hard disk drive. The system summary screen is the first place to check. If the hard disk is listed as a detected device, then the problem may be a logical and not physical problem. Things to consider are:

Missing boot files — they may have been deleted by the user.

A virus has caused damage to the boot files or has corrupted the file system or Master Boot Record (MBR).

A common mistake is a floppy disk being left in the drive.

Cables not connected to hard disk drive properly.

Failure to read hard disk driveThis usually means that there is a serious problem with the drive which may be physical or logical. A physical problem would mean the drive was unserviceable, whereas a logical problem may mean the drive and its contents could be recovered by:

Running a disk checking program like scandisk, fsck, Norton’s Disk Doctor or some other program appropriate to the operating system.

Reinstalling the operating system making sure the drive is formatted. If the option allows it, perform a full format and not a quick format. A full format will make a thorough check of the drive for faulty sectors.

The cable may be faulty or not connected to the hard disk drive properly.

CD-ROM or DVD-ROM drive not reading disksIt is common for copied disks to be difficult to be read in standard CD/DVD-ROM drives. Often the drive (CD/DVD Read Write drive, a.k.a. burner) that was used to copy the disk will be able to read the contents, unless the disk is totally unserviceable. Other possibilities are:

The copying process was never complete and the disk session not closed off. Check the setting on the software in use.

General poor quality disks or CD/DVD burner.

Disk dirty or in need of cleaning.

Faulty drive — when CD-ROM dives first came onto the market, the quality was poor and it seemed as though they were a disposable item. These days the quality and reliability seems much improved.

Floppy drive errorsFloppy disks are notable for their unreliability. This is one reason why it is important to have more than one copy of a disk, or its contents. Things to consider:

Try the disk in another drive or two, if it can be read then the problem is likely the floppy disk drive (FDD) and not the disk.

The cable to the drive has not been connected properly. Most cables to floppy disk drives can be connected to two drives. To distinguish between the first (A) and second (B) drive there is a twist in the wires of the cable. If there is only a single drive (most common) and the cable is not connected at the end of the cable (past the twist) then a drive error message is typical.

The floppy disk has not been formatted to this operating system.

Unable to printMost current printers come with a high degree of intelligence built in and can detect errors like cable not connected, printer offline, out of paper, out of toner/ink etc. Things to consider:

Read the LCD display (if the printer has one) or check the status lights are displaying what they should for normal operation.

Check the print manager software of the operating system to see if the printer is being shown as connected and on-line. If it is not on-line or shown as connected, then it may be a hardware problem.

Change the cable.

Perform a self test on the printer using the LCD display or options on the printer panel. If it performs the test properly then try the options available in the printer control of your operating system.

No network connectivityThe likely cause of networking problems can be many and varied. Without delving into the finer details of networking, the easiest option to try is to change the network cable and check the status lights that are on both the network interface card (NIC) and the hub/switch/router at the other end. If there is activity then the likely cause is not hardware. You can also try switching off, or resetting, the hub/switch/router.

System hangs (locks up)One of the most difficult to problems with personal computers occurs when it appears as though a system is not responding to any user input (key press, mouse movement etc.). The likely causes are many and varied but a few possibilities are:

Faulty memory (RAM) — you could turn memory testing on in CMOS settings which may confirm the problem, or perform a rigorous test using third-party diagnostic software.

Conflict with devices — you should check the systems properties information available on you operating system platform, for any messages or indications of conflict.

Device driver is faulty — try to isolate the problem occurrence to when a particular device is in use, such as a scanner or printer. A driver update may be a solution.

Some poorly designed programs do not behave in a civilised fashionIn other words, programs may take control and not yield to other programs when they need processor time. On some operating systems it is possible to view the activity of applications or processes. In Microsoft Windows XP/2000 you can press the Ctrl + Alt + Delete keys and access the Task Manager. From there you can attempt to kill any process that is consuming more that its fair share of processor time.

The operating system has generally become unstableThe most reliable solution is to reinstall the operating system. Alternatively you may be able to restore to a backup of the system, where performance levels were known to be good.

Typical faultfinding procedures

FlowchartsFaultfinding procedures can be presented in several ways. For instance you could produce sets of flowcharts that consider various options based on Yes/No responses. This technique is useful for training, or use of, first line helpdesk staff in responding to caller’s difficulties. The downside to using flowcharts is that a different flowchart would be needed for every possible problem, which would be very time-consuming to produce and not something that a field technician is likely to carry around. Nevertheless they can be a useful tool.

CommunicateFor more experience technical support staff, sometimes a few pointed questions, to the user of the system, may be able to isolate the cause of a problem quickly. The approach when talking to the user may be to establish a history. Establish a history means to find out what worked before, what changed, and what works now. The solution might be simple – change it back.

Read and respondMake sure you read carefully any error messages. When programmers write programs they usually assign some error code to each possible error that they may expect the program to encounter. If an error message quotes a number, then write it down and check it with the manufacturer or developer. If they know the specific error code then they will be in a position to offer specific and more reliable advice.

Try a workaround. For instance if you read an error message stating that there was ‘No boot device found’, then provide a different boot device. This could be as simple as using another bootable floppy disk, hard disk or even CD-ROM disk. If the system starts up, then you will be in a position to effect repairs.

KISS principleKeep It Simple Stupid (KISS), while sounding strange, is an approach that can be surprisingly effective. Look for the simple things first. For instance:

If a system does not power up as you expect then consider if there is in fact power connected and turn on.

If nothing appears on a monitor, then try a different monitor. Then you will know if the problem is the monitor or within the system unit. Another possibility is that little fingers have turned the brightness control down so that the screen simply appears black, when in fact nothing is wrong.

If you suspect that a video card is faulty, then swap it with a known good card – if the fault continues then you know that the card is not at fault. If another card is not available then, remove the card, power the system and you should hear an appropriate audible error – no beeps and the motherboard is the likely faulty component.

If the mouse-pointer movement seems erratic, then turn the mouse over and clean the rollers, if it still is not working properly then replace it with a new mouse. The cost of some devices is so low, in comparison to the time wasted, that it is just not worth the bother.

Diagnostic toolsThe most useful diagnostic tool that can be used is your brain. The tool should be used in conjunction with the KISS principle. While that is suitable for some obvious problems, there are times when more specific information is needed in order to take the appropriate corrective measures. To get good information about a systems condition, good diagnostic tools are required.

A POST cardWhere a system does not boot, or appears to be dead, there are some specialist interface cards that can be used to diagnose the problem. A set of LEDs (light emitting diodes) display a code that can be referenced from the manual. Example of this type of card would be:

Post-Probe by Micro2000 (www.micro2000.com).

ISA/PCI PC Analyzer Diagnostic Card by Pro Tech Diagnostics (www.protechdiagnostics.com).

Diagnostic softwareWhere a computer is capable of starting to the boot level, you can use diagnostic software in an attempt to isolate the cause of a problem. While there is software that runs on your existing operating system (like Norton’s Utilities), the better software will have its own operating system.

When a program requests access to any hardware device, it should be accessing it through the operating system and any drivers. The problem with this approach is that the operating system shields the higher-level programs from the lower-level hardware functions. If a program were to access the hardware directly, then it is highly likely that the operating system will not respond well and the system could easily crash.

If diagnostic software is operated on its own specially designed operating system, then direct access (via the BIOS) to the hardware will likely yield accurate and thorough details. Having unimpeded access to the low-level functions of the hardware means the diagnostic software is able to run rigorous testing and reporting. After all, it’s unlikely that rigorous memory testing could be performed while there are several other programs currently running in memory.

Examples of good diagnostic software are:

Micro-Scope Diagnostic Suite from Micro2000 (www.micro2000.com)

PC Certify Lite from Pro Tech Diagnostics (www.protechdiagnostics.com)

Use built-in toolsAll operating systems come with utilities that are used for general checking, repair and reporting of faults. Each operating system is different but they do have some tools in common. Tools such as hard disk scanning, such as Scandisk from Microsoft, fsck (file system check) on Unix clones like Linux, and Apple’s Disk First Aid.

If your operating system supports it, then checking the device interrupts and input/output addresses can locate problems associated with hardware conflicts, or apparent inoperative hardware. For instance you may have a sound card installed in a system but have difficulty in getting the device to produce any sound, when you know the device is not faulty.

An example of a Device Manager can be seen using Microsoft Windows XP/2000. Right-click the My Computer icon, select Properties, then click the Hardware tab, then click the Device Manager button. If any items listed have some problem, a yellow symbol with an exclamation (!) is displayed.

Check for conflicting devicesWhen a device (a sound card, mouse, NIC etc.) requires attention from the processor (CPU), it generates an Interrupt Request commonly known as an IRQ. It is the equivalent to a child putting their hand in the air in a classroom, because the teacher’s attention is required for some reason.

There are a set number of interrupts that are available (traditionally just 0-15), for use in the typical personal computer, so it is possible for two or more devices to generate an interrupt using the same IRQ number. This is fine, provided only one device uses that request at any given time. But if a request, say IRQ 7, is generated by two devices simultaneously, then the processor will not be able to distinguish which device is in need of attention. Therefore a conflict occurs.

Each hardware device also has a base address (or IO address) where data is sent or retrieved (input or output). It’s the equivalent of Post Office Boxes, all numbered and where each relates to only one person’s mail. Two people can use the same PO Box, so if two devices share the same address then a conflict occurs.

Fortunately, many of the hardware conflicts of the past are significantly reduced through the use of USB connections. The USB (Universal Serial Bus) controls which device is generating an interrupt and the address of each device.

Swap devicesIn troubleshooting hardware problems with a personal computer, you will need to swap devices ie you replace a suspect component with a known good component. While different devices may be fitted in different ways, the basic steps remain the same. For example, while different types of RAM may be inserted differently — same may have to be inserted at an angle, others pushed directly down — the steps in removing the covers and replacing the component remain the same.

Here is a set of steps for the removal and replacement of the system unit covers:

WarningsIf the case is on a retail or brand-name system that is under warranty, be very sure that opening the case will not void your warranty. Some vendors have this policy, and you may see stickers on the case that say that if they are removed or broken the warranty is void. Some have the policy without the stickers.

Case and system manufacturers are quite creative, so not every imaginable case design is covered here. If you read all of the different choices you are likely to find one that is close to what you have.

Be careful not to touch any of the internal components when removing the cover.

Cover removal procedure

Disconnect cablesMake sure the system itself is off. Detach all the cables from the back of the system case. Make a note of what went where so that you will know how to reconnect them later on.

Remove monitor and other devicesIf you have a desktop case, you of course need to move the monitor so that you can open the case. Also remove any other devices from the top of the case.

Loosen and remove coverThe instructions for removing the cover depend on what sort of case you have. Find the one that best describes your system:

Conventional tower: This is the classic design that has been around for years and is still being sold. Locate the screws along the edge of the back of the case, and remove them using a screwdriver. There are usually four to six. Gently pull back on the U-shaped top cover about a half-inch.; you may have to rock it slightly. Lift the cover up off the frame of the case. Be careful, as these covers are large and unwieldy.

Conventional desktop: The conventional desktop case has been around since the original IBM PC in 1982, and is still sometimes seen in new systems. Locate the screws along the edge of the back of the case, and remove them with a screwdriver. There are usually five but may be fewer. Gently push the cover forward. Watch out for drive faceplates that may become caught on the cover as you try to slide it forward. On some cases, the front cover slides all the way off the front of the case. On others it will slide forward a couple of inches and stop, and then you lift it up off the case.

Slimline Desktop: An odd design found on some proprietary systems, the low-profile case has the screws that hold the cover on the front or rear of the case. Others may in fact be screwdriver-less, using finger tight screws. Look at the front of the case near the bottom, or the centre top at the rear. Loosen the screw(s), and slide the cover forward off the case. Watch out for drive faceplates that may become caught on the cover as you slide it.

Store screws in safe placeIf you forget this step you might regret it later on.

Remember to wear an anti-static wrist strap before touching any internal components.

Post change, re-assembly procedureAfter changing any component, you should take the following basic reassembly procedure.

Power inspectionVerify the following key items related to the system power:

If the system case has a dual voltage switch, make sure it is set to the correct voltage eg 230/240V.

Make sure the power switch is off. You don’t want the system booting up as soon as you connect the power cord.

If you are working in an ATX system, double-check that you have connected the power switch to the motherboard properly.

Make sure all your drives have a power connector attached to them correctly.

Make sure that the CPU fan and any additional case fans have their power connectors attached.

Cable inspection Check the cable connections to make sure they are correct.

Check for loose connections or cables that are misaligned. Make sure the red edge of the cable is lined up to pin 1 of each device

Check the IDE cable(s) going to the hard disk drive and CD-ROM drive.

Check the floppy cable going to the floppy disk drive.

Check the cables that attach the I/O port connectors and PS/2 mouse port connector to the motherboard. Most new motherboards have all these connections integrated on the motherboard, so this is not an issue.

Make sure the cables running to the case switches and LEDs are correct. For instance, if the speaker is not connected you will not be able to hear any audible error beeps, or power good signal.

Motherboard inspectionDouble-check these configuration and installation aspects relevant to the motherboard:

Make sure the memory is inserted into the correct socket(s) and is fully seated.

Make sure the processor is inserted correctly and is all the way into its socket.

Ensure that the heat sink is secured properly to the processor.

Make sure the video card is seated properly in its slot. Some motherboards, particularly proprietary ones, will also have the video fully integrated on the motherboard, so this is not necessary.

Physical interference inspectionCheck the following physical issues:

Ensure that all the drives are properly secured in their bays.

Make sure there are no loose wires in the case that may interfere with any moving objects like the CPU fan. Some video cards can also have a fan attached and some cases can have more than one fan.

Experience shows that it is quicker, and less frustrating, to test the operation of the system before putting the covers back on.

Update driversA driver is a program that is designed to operate a particular device at its lowest hardware level. The benefit of having device drivers is that any application need not know the finer details of how a device works, simply know how to ask it to do whatever it does. For example, to print a graphic on a page, a word processor need only provide the graphic to the driver and issue some command like ‘print_this_graphic(myface.jpg)’.

Drivers are usually supplied by the manufacturer of the device. While many drivers (for a wide range of devices) are included with an operating system, they are originally provided by the manufacturer. As problems are identified by manufacturers (possibly as a result of customer complaints), they will update their drivers to fix the problem. It stands to reason then, that if you have device that is experiencing some problem, that obtaining the updated driver from the manufacturer might rectify the problem. Further, it’s not necessary to wait for a known problem to manifest itself before you choose to update the driver – it’s called a preventative measure.

Not all drivers are simply software added or updated on the operating system. Some devices (including motherboards, modems etc.) can have their ROM BIOS updated through using Flash Memory technology. The term flash memory is applied to special EEPROM (Electronically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) hardware chips. By running a program provided be the manufacturer the latest bug fixes or new protocols etc. can be applied.

However, there is a word of warning in flashing a BIOS. Some manufacturers take little care in checking if the existing BIOS to be updated is of a suitable type and/or model, and possibly provide no option to undo what is done. Flashing a BIOS is not for the faint-hearted as some errors could lead to the device being totally unusable. So it is important to make sure you get the right update!

Warranties

After you have identified a faulty device, you will then have to make the decision to repair, or replace. Realistically, most electronic components are rarely repaired. The cost of finding faulty transistors, diodes, fuses, etc. is a specialist task and is high enough to make it cheaper and faster simply to replace the component. This would be true for items such as video cards, network cards, floppy disk drives, motherboards, etc.

However, there are some peripherals that are likely candidates for repair. For example, a CRT monitor that displays a blurred or dull image can be easily adjusted, as there are brightness and focus adjustments inside the cover. Refocusing a monitor is a 10 minute job for a suitably trained person. Some printers may simply need a print-head or roller replaced, so once again there no need to discard the device as unserviceable. These types of repairs should be carried out by qualified technicians and usually at a specialist repair/service centre.

If a piece of hardware is to be repaired or replaced, then the question of warranty arises. If there is no warranty exists (unlikely), or warranty has expired then perhaps the hardware can be considered as having reached its useful life, and be replaced or upgraded with one that is covered by warranty. The cost of repairs not performed under warranty can often easily justify taking this view.

Even if repairs are to be done under some warranty system then, you might want to consider some of these factors:

Turnaround timeThere will be a turn around time for the repairs from the time you make the call.

CostsYou may be required to pay extra costs such as freight to and from the repair centre.

LocationThe equipment may have to be sent quite some distance to the nearest repair centre.

LoanersIf a repair will take days or weeks, determine if it is possible to provide an alternative device as a stopgap measure. The last thing you want is significant downtime.

Ideally you want an arrangement where you simply make a phone call, the support people come to your premises and replace any faulty components. What you really need in a productive and busy environment is a good Service Level Agreement.

Getting support to work for youIn business you often can’t afford to be unproductive. Imagine a retail outlet with a line of customers and the ‘computer is down and won’t be working for two days’. How much would be lost through lost sales and disgruntled customers? It could be very expensive indeed. When you view the situation from an economical point of view, the seemingly expensive option of on-site 24/7 support services may not seem quite so expensive.

In a less system-critical environment you would still become reliant on good support services, but your needs may only extend from 9-5pm, five days a week. So choosing the support level you need is one aim of a good Service Level Agreement.

A Service Level Agreement (SLA) is a contract between a service provider and the end-user which stipulates and commits the provider to a required level of service. An SLA should contain:

1 a specified level of service

2 the support options

3 the enforcement or penalty provisions for services not provided

4 a guaranteed level of system performance in terms of downtime or uptime

5 a specified level of customer support

6 what software and/or hardware will be supported

7 the fees and charges involved.

A poorly chosen SLA might find that you have on-site support in principle only. For instance, your agreement might be for a technician to go on-site. But after making a call the technician arrives, and the equipment is taken and sent away for repairs. The repairs or replacement might take weeks, with no other equipment acting as a temporary workaround. You may be unproductive during that time; clearly not a satisfactory situation.

Even with a well-chosen SLA you can still assist the support processes when you log a call by:

Performing some initial troubleshooting on the equipment in an attempt to pinpoint the device at fault. In the process you will likely also determine what the cause IS NOT.

Explaining clearly to the first-line support person (whether by phone or email), that you have isolated the cause of the problem, and what the cause is (or is not).

Trying a few options or suggestions provided to further narrow down or solve the problem.

Making sure you get a Call, Job or Request Number or Reference. This number will be vital in being able to track the progress of any work or equipment related to the fault.

Being polite! Think about what it must be like being the person at the other end of the phone that clients constantly complain too.

Escalating is the term applied to passing the problem onto the next level of support. If the fault cannot be initially corrected, then it is passed to a more experienced and technically savvy person or team. Once again if you have the request number, you will be able to track progress more quickly.

Summary

When you first power up a system, it goes through a power on self test commonly referred to as a POST. The BIOS (Basic Input Output System) is the program that controls the POST and handles all the low-level hardware activities. The BIOS uses settings that are stored in CMOS memory.

When an error occurs in a system, there are several ways of determining the nature and cause of the fault. Some critical errors may be determined through beep codes, or messages displayed on the screen, during start-up. Other faultfinding might require the swapping of suspect components with known good components.

Some faults can be rectified by the repair or replacement of the component. Others may not be repaired but replaced or by upgrading the whole unit. Some faults, like a out of focus monitor, can be easily repaired by the appropriate technician.

When needing external repairs or support services, there are factors that need to be considered, such as, if you have isolated the cause of the problem then repairs can be made more quickly. Another is the need for a good service level agreement, one that suits your specific needs. You will have learned that support personnel usually appreciate helpfulness rather than unknown variables and complaining users.

Check your progressNow you should try and do the Practice activities in this topic. If you’ve already tried them, have another go and see if you can improve your responses.

When you feel ready, try the ‘Check your understanding’ activity in the Preview section of this topic. This will help you decide if you’re ready for assessment.