· Web viewThe Laitatu 'l-Qadr, or the "nighht of power," is said by Muhanunad to be either on the twenty-first, twenty third, or twenty-fifth, or twenty-seventh, or twenty-ninth of

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DICTIONARY OF ISLAM.

Q

QABALAH, QIBALAH.

A deed of conveyance of transfer of right or property. Any contract or bargain or sale signed by a judge. (Hidayah, vol. ii. p. 569.)

QABA QAUSAIN.

Lit. "two bows' length." An expression which occurs in the Qur'an, Surah liii, 8-10: "Then he drew near and hovered o'er; until he was two bows' length off or nigher still. Then he revealed to his servant what he revealed him." Commentators understand this to refer to the angel Gabriel. Mystic writers use the term to express a state of nearness to God. (See 'Abdu 'r-Razzaq's Dict. Of Suf'i Terms.)

QABIL.

[CAIN.]

AL-QABIZ.

"The Restrainer." One of the ninety-nine attributes of God. But the word does not occur in the Qur'an.

QABR.

A grave. [GRAVE, TOMB.]

QABUL.

"Consent." A term in the Muhammadan law of marriage, contracts, &c.

QABZ WA BAST.

Two terms which are employed to express two opposite states of the heart; aqbz being a contraction, and bast, an expansion, of the spiritual state. (See 'Abdu 'r-Razzaq's Dict. Of Suf'i Terms.)

QA'DAH.

The sitting posture in the daily prayer, when the tashahhud is recited. [TASHAHHUD.] 478

QADAR.

Lit. "Measuring." (1) The word generally used in the Hadis for fate, or predestination. (2) Al Qadar, the title of the xcviiith Surah of the Qur'an. [TAQDIR, PREDESTINATION.]

QADARIYAH.

A sect of Muhammadans who deny absolute predestination, and believe in the power (qadr) of man's free will, They were the ancient Mutazilahs before al-Wasil separated from the school of Hasan al-Basri.

QADIM.

"Ancient; old." Al-Qaaim, "'The one without beginning." Qadimu 'l-Aiyan, "Ancient of day." God.

AL-QADIR.

"The Powerful." One of the ninety-nine attributes of God The word occurs in the Qur'an, Surah ii. 19, "God is mighty over all." and in many other passages.

QADIRIYAH.

An ascetic order of Faqirs instituted A.H. 561, by Saiyid Abdu 'l-Qadir al-Jilani, surnamed Pir Dastagir, whose shrine is at Baghdad. It is most popular religions order amongst the Sunnis of Asia, [FAQIR, ZIKR.]

QAF.

(1) The twenty-first letter of the Arabic alphabet. (2) The title of the Lth Surah of the Qur'an. (3) The circle of mountains which Easterns fancy encompass the world. The Muhammadan belief being that they are inhabited by demons and jinn, and that the mountain range is emerald which gives an azure hue to the sky. Hence in Persian az qaf ta qaf means the whole world. The name is also used for Mount Caucasus.

AL-QAHHAR.

"The Dominant." One of the ninety-nine names of God. It occurs in the Qur'an, Surah xiii. 17: "He is the One, the Dominant."

QA'IF.

Lit. " Skillful in knowing footsteps." One who can judge of character from the outward appearance.

One instance of the kind is related in the Traditions, namely, 'Ayishah relates, "One day the Prophet came home in high spirits and said, O 'Ayishah, verily Mujazziz al-Mudliiji came and saw Usaniah and Zaid covered over with a cloth, except their feet and he said, 'Verily, I know from these feet the relationship of father and son." (Mishkat, book xiii.ch xv. pt 1.) This knowledge is called Ilmu 'l-Qiqafah.)

QAINUQA'.

A Jewish tribe near al-Madinah in the time of Muhhamad. He besieged them in their stronghold in the second year of the Hijrah, and having conquered them, sent most of them into exile. (See Muir's Life of Mahomet, vol. iii., p. 134.)

QAISAR.

[CÆSAR.]

QAIS IBN SA'D.

One of the leading companions. He was of the tribe Khazraj and, the son of Sa'd, a Companion of note. He was a man of large stature and corpulent, emiment for learning, wisdom, and courage. He commanded the Prophet's body-guard, and under the Khalifah 'Ali - he was made Governor of Egypt. Died at al-Madinah,, A.H. 60.

AL-QAIYUM.

Lit. "The Self-Subsisting" One of the ninety nine attributes of God. It occurs in the Qur'an, Surah iii. 1: "There is no deity but God, the living, the self-subsisting."

QALAM.

Lit. "A. (reed) pen." (1) The pen with which God is said to have pre-recorded the actions of men. The Prophet said the first thing which God created was the Pen (qalam) and that it wrote down the quantity of every individual thing to be created, all

that was and all that will be to all eternity. (See Mishkat.) (2) Al-Qalam. the title of the lxviiith Surah of the Qur'an.

QALANDAR.

A Persian title to an order of faqirs or darwishes. An Ascetic.

AL-QAMAR.

"The moon." The title of the livth Surah of the Qur'an, in the first verse of which the word occures, "And the moon hath been split in sunder." [MOON, SHAQQU 'L-QAMAR.]

QANA'AH.

Contentment, resignation.

QANIT.

Lit. "One who stands in prayer or in the service of God, Godly, devout, prayerful. The term is used twice in the Qur'an:-

Surah xvi. 121: "Verily, Abraham was a leader in religion and obedient to God."

Surah xxxix. 12: "He who observeth the hours of the night in devotion."

QANUN.

Canon; a rule, a regulation, a law, a statute.

QARABAH.

Lit. "Proximity." A legal term in Muhammadan law for relationship.

QARI.

pl. qurra'. "A reader." A term used for one who reads the Qur'an correctly, and is acquainted with the 'Ilmu 't-Tajwid, or the science of reading the Qur'an. In the history of Islam there are seven celebrated Qurra', or " readers," who are known as al-Qurra'u 's-Sab'ah, or "the seven readers." They are:-

1. Imam Ibn Kasir. Died at Makkah, A.H. 120.

2. Imam 'Asim of al-Kufah, who learnt the 'way of reading the Qur'an from 'Abdu 'r-Rahman as-Salãmi, who was taught by the Khalifahs 'Usman and 'Ali. He died at al-Kufah, A.H. 127.

3. Imam Abu 'Umr was born at Makkah, A.H. 70, and died at al-Kufah, A.H. 154. It is on his authority that the following important statement has been handed down: "When the first copy of the Qur'an was written out 479

and presented to the Khalifah 'Usman, he said, 'There are faults of language in it let the Arabs of the desert rectify them with their tongues." The meaning of this is that they should pronounce the words correctly but not alter the written copy.

4. Imam Hamzah of al-Kufah was born A.H. 80, and died A.H. 156.

5. Imam al-Kisa'i who had a great reputation as a Qari', but none as a poet. It was a common saying, among the learned in grammar, that there was no one who knew so little poetry as al-Kisa'i. He is said to have died at Tus about the year 182.

6. Imam Nafi', a native of al-Madinah, who died A.H. 169.

7. Imam ibn 'Amir, who was a native of Syria. His date is uncertain.

AL-QARI'AH. . "The Striking." The title of the CIst Surah of the Qur'an, which begins with the words, " The Striking! What is the Striking? And what shall make thee understand how terrible the striking will be."

JalaIu 'd-din says it is one of the epithets given to the, last day, because it will strike the hearts of all creatures with terror.

QARIN. . Lit. "The one united." The demon which is said to be indissolubly united with every man. (See Mishkat, book xiii. ch. xv.; also Surah xli. 24; Surah xliii. 35; Surah l. 22.)

QARINAR. . The context.A term used in theological and exegetical works.

QARUN. . [KORAH.]

QARZ. . Lit. "Cutting."

(1) A. word used in the Qur'an for good deeds done for God, for which a future recompense will be awarded. e.g. Surah v. 15: "Lend God a liberal loan and I will surely put away from you your evil deeds, and will cause you to enter garden through which rivers flow."

(2) Money advanced as a loan without interest, to be repaid at the pleasure of the borrower.

(3) The word is used in Persian, Urdu, and Pushtoo for money lent at interest, but the legal term for such a debt is riba'.

QASAM. . [OATH.]

QARZ. QASAMAH . Lit. "Taking an oath." An oath under the following circumstances:_

When a person is found slain in a place and it is not known who was the murderers, and his heirs demand satisfaction for his blood from the inhabitants of the district, then fifty of the inhabitants selected by the next kin, must be put to their oaths and depose to this effect.: "I swear by God that I did not kill him, nor do I know the murderer."

This custom is founded upon the Mosaic law. See Deut.. xxi. l-9.

AL-QASAS. . "The narrative " The title of the xxviiith Surah of the Qur'an. So called because in the 25th verse of this chapter Moses is said to have related the narrative of his adventures to Shu'aib.

QASM. . Lit. "To divide." A division of conjugal rights, which is enjoined by Muslim law. (See Mishkat, book xii. ch. x.)

AL-QASWA'. . Lit. "One whose ears are cropt." Muhammad's celebrated she-camel who conveyed him in the flight from Makkah.

QATL. [MURDER.]

QATTAT. . A slanderer. A tale bearer, who, according to the Traditions, will not enter. the kingdom of heaven; for the Prophet has said, "A tale-bearer shall not enter Paradise." (Mishkat, book xxii. ch. x. pt. I.)

QAT'U 'T-TARIQ. [HIGHWAY ROBBERY.]

QAUL. . , A saying; a promise; a covenant. The word occurs in the Qur'an frequently in these senses.

QAUIU 'L-HAQQ. .

"The Word of Truth" A title given to Jesus Christ in the Qur'an, Surah xix, 85: This was Jesus the son of Mary, the word of truth concerning wham they doubt" By the commentators Husain, al-Kamalan, and Abdu 'l-Qadir, the words are understood to refer to the statement made, but al-Baizawi says it is a title applied to Jesus the son of Mary [JESUS CHRIST.]

QAWAD. . "Retaliation." Lex Talonis. [MURDER. QISAS. RETALIATION.].

AL-QAWI. . "The Strong" One of the ninety nine attributes of God. It occurs in the Qur'an, Surah xl 69 "'Thy Lord is the Strong, the Mighty."

QAZA'. . pl. aqziyah.. Lit. "Consummating." (1) The office of a Qazi, or judge (2) The sentence of a Qazi (3) Repeating prayers to make up for having omitted them at the appointed time (4) Making up for an omission in religious duties such as fasting, &c (5) The decree existing in the Divine mind from all eternity, and the execution and declaration of a decree at the appointed time (6) Sudden death.

QAZF. . Lit. "Throwing at." Accusing a virtuous, man or woman of adultery, the punishment for which is eighty lashes, or, in the case of a slave, forty lashes. This punishment was established by a supposed revelation from heaven, when the Prophet's favourite wife, 'Ayishah. was accused of improper intimacy with Safwan Ibnn 'l-Murattil. Vide Qur'an, Suratu 'n-Nur (xxiv.), 4: "But to those who accuse married persons of adultery and produce not four witnesses, them shall ye scourge with four-score stripes." (Hidayah, vol. ii. p. 58.)

480

QIBLAH.

"Anything opposite". The direction in which all Muhammadans must pray, whether in their public or in their private devotions, namely, towards Makkah. It is established by the express injunction of the Qur'ãn, contained in the Suratn l-Baqarab (ii.), 136—l45: -

"Fools among men will say, What has turned them from their Qiblah on which they were agreed? Say, God's is the east and the west, He guides whom He will unto the right path. Thus have we made you a middle nation to he witnesses against men, and that the apostle may be a witness against men. We have not appointed the qiblah on which thou wert agreed, save that we might know who follows the Apostle from him who turns upon his heels, although it is a great thing save to those whom God doth guide. But God will not waste your faith, for verily God with men is kind and merciful. We see thee often turn about thy face in the heavens, we will surely turn thee to a qiblah thou shalt like. Turn, then, thy face towards the Sacred Mosque, wherever, ye be turn your faces towards it, for verily those who have the Book know that it is the truth from their Lord. God is not careless of that which ye do. And if thou shouldst bring to those who have been given the Book every sign, they would not follow your qiblah, nor do some of them follow the qiblah of the others; and If thou followest their lusts after the knowledge that has come to thee, then art thou of the evil-doers. Those whom we have given the Book know him as they know their sons, although a sect of them do surely hide the truth the while they know. The truth (is) from thy Lord, be not therefore one of those who doubt thereof. Every sect has some one side to which they turn (in prayer), but do ye hasten onwards to good works, wherever ye are, God will bring you all together. Verily, God is mighty over all. From whencesoever thou comest forth, there turn thy face to wards the Sacred Mosque; for it is surely truth from thy Lord, God is not careless about what ye do. And from whencesoever thou comest forth, there turn thy face to wards the Sacred Mosque, and wheresoever ye are, turn your faces towards it, that may have no argument against you, save only those of them who are unjust, and fear them not, but fear me, and I will fulfil my favour to you; perchance ye may be guided yet."

In explanation of these verses (which are allowed to be of different periods), and the change of Qiblah, al-Baizawi, the commentator, remarks that when Muhammad was in Makkah he always worshipped towards the Ka'bah; but after the flight to al-Madinah, he was ordered by God to change the Qiblah towards as-Sakhrah, the rock at Jerusalem on which the Temple was formerly erected, in order to conciliate the Jews, but that, about sixteen months after his arrival in al-Madinah, Muhammad longed once more to pray towards Makkah, and he besought the Lord to this effect, and then the instructions were revealed, "Verily we have seen thee turning thy face," &c., as given above. (See al-Baizawi, in loco.)

This temporary change of the Qiblah to Jerusalem is now regarded as "a trial of faith," and it is asserted that Makkah was, always the true Qiblah. But it is impossible for any non-Muslim, not to see in this transaction a piece of worldly wisdom on the part of the Prophet.

Jalhlu 'd-din as-Suyuti admits that the 10th verse of the IInd Surah—which reads:

"The east and the west is God's, therefore whichever way ye turn is the face of God"— has been abrogated by a more recent verse, and that, at one time in the history of Muhammad's mission there was no Qiblah at all.

Major Osborne, remarks in his Islam under the Arabs, p. 58:—

"There have been few incidents more disastrous in their consequences to the human race than this decree of Muhammad, changing the Kibla from Jerusalem to Mekka. Had he remained true to his earlier and better faith, the Arabs would have entered the religious community of the nations as peace-makers, not as enemies and destroyers. To all alike —Jews, Christians, and Muhammadans—there would have been a single centre of holiness and devotion; but the Arab would have brought with him just that element of conviction which was needed to enlarge and vivify the preceding religions. To the Jew he would have been a living witness that the God who spoke in times past to his fathers by the prophets still sent messengers to men, though not taken from the chosen seeds—the very testimony which they needed to rise out of the conception of a national deity to that of a God of all men.

To the Christians, his deep and ardent conviction of God as a present living and working power, would have been a voice recalling them from their petty sectarian squabbles and virtual idolatry, to the presence of the living Christ. By the change of the Kibla, Islam was placed in direct antagonism to Judaism and Christianity. It became a rival faith, possessing an independent centre of existence. It ceased to draw its authenticity from the same wells of inspiration. Jew and Christian could learn nothing from a creed which they knew only as an exterminator; and the Muhammadan was condemned to a moral and intellectual isolation. And so long as he remains true to his creed, he cannot participate in the onward march of men. The keystone of that creed is a black pebble in a heathen temple. All the ordinances of his faith, all the history of it, are so grouped round and connected with this stone, that were the odour of sanctity dispelled which surrounds it, the whole religion would inevitably, perish. The farther and the faster men progress elsewhere, the more hopeless becomes the position of the Muslim. He can only hate the knowledge which would gently lead him to the light. Chained to a black stone in a barren wilderness, the heart and reason 481

of the Muhammadan world would seem have taken the similitude of the objects they reverence; and the refreshing dew, genial sunshines which fertilise all else, seke in vain for anything to quicken there." (Islam under the Arabs, p. 58.)

QIBTI.

Copt. The Christian descendants of the Ancient Egyptians, derived from Coptos, a great city in Upper Egypt now called Gooft. The favourite slave of Muhammad, Mariyah, was a Copt, and is known in Muslim history as Mariyatu '1-Qibtiyah. [MUHAMMAD, WIVES OF.]

For an account of the manners and customs of the Coptic Christians, see Lane's Modern Egyptians.

QIMAR.

Dice or any game of chance. It is forbidden by the Muhammadan religion. (Mishkat, book xvii. ch. ii. pt. 2.)

QINN.

A slave, especially one born in the family and whose father and mother are slaves.

QINTAR.

A talent. A sum of money mentioned in the Qur'an, Surah ii. 67: "And of the people of the Book there are some of them who if thou entrust them with a qintar give it back to you."

Muhammad Tahir, the author of the Majma'u 'l-Bihar, p. 173, says a qintar is a very large sum of money. As much gold as will go into the hide of a cow! or, according to others, 4,000 dinars. Others say it is an unlimited sum, which implies a considerable amount of money.

QIRA'AH.

Lit. "Reading." A term given to the different methods of reading the Qur'an. A science which is termed Ilmu 't-Tajwid. [QUR'AN.]

QIRAN.

Lit. "Conjunction." (1) The conjunction of 'two planets. The performance of the Hajj and the 'Umrah at the same time.

QISAS . From qasas. Lit. "Tracking the footsteps of an enemy." The law of retaliation. The lex talionis of the Mosaic law, with the important exception that in the Muslim law the next of kin can accept a money compensation for willful murder.

The subject of retaliation must be considered, first, as to the occasions affecting life, and, secondly, as to retaliation in matters short of life.

(1) In occasions affecting life, retaliation is incurred by willfully killing a person whose blood is under continual protection, such as a Muslim or a Zimmi, in opposition to aliens who have only an occasional or temporary protection. A freeman is to be slain for a freeman, and a slave for a slave; but according to Abu Hanifah, a freeman is to be slain for the murder of a slave if the slave be the property of another.

A Muslim is also to be slain for the murder of a zimmi, according to Abu Hanifa, but ash-Shafi'i disputes this, because the Prophet said a Muslim is not to be put to death for an infidel. A man is slain for a woman, and adult for an infant, and a sound person for one who is blind, infirm, dismembered, lame, or insane. A father is not to be slain for his child, because the Prophet has said, "Retaliation must not be executed upon the parent for his offspring"; but a child is slain for the murder of his parent. A master is not slain for his slave, and if one of two partners in a slave kill such a slave, retaliation is not incurred. If a person inherit the right of retaliating upon his parent, the retaliation fails. Retaliation is to be executed by the next of kin with some mortal weapon or sharp instrument capable of inflicting a mortal wound.

If a person immerse another, whether an infant or an adult, into water from which it is impossible to escape, retaliation, according to Abu Hanifah, is not incurred, but his two disciples maintain otherwise.

(2) Of retaliation short of life. If a person wilfully strikes off the hand of another, his hand it to be struck off in return, because it is said in the Qur'an (Surah v. 49), "There is retaliation in case of wounds." If a person strike off the foot of another, or cut off the nose, retaliation is inflicted in turn. If a person strike another on the eye, so as to force the member, with its vessels, out of the socket, there is no retaliation; it is impossible to preserve a perfect equality in extracting the eye. If, on the contrary, the eye remain in its place, but the faculty of seeing be destroyed, retaliation is to be inflicted, as in this case equality may be effected by extinguishing the sight of the offender's corresponding eye with a hot iron. If a person strike out the teeth of another, he incurs retaliation: for it is said in the Qur'an, "A tooth for a tooth." (Surah v. 49.)

Retaliation is not to be inflicted in the case of breaking any bones except teeth, because it is impossible to observe an equality in other fractures. There is no retaliation, in offenses short of life, between a man and a woman, a free person and a slave, or one slave and another slave; but ash-Shafi'i maintains that that retaliation holds in these cases. Retaliation for parts of the body holds between a Muslim and an unbeliever, both being upon an equality between each other with respect to fines for the offences in question.

If the corresponding member of the maimer be defective, nothing more than retaliation on that defective member, or a fine; and if such member be in the meantime lost, nothing whatever is due.

There is no retaliation for the tongue or the virile member.

(3) Retaliation may be commuted for a sum of money. When the heirs of a murdered person enter into a composition with the murderer for a certain sum, retaliation is remitted, and the sum agreed to is due, to whatever amount. This is founded upon an express injunction of the Qur'an: "Where the heir of the murdered person is offered anything, by way of compensation, out of 482

the property of the murderer, let him take it." And also in the Traditions, it is related that Muhammad said (Mishkat, book xiv.): "The heir of the murdered person is at liberty either to take retaliation, or a fine with the murderer's consent." Moreover, it is maintained by Muhammadan jurists that retaliation is purely a matter which rests with the next of kin, who are at liberty to remit entirely by pardon, and that therefore a compensation can be accepted which is advantageous to the heirs and also to the murderer.

When a person who has incurred retaliation dies, the right of retaliation necessarily ceases, and consequently no fine is due from the murderer's estate. [MURDER.]

QISSIS.

Persian kashish. A Christian presbyter or priest. The occurs once in the Qur'an, Surah v. 85:-

Thou shalt certainly find those to be nearest in affection to them who say, We are Christians." This because some of their priests (qissisun) and monks (ruhban), and because they are free from pride"

QITFIR.

Potiphar alluded to in the Qur'an, Surah xii. 21, as "the man form Egypt", who had bought him (Joseph). Al-Baizawi, the commentator, says his name was Qitfir

QIYAM.

Lit. "Standing." (1) The standing in the Muhammadan prayers when the Subhan, the Ta'awwuz, the Tasmiyah, the Fatihah, and certain portions of the Qur'an, are recited. [PRAYER.] (2 ) Yaumu 'l-Qiyam, the Day of Judgment.

AL-QIYAMAH .

"The Standing up. (1) The Day of Resurrection [RESURRECTION.] (2) The title of the LXXVth Surah of the Qur'an. (3) The Sufis use the term in a spiritual sense for the state of man who, having counted himself dead the world, " stands up" in a new life in God. (See 'Abdu 'r-Razzao's Dict. of Sufi Terms.

QIYAS .

Lit. "To compare." The fourth foundation of Islam, that is to say. the anological reasoning of the learned with regard to the teaching of the Qur'an, Hadis. and Ijma'.

There are four conditions of Qiyas : (1) That the precept or practice upon which it is founded must, be of common ('amro) and not of special (khass) application , (2) The

cause ('illah) of the injunction must, be known and understood; (3) The decision must be based upon either the Qur'an, the Hadis, or the Ijma'; (4) The decision arrived at must be contrary to anything declared elsewhere in the Qur'an and Hadis.

Qiyas is of two kinds, Qiyas-l Jali, or evident, and Qiyas-i-Khaf'I, or hidden.

An example of Qiyas-l-Jali is as follows: Wine is forbidden in the Qur'an under word khamr which literally means anything intoxicating; it is, therefore, evident that opium and all intoxicating drugs are also forbidden.

Qiyas-l-Khaf'I is seen in the following example :—ln the Hadis it is enjoined that one goat in forty must be given to God. To some poor persons the money may be more acceptable; therefore, the value of the goat may be given instead of the goat.

QUBA.

A place three miles from al-Madinah, where the Prophets she-camel., al-Qaswa' knelt down as she brought her master on his flight from Makkah, and where Muhammad laid the foundations of a mosque. This was the first place of public prayer in Islam. Muhammad laid the first brick with his javelin, and marked out the direction of prayer. It is this mosque which is mentioned in the Qur'an, Surah ix. 109:—

There is a mosque founded from its first day in piety. More worthy is it that thou enter therein: therein are men who aspire to purity, and God loveth the purified."

It is esteemed the fourth mosque in rank, being next to that al-Makkah, al-Madinah, and Jerusalem, and tradition relates that the Prophet said one prayer in it was equal to a lesser pilgrimage to Makkah. [UMRAH.] Captain Burton says:-

"It was originally a square building of very small size; Osman enlarged it in the direction of the minaret, making it sixty-six cubits each way. It is no longer 'mean and decayed' as in Burckhardt's time. The Sultan Abdel Hamid, father of Mahmud, created a neat structure of cut stone, whose crenelles make, it look more like a place of defence than of prayer. It has, however, no pretensions to grandeur. The minaret is of Turkish shape. To the south, a small and narrow Riwak (riwaq), or raised hypo-style, with unpretending columns, looks out northwards upon a little open area simply sanded over, and this is the whole building."

AL-QUDDUS.

"The Holy." One of the ninety-nine names of God. It occurs in the Qur'an, Surah lix. 23 "He is God besides whom there is no deity, the King, the Holy."

QUDRAH.

Power. Omnipotence. One of the attributes of God al-Qudratu l-halwa'. The sweet cake of God, i e. The manna of Israel. The word Qudrah does not occur in the Qur'an.

QUNUTU L-WITR.

A special supplication said after the Witr prayers, or, according to some, after the morning prayers. It was at such times that the Prophet would pray for the liberation of his friends and for the destruction of his enemies.

For the different forms of supplication, see Mishkat, book iv. chapters xxxvi and xxxvii. The following is the one usually recited. "O God! direct me amongst those to whom Thou hast shown the right road, and keep me in safety from the calamities of this world and the nest, and love me amongst those Thou hast befriended. Increase Thy favours on me, and preserve me from ill; for verily Thou canst order at Thy will, and canst not 483

be ordered. Verily none are ruined that Thou befriendest; nor are any made great whom Thou art at enmity.

QURAISH.

The Arab tribe from which Muhammad was descended, and of which his grandfather, 'Abdu l-Muttalib was chief or prince. This tribe occupies a very prominent place in the Qur'an and in Muhammadan history. In the Traditions, a special section is not apart for a record of the savings of the Prophet regarding the good qualities of this title.

Muhammad is related to have said: "Whosoever wishes for the destruction of the Quraish, him may God destroy."

Ibn 'Umar relates that the Prophet said, "The office of Khalifah should be in the Quraish as long as there are two persons in the tribe, one to be ruler and the other to be ruled." (Mishkat, book xxiv. c. xii.)

The Sharif, or Sheriff of Makkah, is always of the Quraish tribe, but ever since the extinction of the Abbaside KhaIifahs, the Sultans of Turkey have held the office of Khalifah, who are not of this tribe. [KHALIFAH.]

For an account of the Quraish, refer to Sir William Muir's Lifje of Mahomet, vol. i. Intro. excv. See also article [ARABIA.]

Muhamrnad Tahir, in his Majma'u 'l-Bihar vol. ii.. p. 138, says Quraish is the name of a great marine monster which preys on fish, and was given to this tribe on account of its strength and inportance amongst the tribes of Arabia. Quraish is the title of the cvith Surah of the Qur'an.

QURAIZAH.

A tribe of Jews located near al-Madinah is the time of Muhammad. They at first professed to support his mission, but afterwards became disaffected. The Prophet asserted that he had been commanded by God to destroy them, and a complete massacre of the men took place, and the women and children were taken captive. The event Is referred to at length in the xxxiiird Surah of the Qur'an.531


R.

AR-RABB. "The Lord," "The Sustainer," "The supporter." A title frequently used in the Qur'an for the Divine Being, e.g.:-

Surah iii. 44: "God (Allah) is my Lord (Rabb) and your Lord (Rabb)."

Surah xviii 13: "Our Lord (Rabb) is the Lord (Rabb) of the heavens and the earth."

From its frequent occurrence in the Qu'ran, it would seem to occupy the place of the Hebrew Jehovah, the of the LXX., the Dominus of the Vulgate, and the LORD of the English Bible; but all Muslim writers say that whilst Allah is the Ismu 'z-Zat or "Essential name of God," ar- Rabb, "the Lord," is but, an Ismu Sifah, or attribute, of the Almighty.

Al-Baizawi, the commentator (p. 6, line 10, of Flugul's edition), says, "rubb, in its literal meaning, is 'to bring up,' that is, to bring or educate anything up to its perfect standard, by slow degrees, and inasmuch as the Almighty is He who can bring everything to perfection, the 'word ar-Rabb, is especially applied to God."

It is the Hebrew Rab, which enters into the composition of many names of dignity and office in the Bible.

In Muslim works of theology, the word occurs with the following combination:-

Rabbu 'l-'Izzah…. Lord of GloryRabbu 'l-'Alamin …. Lord of the Universe.Rabbu 'l-'Arbab …. Lord of Lords.Rabbu 'l-'Ibad …. Lord of (life) Servants

The word is also used for a master or owner, e.g.:-

Rabbu 'd-Dar…. The Master of the house.Rabbu 'l-Arz…. A Landowner.Rabbu 'l-Mul…. A possessor of property.Rabbu 's-Salaf…. A person who pays in advance for an article

RABBU 'N-NAU. The "Lord of the Species." An angel who is said to preside over the animate and inanimate creation, viz. nabutat, "vegetable"; haiwanat, "animal"; jamadat, "inanimate" (stones, earth, &c.), called al-'alamu, 's-Sufii, "the lower creation," an distinguished from al-'alamu 'l-'ulwi, " the heavenly world" (See Ghiyasu 'l-Lughah.)

RABFU 'L-AKHIR. "The last spring month." The fourth month of the Muhammadan year. [MONTHS.]

RABI'U 'L-AWWAL. "The first spring month." The third month of the Muhammadan year. [MONTHS.]

In India, the word rubi' is used for spring harvest, or crop sown after the rains.

RACHEL. Arabic Rahil Heb. Rahel. The wife of Jacob and the mother of Joseph. Not mentioned in the Qur'an, but the name occurs in commentaries.

The English form Rachel is a strange error on the part of our translators, who almost invariably represent the Hebrew by the letter h. The correct form, Rahel, which is the form familiar to Muslim writers, occurs once In the English Bible, Jer. xxxi. 15.

AR RA'D. "Thunder." The title of the xiiith Surah of the Qur'an, in the 14th verse of which the word occurs. "The thunder celebrates his praise."

RADD. "Rejection, repulsion, refutation, reply; repeal, abrogation, making null sad void sometimes, erasure. In Muhammadan law it applies especially to the return or surplus of an inheritance which remains after the legal portions have been distributed among the sharers, and which, in default of a residuary heir, returns, or is to be divided amongst the original sharers.

RADDU 'S-SALAM. The returning of a salutation which is an incumbent duty upon one Muslim to another. [SALUTATION.]

AR-RAFI'. . "The Exalter." One of the ninety-nine names or attributes of God. The word occurs in the Qur'an. Surah iii. 48: "When God said, O Jesus! I will make thee die and will take take up again to myself" .

RAFI' IBN KHADIJ.

One of the Sahabah. He was too young to be present at Badr, but he accompanied Muhammad at Uhud and was wounded with an arrow, on which occasion the Prophet said to him, " I will answer for

532

you in the Day of Judgment." He cited at al-Madinah. A.H. 73, aged 86.

RAFIZI. Lit. "A forsaker,' Synonymous with Rafizah (pl. Rawafiz) A term used for a body of soldiers, who have deserted their commander and turned back again. applied to a sect of Shi'ahs who joined Zaid the son of 'Ali, the son of al-Husain, the second son of the Khalifah 'Ali who when they had submitted to Zaid, demanded that he should abuse Abu Bakr and Umar, the first two Khalifahs of the Sunnis; but Zaid refused to do so, for he said, "They were both Wazirs of my forefather Muhammad." Upon this they forsook the party of Zaid, and were called Rafizah. Zaid had then only fourteen faithful companions left, and be was soon surrounded by al-Hajjaj ibn Yusef. the general of the Imam Ja'far's army, and fell at the head of his brave companions,. not one of them surviving him.

(2) The term Rafizi is used by Sunni Muslims for any sect of Shi'ahs.

RAHBANIYAH. . [MONASTICISM.]

RAHIB. pl. Ruhban. A Christian monk. Mentioned in the Qur'an. Surah v. 86: "Thou wilt find the nearest in love to those who believe to be those who say, 'We are Christians; that is, because there are amongst them priests (qissisun) and monks (ruhban), and because they are not proud." [MONASTICISM.]

RAHIL. . Lit. "That which is fit for travelling." A small book stand made so as to fold up for convenience in travelling, but now is generally used as a book

stand in mosques and Muslim schools to support the Qur'an and other books as the student reads his lesson from them. They are also used in private dwellings.

AR-RAHIM. "The Compassionate." One of the ninety-nine names or attributes of God. It generally occurs in conjunction with the attribute ar-Rahman, e.g. Qur'an, Surah ii. 158: The Merciful, The Compassionate." [RAHMAN.]

RAHMAR. , Heb. ritham. "Mercy, compassion." The attribute of mercy is frequently dwelt upon in the Qur'an, e.g. Surah vii. 54: "The mercy of God is nigh unto those who do well."

Surah x. 58: "A guidance and a mercy to believers"

Surah vi, 183 "Thy Lord is the rich one, full of compassion."

Ar-Rahman, "The Merciful" is one of the chief attributes of the Almighty.

AR-RAHMAN. , Heb. rahum"The Merciful." One of the ninety-nine names or attributes of God. It generally occurs in conjunction with the ar-Rahim, e.g., Surah ii. 159: "Your God is one God. There is no god but He, the Merciful, the Compassionate" It also occurs in the initial formula. placed at the commencement of each Surah, with the exception of the ixth. "In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate"

Al-Baizawi says that ar-Rahman is a more exalted attribute than ar-Rahim, because it not only contains five letters whilst Rahim only has four, but it expresses that universal attribute of mercy which the Almighty extends to all mankind, the wicked and the good, believers and unbelievers.

RAHN. . Pledging or pawning. A Legal term which signifies the detention of a thing on account of a claim which may be answered by means of that thing; as in the case of debt. This practice of pawning and pledging is lawful in Islam, for it is related that the Prophet, in a bargain with a Jew for grain, gave his coat of mail in pledge or the payment. It is also said in the Qur'an, Surah ii 28:- "Let. pledges be taken. The word is used in the Qur'an in its plural form rihan. (For further information on the subject of Pawning, see Hamilton's Hidayah, vol. iv. p. 188.)

RAIHANAH. . A Jewess whose husband had been cruelly murdered in the massacre of the Banu Quraizah. Muhammad offered to marry her if she would embrace Islam; but she refused to forsake the faith of her forefathers, and consented to become his concubine instead of his wife

RAHIL. RAIN. Arabic matar , Heb. mator. Mentioned ha the Qur'an as one of God's special mercies. Surah vii. 56; "He it is who sends forth the winds as heralds before His mercy; until when they left the heavy cloud which We drive to a dead land, and send down thereon water, and bring forth therewith every kind of fruit."

Prayers for rain are called Salatu-'l-Istisqa', and consist of two rakah prayers. Anas says that on one occasion they were caught in the rain, and the Prophet took off his garment until he got wet, and they said, O Prophet, why have you done this?" He replied. "This is fresh rain from our Lord. (Mishkat, book iv. ch. liii.)

RA'INA. . A word the use of which is forbidden in the Qur'an, Surah li. 98: "O ye who believe I say not to the Apostle Raina' (i.e. . Look at us), but say, 'Unzurna' (i.e. 'Regard us )." These two words have both the same signification, but Muhammad had a great aversion to the use of the word ra-ina, because it had also a bad meaning in Hebrew (see al-Baizawi in 533

loco), alluding, prrhaps to the Hrbrew verb rua' which signifies to be mischievous or bad."

RAINBOW. Arabic qausu quzah , Heb. kesheth.

"The bow of many colours. Not mentioned in the Qur'an, but in the Traditions. In the book entitled an-Nihayah, it is said that Muhammad forbade his people calling the rainbow qausa quzah, because quzah is one of the names of Satan (one who can assume many characters in order to tempt the sons of men). He enjoined them to call it Qausu 'llah. God's bow," because by it, God has promised to protect the world front a second deluge. (Mujma'u 'l-Bihar, vol ii. p. 142.)

The Persians call it Kaman-i-Rustum, " the bow of Rustum" (See Muntaha 'l-Arab, in loco).

RAIYAN. . Lit. "One whose thirst is quenched" The gate of Paradise through which, it is said, the observers of the mouth of Ramazan will enter. It is mentioned in the Traditions (Mishkat, book vi ch. vii. pt. 1), but not in the Qu.r'an.

RAIYAN IBN AL-WALID. . The King of Egypt in the time of Joseph. (See al-Bazawi on Suratu Yusuf in the Qur'an.

RAJAB. . Lit. "The honoured month." The seventh month of the Muhanmmasdan year. So called because of the honour in which it was hold in the "Time of Ignorance." i.e. before Islam. It. is called Rajabu Muzar, because the Muzar tribe honoured it more than any other month. [MONTHS.]

RAJ'AH. . "Restitution." Receiving back a wife who has been divorced, before the time has fully elapsed when the divorce must of necessity take place. In other words, the continuance of the marriage bond. (Hidayah, vol. i. p. 289.

RAJIM. . Lit. "One who is stoned" A name given to Satan in the Qur'an Surah iii. 31: "I have called her Mary, and I seek refuge in Thee for her, and for her seed from Satan, the pelted one (Min ash-Shaituni 'r-Rajimi).

Muhammad taught, that the devil and his angels listen at the gates of heaven for scraps of information regarding the things of futurity, and when detected by the angels of heaven they are pelted with shooting stars. Abraham is said to have driven the devil away by pelting him with stones, which legend is expressed in the throwing stones at the pillars at Mina. [PILGRIMAGE.]

RAJM. .' "Lapidation." [STONING TO DEATH.]

RAK'AH. . From Ruku', "to bow, to prostrate one's self. A section of the Muhammadan daily prayers. [PRAYERS.]

RAMAZAN. .. The ninth month of the Muhammadan year, which is observed as a strict fast from dawn to sunset of each day in the month. The word Ramazan is dervied from ramz, "to burn." The month is said to have been so called either because it was used (before the change of the calendar) to occur in the hot season, or because the month's fast is supposed to burn away the sins of men. (Ghiyusu 'l-Lughah, in loco.)

The observance of this month is one of the five pillars of practice in the Muslim religion, and its excellence is much extolled by Muhammad, who said that during Ramazan "the gates of Paradise are open, and the gates of hell are shut and the devils are chained by the leg, and only those who observe it will be permitted to enter at the gate of heaven called Raiyan" Those who keep the fast will be pardoned all their past venial sins." (Mishkat, book vii. ch i. Pt. I.)

'The express injunctions regarding the observance of this mouth are given in the Qur'an, Surah ii. 179—184:— "O believers! a Fast is prescribed to you as it was prescribed to those before you, that ye may fear God, for certain days. But he among you who shall be sick, or on a journey. shall fast that same number of other days: and as for those who are able to keep it and yet break it, the expiation of thus shall be the maintenance of a poor man. And he who of his own accord performeth a good work, shall derive good from it: and good shall it be for you to fast — if ye knew it. As to the month Ramazan in which the Qur'an was sent down to be man's guidance. and an explanation of that guidance, and of that illumination as soon as any one of you observeth the moon, let him set about the fast; but he who is sick, or upon a journey, shall fast a like number of other days. God wisheth you ease, but wisheth not your discomfort, and that you fulfil the number of days, and that you glorify God for his guidance, and that you be thankful. And when my servants ask thee concerning me, then will I be nigh unto them. I will answer the cry of him that crieth, when ho crieth unto me: but let them hearken unto me, and believe in me, that they may proceed aright. You are allowed on the night of the fast to approach your wives: they are your garment and you are their garment. God knoweth that ye defraud yourselves therein, so He turneth unto you and forgiveth you! Now, therefore, go in unto them with fall desire for that which God hath ordained for you; and eat and drink until ye can discern a white thread from a black thread by the daybreak: then fast strictly till night, and go not in unto them, but rather pass the time in the Mosques. These arc the bounds set up by God: therefore come not near them. Thus God maketh his signs clear to men that they may fear him."

From the preceding verses it, will be seen that fast does not commence until some Mus- 534

lim is able to state that be has seen the new moon. If the sky he over-clouded and the moon cannot be seen, the fast. begins upon the completion of thirty days from beginning of the previous month.

It must be kept by every Muslim, except the sick, the infirm, and pregnant women, or women who are nursing their children. Young children, who have not reached the age of puberty, are exempt, and also travellers on a journey of more than three days. In the case of a sick person or traveler, the month's fast must be kept as soon us they are able to perform it. This act is called Qaza', or expiation.

The fast is extremely rigorous and mortifying, and when the Ramazan happens to fall in the summer and the days are long, the prohibition even to drink a drop of water to slake the thirst is a very great, hardship. Muhammad speaks in this religious exercise as "easy" (Qur'an; Surah ii. 181), as most probably it was when compared with the ascetic spirit of the times. Sir William Muir (Life of Mahomet, vol. iii. 49) thinks Muhammad did not foresee that, when he changed the Jewish intercalary year for the lunar year, the fast would become a grievous burden instead or an easy one; but Muhammadan lexicographers say the fast was established when the month occurred in the hot season (see Ghiyasy 'l-Lughah).

During the mouth of Ramazan twenty additional rakahs, or forms of prayer, are repeated after the night prayer These are called Tarawih.

Devout. Muslims seclude themselves for some time in the Mosque during this month, and abstain from all worldly conversation, engaging themselves in the reading of the Qur'an. This seclusion is called I'tikaf. Muhammad is said to have usually observed this custom in the last ten days of Ramamzan. The Laitatu 'l-Qadr, or the "nighht of power," is said by Muhanunad to be either on the twenty-first, twenty third, or twenty-fifth, or twenty-seventh, or twenty-ninth of the month of Ramazan. The exact date of this solemn night has not been discovered by any but the Prophet himself, and some of the Companions, although the learned doctors believe it. to lie on the twenty-seventh of this night Muhamnmad says in the Qur'an (Suratu 'l-Qadr):-

"Verily we have caused it (the Qur'an) to descend on the night of power.And who shalt teach thee what the night is?The night of power excelleth a thousand months;Therein descend the angels and the spirit by permissionOf their Lord in every matter;And all is peace till the breaking of the morn."

By these verses the commentator Husain understands that on this night the Qur'an came down entire in one volume to the lowest heaven, from whence it was revealed by Gabriel in portions, as the occasion required. The excellences of that night are said to be innumerable, and it is believed that during it the whole animal and vegetable kingdom bow in humble adoration to the Almighty, and the waters of the sea become sweet in a moment of time. This night is frequently confounded with the Shab-I-Barat, but even the Qur'an itself is not quite clear on the subject., for in Surah xliv., it reads, "By this clear book See on a blessed night have we merit it down, for we would warn mankind, on the night wherein all things are disposed in wisdom." From which it appears that "the blessed night," or the Lailatu 'l-mubarakah, is both the night of record and the night upon which the Qur'an came down from heaven, although the one is the twenty-seventh day of Ramazan and the other the fifteenth of Sha'ban.

M. Geiger identifies the Ramazan with the fast of the tenth (Leviticus xxiii. 27); but it is probable that the fast of the Tenth is identical with the 'Ashara', not only because the Hebrew Asur, "ten," is retained in the title of that Muhammadan fast, but also because there is a Jewish tradition that creation began upon time Jewish last of the Tenth which coincides with the Muhammadan day, 'Ashura' being regarded as the day of creation. Moreover, the Jewish Asur and the Muslim 'Ashura' are both fasts and days of affliction. It is more probable that. Muhammad got his idea of a thirty days' fast from the Christian Lent. The observance of Lent in the Eastern Church was exceedingly strict, both with regard to the nights as well as the days of that season of abstinence; but Muhammad entirely relaxed the rules with regard to the night, and from sunset till the dawn of day the Muslim is permitted to indulge in any lawful pleasures, and to feast with his friends; consequently large evening dinner parties are usual in the nights of the Ramazan amongst the better classes. This would be what Muhammad meant when he said, "God would take the fast an ease and not a difficulty," for, notwithstanding its rigour in the day-time, it must he an easier observance than time strict fast observed during Lent by the Eastern Christians of Muhammad's day.

The following sayings of Muhammad regarding the fast of Ramazan are found in the Traditions (see Mishkat, Arabic Ed., Kitabu 's- Saum).

The difference between our fast and that of the people of the book (i.e. Jews and Christians) is eating only before the first dawn of day (and not afterwards)."

"Keep net the fast till you see the new moon, and if the moon be hidden from you by clouds, count the days." And in one tradition it is thus : — "A month is twenty-nine nights, then keep not the fast till you see the new moon, which, if she be hid from you by clouds, then complete thirty days."

"When the darkness of the night advances from the west and the day departs front the east, and the sun sets, then the keeper of the fast may begin to eat."

"There are eight doors in Paradise, and 535

one is called Raiyan, by which only the keepers of the fast shall enter."

When the month Ramazan arrives the doors of Heaven are opened (in another tradition it is said, the doors of Paradise are opened), " and the doors of hell are shut, and the devils are chained " (in one tradition it is said, the doors of God's mercy are opened).

"The person who fasts in the month of Ramazan on account of belief in God and in obedience to His command, shall be pardoned of all his past sins, and the person who says the night prayers of the Ramazan shall be pardoned all his past sins, and the person who says the prayers on he Lailatu l-Qadr with faith and hope of reward shall be pardoned of all his past sins."

"If a keeper of rest does not abandon lying. God cares not about his leaving off eating and drinking."

"There are many keepers of fast who gain nothing by fasting but thirst, and there are many risers up at night and performers of prayers who gain nothing by their rising but wakefulness."

RAMYU 'L-JIMAR. The throwing of pebbles at the pillars, or Jumrah, at Makkah. A religious ceremony during time Pilgrimage. [PILGRIMAGE.]

RAQABAH. . Lit. "The Neck"; pl. riqab. A term used in the Qur'an for a captive slave. Surah iv. 94. "Whosoever kills a believer by mistake, then let him free a believing neck."

The word is used in India for an enclosed area of land. (See Wilson's Glossary of Indian Terms.)

AR-RAQIB. . "The Watcher over." One of the ninety-nine names or attributes of God Almighty. The word occurs in the Qur'an, e.g. Surah iv. 1 "Verily God doth watch ever you."

AR-RAQIM. . A word which occurs in the Qur'an, Surah xviii. 8: "Hast thou reckoned that the Fellows of the cave and the Raqim wore a wonder amongst our signs?" The commentators are not agreed as to the meaning of this word. The Jalalan say, it was a brass plate or stone-table, on which the names of the Fellows of the Cave were written. The Kamalan say it was either the name of the dog which belonged to the young men, or of the valley in which the cave was situated.

AR-RASHID. .. "The Rightly Directing." One of the ninety-nine names or attributes of God. The word occurs once in the Qur'an, but it is not there used for thug Almighty. See Surah xi. 80: "Is there not among you one who can rightly direct?"

RASM. ., pl. Rusum. Lit. "That which is stamped or sealed. According to the Qur'an, but it is a very ancient word used in Arabia before the days of the Prophet for custom and law, the ancient records of the people being entitled Rawasim , It me a word which is very common in Hindustan for the customs and usages of the people.

AR-RASS. . A word which occurs twice in the Qur'an the meaning of which is uncertain.

Surah xxv. 40: "The people of 'Ad. and Samud, the people of the Russ."

Surah 1. 12: "Before them the people of Noah and the follows of the Rass and Samud and Ad and Pharaoh, called time Apostles liars."

According to the commentators al-Jalalan, it is the name of a well near Midian. Some take it to be the name of a town in Yamamah.

RASUL. ., pl. Rusul. "An Apostle." A title specially applied to Muhammad, but used also for all Prophets who brought inspired books. [PROPHET.]

RATL, RITL. . (1) A certain thing which one weighs. A weight or measure. (See the The Mughrib of al-Mutarrizi in loco. (2) That which is chaste. (See the Tuju 'l-'Arus, in loco).

(1) According to the standard of Baghdad, a weight of 12 ounces, and as a measure of capacity, a pint. (Lane's Arabic Dictionary.) Muhammad used to give a ratl of silver as a marriage present, which has given rise to the expression, As-sunnatu fi 'n-nikahi ritlun ., Professor Wilson says that at Bombay the rotal is equal to 36 Surat rupees, and in the Red Sea the rottolo, as it is corruptly called, varies from 10 to 20 ounces avoirdupois.

(2) A boy not having arrived at puberty.

(3) An aged man.

AR-RA'UF. ., "The Kind." One of the ninety-nine names or attributes of God. It occurs frequently in the Qur'an, e.g. Surah ii. 138: "God is kind and merciful with mankind."

AR-RAUZAH. ., Lit. "The Garden." The garden in which is situated the tomb of Muhammad at al-Madinah. The name is also given to the tomb itself by some writers.

RAVEN. Arabic, guraib ., Heb. ., 'oreb. Mentioned once in the Qur'an, Surah v. 34 "Am I too helpless to become like this raven and hide my brother's shame." The raven is not lawful food according to the Muslim law. (Durru 'l-Mukbtar, vol iv. p. 523.)

RAWA. RAWA ., A Persian word for that which is lawful. [LAW.]

AR-RAZZAQ. ., "The Provider with Food." One of the ninety-nine names or attributes of God. It occurs in the Qur'an once. Surah li. 58: " Verily God; He is the Provider." 536

REBEL. Arabic baghi pl. bughat. A legal term for a person, or a body of people, who withdraw themselves from obedience to the rightful Imam. In case of rebellion, the Imam must first call the rebels to his allegiance and show them what is right and if they refuse to obey, he must use force of arms. (Hidayah, vol. ii. 243.)

RECORDING ANGELS, The. [KIRAMU 'L-KATIBIN.]

RED SEA. Arabic al-Bahru '- Ahmar . Mentioned in the Qur'an as al-Bahr, the Sea."

Surah i. 47: "When we divided for you the sea and, saved you and drowned Pharaoh's people.

Surah x. 90: "And We brought the Children of Israel across the sea."

In Mohammedan works it is known as the Bahru 'l-Qulzum, or Qalzam. Jalalain 'd-Din, the commentator, says the town of Qulzum is the same as Ailah (the Elath of time Bible, Deut- ii. 8), a town at the head of the Arabian Gulf. The of Strabo (xvi. p. 768). It is referred to in the Qur'an, Surah vii. 163 "ask them about the city which stood by the sea. Elath was at one time a place of importance, but it has now become quite insignificant.

RELIGION. The religion of Muhammadans is called Islam and the laws of God Shari'ah . There are three words used by Muslim writers for the word religion, namely, Din, Millah etc. and Muzhab. In the Kitaba 'l-Ta'rifat the difference between these words is as follows:-

Din is used for religion as it stands in relation to God. e.g. Dinu'llah,. "the religion of God."

Millah , as it stands in relation to the Prophet or lawgiver, e.g.Millatu Ibrahim "the religion of Abraham," or Millatu 'r-Rasul "the Prophet's religion."

Mazhab , as it stands in relation to the decisions of the Mujtahidua e.g. Muzkabu Abi Hanifah.

The expression Din, however, is of general application, whilst Millah and Mazhab are restricted in their use. [ISLAM.]

RELIGIOUS DUTIES. The performance of.

Strictly according to Muhammadan law, it is not lawful to accept any remuneration for the performance of religious duties. But these injunctions are now totally disregarded, and fees are taken for almost every religious duty performed by an Imam. The teaching of the Hidayah on the subject is as follows:-

"It is not lawful to accept a recompense for summoning the people to prayers, or for the performance of a pilgrimage, or of the duties of an Imam, or for teaching the Koran, or the law; for it is a general rule with our doctors that no recompense can be received for the performance of any duty purely of a religious nature. According to Shafei, it is allowed to receive pay for the performance at any religious duty which is

not required of the hireling in virtue of a divine ordinance, as this is only accepting a recompense for a certain service; and as the acts above described are not ordained upon the hireling, it is consequently lawful to receive a recompense for them. The arguments of our doctors upon this point are twofold. First, the prophet has said, 'Read the Koran, but do not receive any recompense for so doing'; and he also directed Othman-bin-Abeeyas, that if he were appointed a Mawzin [a cryer to prayer] he should not take any wages Secondly, where an act of piety is performed, it springs solely from the performer (whence regard is had to his competency), and consequently he is not entitled to any recompense from another as in the cases of fasting or prayer. A teacher of the Koran, moreover, is incapable of instructing another in it, but by means of qualities existing in his scholar namely, capacity and docility, and therefore undertakes a thing the performance of which does not depend upon himself, which is consequently invalid. Some of our modem doctors, however, hold it lawful to receive wages for teaching the Koran in the present age, because an indifference has taken place with respect to religion, whence if people were to withhold from paying a recompense for instruction in the sacred writings, they would in time be disregarded: — and decrees pass accordingly.

"It is not lawful to receive wages for singing or lamentation, or for any other species of public exhibition, as this is taking a recompense for an act which is of a criminal nature, and acts of that nature do not entitle to a recompense in virtue of a contract.'

RE-MARRIAGE. Re-marriage may take place with the divorcer before or after the completion of the 'iddah, provided only the first or second sentence of divorce has been pronounced, but it cannot take place after a three-fold divorce until the divorced wife is married to another man and is divorced by him after the second marriage has been consummated. This is both Sunni and Shi'ah law (Tagore Law Lectures.)

A widow can marry again at the expiration of four months and ten days after the death of her former husband. There is no restriction as to the period for a widower.

RENTAL. Arabicijarah [HIRE.]

REPENTANCE. Arabic taubah . Lit. "The turning of the heart from sin." (An-Nawawi's Commentary on Muslim, vol. ii. p. 354.). It is frequently enjoined in the Qur'an. e.g.:-

Surah iv. 20: "If they repent and amend let them be. Verily God is he who relenteth. He is merciful."

Surah xxiv. 32: "Be ye wholly turned to God, O ye believers, and it shall be well with you." 537

Surah xxv. 71 "Whoso hath repented and hath done what is right, be verily it is who turneth to God with a true conversion:' [PARDON.]

RESIDUARIES. Arabic 'asabah , pl. 'asabat. According to Muhammadan law, residuaries in their own right are divided into four classes:-

(1) The offspring of the deceased.

(2) The ascendants (such as father, grandfather, &c).

(3) The offspring or his father, viz, the brothers and their descendants.

(4) The offspring of his grandfather. (Syed Ameer Ali's Personal Law, p. 49.) [INHERITENCE.]

RESIGNATION. The literal meaning of Islam is a state or condition in which a believer becomes "resigned" to the will of God, a "Muslim" being one who is "resigned." But in the Qur'an, the grace of resignation is more frequently expressed by the word sabr, - "patience," e.g. Surah ii. 150: "Give good tidings to the patient, who when there falls on them a calamity, say, 'Verily we are God's and verily to Him do we return.'"

The word Taslim, which the compiler of the Kitabu 't-Ta'rifat says means to place one's neck under the commands of God, seems to express the EngIish word resignation."

It occurs in the Qur'an, Surah iv. 68:

"They submit with submission."

The author of the Akhlaq-i-Jalali says Taslim is to "acquiesce in and receive with satisfaction (although. perhaps repugnant to the inclination) the commands of God," as exemplified in the verse above quoted.

Riza. is also a word which expresses resignation, and is defined as being pleased with the inevitable decrees of God, whatever they may be.

RESURRECTION. Belief in al-yauamu 'l-akhir , "the Last Day," is an article of the Muhammadan Faith. The terms used in the Qur'an are—

Yaumu 'l-Qiyamah,"Day of Standing up" (Surah ii. 79).

Yaumu 'l-Fasl, "Day of Separation" (Surah lxxvii. 14).

Yaumu 'l-Hisab, "Day of Reckoning" (Surah xl. 28).

Yaumu 'l-Ba's, "Day of Awakening" (Surah xxx. 56).

Yaumu 'd-Din, "Day of Judgment'; (Surah i. 3).

Al- Yaumu l- Muhit, "The Encompassing Day" (Surah xi. 85).

As-Sa'ah," The Hour" (Surah viii. 186). There are very graphic descriptions of the Last Day in the poetical Surahs of the Qur'an. The five following belong to an early period in Muhammad's mission:-

Surah lxxv:-

"It needeth not that I swear by the day the Resurrection,Or that I swear by the self-accusing soul.Thinketh man that we shall not re-unite his bones?Aye! his very finger-tips are we able evenly to replace.But man chooseth to deny what is before him;He asketh, 'When this day or Resurrection?'But when the eye shall be dazzled, And when the moon shall be darkened,And the sun and the moon shall be together,On that day man shall cry, 'Where is there a place to flee to?'But in vain—there is no refuge-With thy Lord on that day shall be the sole asylum.On that day shall man be told of all that he hath done first and last;Yea, a man shall be the eye-witness against himself:And even if he put forth his plea..Move not thy tongue in haste to follow and master this revelation:For we will see to the collecting and the recital of it;But when we have recited it, then follow thou the recital,And, verily, afterwards it shall be ours to make it clear to thee.)Aye, but ye love the transitory,And ye neglect the life to come.On that day shall faces beam with light,Outlooking towards their Lord;And faces on that day shall be dismal,As if they thought that some great calamity would befall them.Aye, when the soul shall come up into the throat,And there shall be a cry, 'Who hath a charm that, can restore him?'And the man feeleth that the time of his departure is come,And when one leg shall be laid over the other,To thy Lord on that day shall he be driven on;For be believed not, and be did not pray,But he called the truth a lie and turned his back,Then, walking with haughty men, rejoined his people.That Hour is nearer to thee and nearer,It is ever nearer to thee and nearer still.Thinketh man that be shall be left supreme?Was he not a mere embryo?Then ho became thick blood of which God formed him and fashioned him;And made him twain, male and female. Is not He powerful enough to quicken the dead?"

Surah lxxxi. 1-19:-

"When the sun shall be folded up.And when the stars shall fall,And when the mountains shall be set in motion,And when the she-camels shall be abandoned, 538

And when the wild boasts shall be gathered together.And when the seas shall boil,And when souls shall be paired with their bodies,And when the female child that had been buried alive shall be askedFor what crime she was put to death, And when the leaves of the Book shall be unrolled,And when the Heaven shall be stripped away,And when Hell shall be made to blaze,And when Paradise shall be brought near,Every soul shall know what it hath produced.It needs not that I swear by the stars of retrograde motion,Which move swiftly and hide themselves away,And by the night when it cometh darkening on,And by the dawn when it brighteneth,That this is the word if an illustrious Messenger."

Surah lxxxii.:-

'When the Heaven shall cleave asunder,And when the stars shall disperse,And when the seas shall be commingled,And when the graves shall be turned upside down,Each soul shall recognize its earliest and its latest actions.O man I what hath misled thee against thy generous Lord,Who hath created thee and moulded thee and shaped thee aright?In the form which pleased Him hath He fashioned thee.Even so; but ye treat the Judgment as a lie.Yet truly there are guardians over you— Illustrious recorders— Cognizant of your actions.Surely amid delights, shall the righteous dwell.But verily the impure in Hell-fireThey shall be burned at it on the day of doom,And they shall not be able to hide themselves from it.Who shall teach thee what the day of doom is?Once more Who shall teach thee what the day of doom is?It is a day when one soul shall be powerless for another soul: all sovereignty on that day shall be with God."

Surah lxxxiii. 44.20 :—

What! have they no thought that they shall be raised again.For the great day?

The day when mankind shall stand before the Lord of the worlds.Yes! the register of the wicked is in Sijjin.And who shall make thee understand what Sijjin is?It is a book distinctly written.Woe, on that day, to those who treated our signs as lies,Who treated the day of judgment as a lie!None treat it as a lie, save the transgressor, the criminal.Who, when our signs are rehearsed to him, saith, 'Tales of the Ancients''Yes; but their own works have got the mastery over their hearts.Yes; they shall be shut out as by a veil from their Lord on that day;Then shall they be burned in Hell-fire;Then shall it be said to them. 'This is what ye deemed a lie.'Even so. But the register of the righteous is in 'lliyun.And who shall make thee understand what 'Iliyun is?A book distinctly written."

Surah lxxxiv. 1-19: -

"When the Heaven shall have split asunderAnd duteously obeyed its Lord;And when Earth shall have been stretched out as a plain,And shall, have cast forth what was in her and become empty,And duteously obeyed its Lord;Then verily, O man, who desirest to reach thy Lord, shall not meet him.And he into whose right hand his Book shall be given,Shall be reckoned with in an easy reckoning,And shall, turn, rejoicing, to his kindred.But he whose Book shall be given him behind his backShall invoke destruction:But in the fire shall he burn,For that he lived joyously among his kindred,Without a thought that he should return to God.Yea, but his Lord beheld him.It needs not therefore that I swear by the sunset redness,And by the night and its gatherings, And by the moon when at her full, That from state to state shall ye be surely carried onward."

The following description belongs to a much later period than the former Surahs already quoted, and occurs in Surah xxii l – 7, which was given at Al-Madinah not long before Muhammad's death:-

"O men (of Makkah) fear your Lord. Verily the Earthquake of the Hour will be a tremendous thing!

"On the day when ye shall behold it, every suckling woman shall forsake her sucking babe; and every woman that hath a burden in her womb shall cast her burden; and thou shalt see men drunken, yet, are they not drunken: but it is the mighty chastisement of God!

"There is a man who, without knowledge, wrangleth about God, and followeth every rebellious Satan; 539

Concerning whom it is decreed, that he shall surely beguile and guide into the torment of the Flame, whoever shall take him for his lord.

"O men! if ye doubt as to the resurrection, yet, of a truth, have We created you of dust, thou of the moist germs of life, then of clots of blood, then of pieces of flesh shapen and unshapen, that We might give you proofs of our power! And We cause one sex or the other, at our pleasure, to abide in the womb until the appointed time; then We bring, you forth infants; then permit you to reach your age of strength; and one of you dieth, and another of you liveth on to an age so abject that all his former knowledge is clean forgotten! And thou hast seen the earth dried up and barren: but when We send down the rain upon it, it stirreth and swelleth, and groweth every kind of luxuriant herb.

"This, for that God is the Truth, and that it is Be who quickeneth the dead, and., that He hath power over everything:

"And that 'the Hour' will indeed come — there is no doubt of it — and that God will wake up to life those who are in the tombs."

Very lengthy accounts of the Day of Resurrection, and of the signs preceding It, are given in all books of tradition, and works on dogmatic theology. (See Sahihu 'l-Bukhari, Arabic Ed. Kitabu 'l-Fitan, p. 1045; Sahihu 'l-Muslim, Arabic Ed. Vol. II. p. 388; Mishkatu 'l-Masabih, Arabic Ed., Kitabu 'I-Fitan; Sarhu 'l-Muwaqjf p.. 579.)

The following, collected by Mr. Sale from various writers, is given, with some alterations, additions, and references.

It is the received opinion amongst Muslims of all sects that at the Resurrection the body will be raised and united to its soul, and that one part of the body, namely, the lower part of the spine, the as sacrum, in Arabic called 'Ajbu 'z-Zanab, "the root. of the tail," will be preserved as .a basis of the future edifice. (Mishkat, book xxiii. ch. ix.)

This bone, it is said, will remain uncorrupted till the last day, as a germ from whence the whole is to be renewed. This will be effected by a forty days' rain which God will send, and which will cover the earth to the height of twelve cubits, and cause the bodies to sprout forth like plants. For this doctrine Muhammad is beholden to the Jews, who say the same things of the bone Luz, excepting that what he attributes to a great rain will be effected, according to them, by a dew, impregnating the dust of the earth. (Bereshit rabbah.)

The time of the Resurrection the Muhammadans allow to be a perfect secret to all but God alone; the Angel Gabriel himself acknowledged his ignorance on this point when Muhammad asked him about it. (Mishkat, book i. ch. i) However, they say the approach of that day may be known from certain signs which are to precede it. These

signs are distinguished into "the lesser" and "the greater." The lesser signs (Isharatu 's-Sa'ah) are follows:-

(1.) The decay of faith among men.

(2.) The advancing of the meanest persons to eminent digity.

(3) A maid servant shall become the mother of her mistress (or master); by which is meant either that towards the end of the world men shall be much given to sensuality, or that the Muhammadans shall then take many captives.

(4.) Tumults and seditious.

(5.) A war with the Greeks or Romans.

(6.) Great distress in the world, so that a man, when he passeth by another's grave, shall say, "Would to God I were in his place!"

(7.) The provinces of al-'Iraq and Syria shall refuse to pay their tribute.

(8.) The buildings of al-Madinah or Yathrib shall reach to Makkah. (Mishkat, book xiii. ch. Iii.)

The greater signs ('Alamatu 's-Sa'ah) are as follows :—

(1.) The sun's rising in the west, which some have imagined it originally did.

(2.) The appearance of the550


S.

SA'. or SUWA' A certain measure used for measuring corn, and upon which depend the decisions of Muslims relating to measures of capacity. It occurs in the Qur'an, Surah xii. 72, for the drinking-cup placed by Joseph in his brother's pack.

The compiler of the Taju 'l-'Arus, says that according to five different. readers of the Qur'an, it is given suwa' in that verse! but in the majority of texts it is sa'.

The Qamus explains suwa' as a certain vessel from which one drinks a and sa', a measure of capacity. Its invariable measure being, according to ancient authorities, four times the quantity of corn that fills two hands of a man of moderate size.

Al-Baizawi records, besides suwa' and sa' the reading saw and suwagh.

SABA'. A tribe of Yaman, whose dwelling-placed are called Ma rib, mentioned in the xxxxvth Surah of the Qur'an (entitled the Suratu Saba), verse 14:—

"A sign there was to Saba' in their dwelling places:-—two gardens, the one on the right hand and the other on the left: Eat ye of your Lord's supplies, and give thanks to him: Goodly is the country. and gracious is the Lord!'

"But they turned aside: an we sent upon., them the flood of Iram: and we changed them their gardens into two gardens of bitter fruit and tamarisk and some few jujube trees

Such was our retribution on them for their ingratitude."

M. Caussin de Perceval. Hist. des Arabes, vol. iii., as well as M. de Sacy, fix this event in the second century of the Christian era.

(2) Also the name of a province referred to in the Qur'an, Surah xxvii. 21, where it seems to be identical with the Sheba ~ of the Bible, is the country of the Queen of Sheba :—

"Nor tarried it (the lapwing) long ere it came and said, 'I have gained the knowledge that thou knowest not, and with sure tidings have I come to thee from Saba':

"'I found. a woman reigning over them, gifted with everything, and she hath a splendid throne; "And I found her and her people worshipping the Sun instead of God; and Satan hath made their works fair seeming to them, so that he hath turned them from the Way: wherefore they are not guided,

"To the worship of God, who bringeth to light the secret things of heaven and earth, and knoweth what men conceal and what they manifest:

"God: there is no god but He! the lord of the glorious throne!"

For a discussion of the identity of the Saba' of Arabia with the Sheba of the Bible, refer to the word Sheba in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible.

SAB'ATU-AHRUF. .

[SEVEN DIALECTS.]

SABA'U 'L-MASANI. Lit. "The Seven Repetitions." A title given to the Introductory Chapter of the Qur'an by Muhammad himself. (Mishkat book viii. ch. i.). There are three reasons assigned for this title:-

1. Because it is a chapter of seven verses, which is said to have been revealed twice over.

2. Because it contains seven words twice repeated, namely, Allah, God, Rahman, Compassionate; Rahim, Merciful; Iyaka, Thee and to Thee; Sirat, Way; 'Akihim, to whom and with whom; Ghair, Not, and La, Not.

(3) Because the seven verses are generally recited twice during an ordinary prayer. (See Majma'u'l-Bihar, in loco; and Abdu 'l-Haqq.)

SABBATH. The term used in the Qur'an for the Jewish Sabbath is Sabt a corruption of the Hebrew Shabbath.

It occurs five times in the Qur'an:-

Surah ii. 61: "Ye know, too, those of you who transgressed on the Sabbath., and to whom We (God) said, Become scouted apes."

Surah iv. 50: "Or curse you as We (God) cursed the Sabbath breakers."

Surah iv. 158: "We (God) said to them (Israel), Break not the Sabbath."

Surah vii. 168: "And ask them (the Jews) about the city that stood by the sea when it's inhabitants broke the Sabbath; when their fish came to them appearing openly on their Sabbath-day, but not to them en the day when they kept no Sabbath."

Surah xvi. 125: "The Sabbath was only ordained for those who differed about it."

In explanation of these verses, the commentator, al-Baizawi relates the following traditions. Moses gave orders for the observance of the Day of Rest on Friday; but the Jews would not obey, and declared that they would observe Saturdays as it was on that day that God rested from creation, so it came to pass that "the Sabbath' was ordained for those who differed about it." But in the time of King David, certain people began to break the Sabbath by fishing in the Red Sea near the town of Ailah (Elath), and as a punishment they were turned into apes.

For an account of the Muhammadan Sabbath, see [FRIDAY.] 551

SABEANS. Arabic Sabi' pl. Sabi'un. Probably from the Hebrew "a host." Gen. ii. 1 i.e. "Those who worship the hosts of heaven. According to some Arabic writers, the Sabi'un were a certain sect of unbelievers who worshipped the stars secretly, and openly professed to be Christians. According to others, they are of the religion of Sabi', the son of Seth, the son of Adam; whilst others say their religion resembled that of the Christians, except that their qiblah was towards the south, from whence the wind blows. In the Qamus it is said they were of the religion of Noah. The word sabi' also means one who has departed from one religion to another religion, and the Arabs used to call the Prophet as-Sabi' because he departed from the religion of the Quraish to al-Islam. (See Lane's Dict. in loco.) Al-Baizawi says some assert they were worshippers of angels, others that they were the worshippers of the stars.

They are mentioned three times in the Qur'an, and from the following verses it would appear that. Muhammad regarded them as believers in the true God.

Surah ii. 50: "They who believe and they who are Jews, and the Christians, and the Sabeans—whoever believeth in God and the Last Day, and doeth that which is right, shall have their reward with their Lord."

Surah v. 73: ' They who believe, and the Jews and the Sabeans, and the Christians—whoever of them believeth in God. and in the Last Day; and doeth what is right, on them shall no fear come; neither shall they be put to grief."

Surah vi 73: "They who believe, and' the Jews, and the ~abeans, and the ('hri~-dana, and the Magians, 'and those who em other gods with God. verily God shall decide between them on the Day of Resurrection."

SABI'. .[SABAIANS.]

SABILU 'LLAH. . "The road of God." A term used for religions warfare and other meritorious deeds; e.g. Qur'an, Surah ii.:-

Verse 149: "And say not, of those who are slain in the road of God that they are dead, but rather that they are living."

Verse 263: "Those who expend their wealth in the road of God." [JIHAD.]

SABT. [SABBATH.]

SACRAMENTS, CHRISTIAN.

[EUCHARIST, BAPTISM.]

SACRIFICE.

There are six words used In the Muhammadan religion to express the idea of sacrifice.

(1) zabh, Hebrew zebach. Like the Hebrew word (Gen. xxxi. 54), the Arabic is used generally for slaughtering animals, whether on the Great Festival of Sacrifice ['IDU 'L-AZHA], or ordinary times, for foods in the Qamus the word zabh is defined "to split or pierce, to cut the throat of any creature". In the Qur'an, the word a used for the slaughtering of the heifer by Moses (Surah ii. 63). For the slaying of the sons of Israel by Pharaoh (Surah ii 46), for sacrificing to idols (Surah v. 4); and for the intention of Abraham to sacrifice his son (Surah xxxvii. 101).

(2) qurban, Hebrew korban, (Lev. Ii. 14) Lit. "Approaching near." 'It occurs twice in the Qur'an, for the sacrifice to be devoured by fire from heaven, which the Jews

demanded of Muhammad (Surah iii. 179), and for the offering of the sons of Adam (Surah v. 30). It is a word frequently employed in Islam to express the ordinary sacrifice, and the great festival is called in Persia the 'Id-i- Qurban, or "Feast of Sacrifice."

(3) nahr. Lit. "To injure the jugular vein." Used for stabbing the breast of a camel, as in sacrifice, hence the sacrifice itself. It occurs once in the Qur'an, Surah cviii. 1, 2 "Verily we have given thee al-Kausar so pray to thy Lord and sacrifice which ,al-Baizawi says means to sacrifice a camel, the most costly victim of the Arabians. The 'Idu 'i-Azha is called the Yaumu n-Nahr. [IDU L-AZHA.]

(4) uzhiyah. A. word which does not occur in the Qur'an, but in the Traditions it is the subject of a Chapter in Mishkatu 'l-Masabih (book iv. ch. xlix.). According to the Qamis, it is derived from zahw, zuha, a word which expresses that time of the day when the sun has risen to a considerable height, about 10 A.M. (Salatu 'z-Zuha, being a voluntary prayer am that hour). Uzhiyah is therefore the sacrifice offered about 10' o'clock on the day of the Great Festival.

(5) Hady. or, according to another reading, Hadi occurs four times in the Qur'an, Surahs ii. 198, v. 2. 90, 98, for offering of an animal for sacrifice sent to the temple at Makkah, when the pilgrim is not able to reach in time. The Qamus defines it as that "which is presented." At-Baizawi (Tafsir, p. 100) gives Hady as the plural form of Hadyah and Hadi as that of Hadiyah. The latter occurs in the Qur'an, Surah xxvii. 85, for an offering or gift, and seems to have the same meaning as the Hebrew minchah, which is used in the Old Testament for a gift or tribute (Gen. iv. 3), and also for the unbloody sacrifice or "meat oftering" (Lev. ii. 1).

(6) mansak. Occurs in the Qur'an, Surah xxii. 35 :" We have appointed to every nation a rite (mansak)." Surah ii. 122: "Show us our rites (manasik): also verse 196. Al-Baizawi (Tafsir, p. .91), to the first passage, says the word means a. place of devotion, or a sacrifice which draws a man near to God, and mentions another reading, mansik, a place of worship of which manasik is like-wise the plural form, is translated by the late Professor Palmer "rite." [RITES.] 552

II. There are only two occasions upon which Muhammadans sacrifice, namely, on the Great Festival held on the 10th day of Zu l-Hijjah ['IDU 'L-AZHA] and on the birth of a child [AQIQAH.]

(1) The great sacrifice recognised by the Muslim faith is that on the Great Festival, called the 'Idu 'l-Azha, or "Feast of Sacrifice." This sacrifice is not only offered by the pilgrims at Makkah, but in all parts of Islam, upon the day of sacrifice. In the first place, this sacrifice is said to have been established in commemoration of Abraham having consented to sacrifice his son (most Muslims say it was Ishmael), as recorded in the Qur'an, when it is said God "ransomed his (Abraham's) son with a costly victim" (Surah xxxvii. 107); but Shaikh 'Abdu 'l-Haqq, in his commentary on the Mishkat. also says that al-Uziyjah, "the sacrifice," is that which at the special time (i.e. on the festival) is slaughtered with the object of obtaining nearness to God.

(2) The teaching of the Qur'an on the subject of sacrifice is conveyed in the following verses (Surah xiii. 37) :—

"The bulky (camels) we made for you one of the symbols of God (Sha'a'iri 'llahi), therein have ye good. So mention the name of God over them as they stand in a row (for sacrifice), and when they fall down (dead), eat of them and feed the easily contented and him who begs. Thus have we subjected them to you; haply ye may give thanks. Their flesh will never reach to God, nor yet their blood, but the 'piety from you will reach Him."

Al-Baizawi on this verse says, "It, the flesh of the sacrifice, does not reach unto God, nor its blood, but the piety (taqwa) that is the sincerity and intention of your heart." (Tafsiru 'l-Baizawi, vol. ii. p. 52.)

(3) In the Traditions (Mishkat, book iv. ch. xlix.) we have the following:-

Anas says : "The prophet sacrificed two rams, one was black, and the other was white, and he put his foot on their sides as he killed them, and cried out, 'Bi'-smi 'llahi, Allahu akbar! In the name of God! God is most great!'" <> 'Ayishah says: "The Prophet ordered a ram with horns to be brought to him, and one that should walk in blankness, sleep in blackness, and look in blackness (by which he meant with black legs, black breast, and belly, and black eyes), "and he said, 'O 'Ayishah, give me a knife and sharpen it!' And I did so. Then the Prophet took hold of the ram and threw him on his side and slew it. And when he was killing it be said, 'In the name of God'! O God accept this from Muhammad, and from his children, and from his tribe!' Afterwards he gave to the people their morning meal from, the slaughtered ram."

Jabir says: " The Prophet sacrificed two rams on the day of the Festival of Sacrifice, which were black or white, and had horns, and were castrated; and when he turned their heads towards the Qiblah, he said, 'Verily I have turned my face to Him who brought the heavens and the earth Into existence from nothing, according to the religion of Abraham, and I am not of the polytheists. Verily my prayers my worshipping my life, and my death, are for God, the Lord of the universe, who hath no partner; and I have been ordered to believe in one God, and to abandon associating any other god with Him; and I am one of the Muslims, O God! This sacrifice is of Thee, and for Thee; accept it then from Muhammad and his people!" And he added, 'In the name of God! the Great God!' and then killed them."

'Ali said: "The Prophet. has ordered me to see that there be no blemish in the animal to be sacrificed; and not to sacrifice one with the ears cut, either at. the top or the bottom, or split lengthways, or with holes made in them. The Prophet prohibited sacrificing a ram with broken horns, or slit ears."

Ayishah relates that the Prophet said: "Man hath not done anything, on the day of sacrifice, more pleasing to God then spilling blood; for verily the animal sacrificed will come on the Day of Resurrection, with its horns, its hair; its hoofs, and will make the scales of his actions heavy and verily its blood reacheth the acceptance of God before it falleth upon the ground; therefore be joyful in it."

Zaid lbn Arqam relates: "The Companions said, 'O messenger of God! what are these sacrifices, and whence is their origin?' He said, 'These sacrifices are conformable to the laws of your father Abrabam.' They said, O Prophet! what are our rewards therefrom?' He said, 'There is a reward annexed to every hair.' The Companions then said, 'O Prophet! what are the rewards from the sacrifices of camels and sheep that have wool?' He said, 'There is a good reward also for every hair of their wool.'"

(4) The following is the teaching of the Hidayah regarding the nature and conditions of the sacrifice:-

It is the duty of every free Muslim arrived at the age of maturity to offer a sacrifice, on the 'Idu 'l-Azha, or "Festival of the Sacrifice," provided he be then possessed of a Nisab (i.e. sufficient property), and be not a traveller. This is the opinion of Abu Hanifah, Muhammad, Zufar, and Hasan, and likewise of Abu Yusuf, according to one tradition. According to another tradition, and also according to ash-Shafi'i, sacrifice Is not an indispensable duty, but only laudable. At-Tahawi reports that, in the opinion of Abu Hanifah, it is indispensable, whilst the disciples hold It to be in a strong degree laudable. The offering of a sacrifice is Incumbent on a man on account of himself, and on account of his infant child. This is the opinion of Abu Hanifah in one tradition. In another he has said that it is not incumbent on a man to offer a sacrifice for his child. In fact, according to Abu Hanifah and Abu Yusuf, a father or guardian is to offer a sacrifice at the expense of the child (when he is possessed of property), eating what parts of it are eatable, and 553

selling the remaining, parts that are valuable in their substance, such as the skin, &c. Muhammad, Zufar, and ash-Shafl'i have said that a father is to sacrifice on account of his child at his own expense, and not at that of the child. The sacrifice established for one person is a goat; and that for seven, a cow or a camel. If a cow be sacrificed for any number of people fewer than seven, it is lawful; but it is otherwise if sacrificed on account of eight. If for a party of seven people the contribution of any one of them should be less than a seventh share, the sacrifice is not, valid on the part of any one of them. If a camel that is jointly and in an equal degree the property of two men should be sacrificed by them on their own account, it is lawful; and in this case they must divide the flesh by weight, as. flesh is an article of weight. If, on the contrary, they distribute it from conjectural estimation, it is not lawful, unless they add to each share of the flesh part of the head, neck, and joints. If a person purchase a cow, with an intent to sacrifice it on his own account, and he afterwards admit six others to join with him in the sacrifice, it is lawful. It is, however most advisable that he associate with the others at the time of purchase, in order that the sacrifice may be valid in the opinion of all our doctors, as otherwise there is a difference of opinion. it is related from Abu Hanifah that it is abominable to admit others to share in a sacrifice after purchasing the animal, for, as the purchase was made with a view, to devotion the sale of it is therefore an abomination.

The time of offering the sacrifice is on the morning of the day of the festival, but It is not lawful for the inhabitants of a city to begin the sacrifice until their Imam shall have finished the stated prayers for the day. Villagers, however, may begin after break of day. The place, in fact, must regulate the time. Thus, where the place of celebration is in the country, and the performers of it reside in the city, it is lawful to begin in the

morning; but if otherwise, it must be deferred until the stated prayers be ended if the victim be slain after the prayers of the Mosque, and prior to those offered at the place of sacrifice [IDGAH), it is lawful, as is likewise the reverse of this. Sacrifice is lawful during three days — that is, on the day of the festival, and on the two ensuing days. Ash-Shafi'i is of opinion that it is lawful on the three ensuing days. The sacrifice of the day of the festival is far superior to any of the others. It Is also lawful to sacrifice on the nights of those days, although it be considered as undesirable. Moreover, the offering of sacrifices on these days is more laudable than the custom of emitting them, and afterwards bestowing an adequate sum of money upon the poor. If a person neglect the performance of a sacrifice during the stated days, and have previously determined upon the offering of any particular goat, for instance; or, being poor, have purchased a goat for that purpose, - in either of these cases, it is incumbent on him to bestow it alive in charity. But if he be rich, it is in that case incumbent on him to bestow in charity a sum adequate to the price, whether he have purchased a goat with an intent to sacrifice it, or not. It is not lawful to sacrifice animals that are blemished, such as those that are blind, or lame, or so lean as to have no marrow in their bones, or having a great part of their ears or tail cut off. Such, however, as have a great part of their ears or tail remaining may lawfully be sacrificed. Concerning the determination of a great part of any member, there are, indeed, various opinions reported from Abu Hanifah. In some animals he has determined it to be the third; in others more than the third; and in others, again, only the fourth. In the opinion of the two disciples, if more than the half should remain, the sacrifice is valid, and this opinion has been adopted by the learned Abu 'l-Lais. If an Animal have lost the third of its tail, or the third of its ears or eye-sight, it may he lawfully sacrificed: but if in either of these cases, it should have lost more than a third, the offering of it is not lawful. The rule which our doctors have laid down to discover in what degree the eye-sight is impaired is as follows. The animal must first be deprived of its food for a day or two that it may be rendered hungry, and having then covered the eye that is impaired, food must be gradually brought towards it from a distance, until it indicate by some emotion hat it has discovered it. Having marked the particular spot at which it observed the food, and uncovered the weak eye, the perfect eye must then be bound, and the same process carried on until it indicate that it has observed it with the defective eye. If, then, the particular distance from those parts to where the animal stood be measured, it may be known, from the proportion they bear to each other, in what degree the sight is impaired.

It is not lawful to offer a sacrifice of any animal except a camel, a cow, or a goat for it is not recorded that the Prophet, or any of his companions, ever sacrificed others. Buffaloes, however, are lawful as being of the species of a cow. Every animal of a mixed breed, moreover, is considered as of the same species with the mother.

If a Christian or any person whose object is the flesh, and not the sacrifice, be a sharer with six others, the sacrifice is not lawful on the part of any. It is lawful for a. person who offers a sacrifice either to eat the flesh or to bestow it on whomsoever he pleases, whether rich or poor, and he may also lay it up In store. It is most advisable that the third part of the flesh of a sacrifice be bestowed in charity. It is not lawful to give a part of the sacrifice in payment to the butcher. It is abominable to take the wool of the victim and sell it before the sacrifice be performed, but not after the sacrifice. In the same manner, it is abominable to milk the victim and sell the milk. It is most advisable that the person who offers the

554

Sacrifice should himself perform it, provided he be well acquainted with the method, but if he should not be expert at it, it is then advisable that he take the assistance of another, and be present at the operation. It is abominable to commit the slaying of the victim to a Kitabi (a Jew or Christian). if, however, a person order a Kitabi to stay his victim, it is lawful. It is otherwise where a person orders a M' an, or worshipper of fire, to slay his victim, for this is inadmissible. (Hamilton's Hidiyah, vol. iv.. 76.)

(5) From the foregoing references to the Qur'an, the Traditions, 'Abdu 'l-Haqq, al Baizawi, it will appear that whilst the Muhammadan sacrifice is (1) Commemorative, having been instituted in commemoration of Abraham's willingness to offer his son (2) Self Dedicatory, as expressed in the Traditional sayings of Muhammad; and (3) Eucharistic, according to the verse in the Qur'an already quoted, "Haply ye may give thanks"; that the expiatory character of the sacrifice is not clearly established, for there is no offering for, or acknowledgment of, sin, connected with the institution. Muhammadanism, true to its anti-Christian character, ignores the doctrine that "without shedding of blood there is no remission." (Lev. xvii. 11; Heb ix. 22.)

(6) At the birth of a child ,it is incumbent upon the Muhammadan father to sacrifice a goat (one for a girl and two for a boy) at the ceremony called 'Aqiqah, which is celebrated on either the seventh, fourteenth, twenty-first, twenty-eighth, or thirty-fifth day after birth, when the hair is first shaved and its weight in silver given to the poor. 'Abdu 'l-Haqq says 'Aqiqah comes from 'aqq, "To cut," and refers to cutting the throat of the animal. Others refer it to cutting the hair. The idea of the sacrifice on this occasion is dedicatory and Eucharistic. Buraidah says, "We used, in the time of ignorance, when children were born to us, to slay sheep and rub the child's head with the blood; but when Islam came we sacrificed a sheep on the seventh day, and shaved the child's head and rubbed saffron on it."

SAD. The fourteenth letter of the Arabic alphabet.. The title of the xxxviiith Surah of the Qur'an, which begins with the letter.

SADAQAH. pI. sadaqat. From sadq, "to be righteous, truthful"; Hebrew tsedek. A term used In the Qur'an for "almsgiving," . e.g. Surah ii. 265: "Kind speech and pardon are better than almsgiving (sadaqah) followed by annoyance, for God is rich and clement."

Sadqatu 'l-Fitr is the alms given on the lesser Festival, called the 'Idu 'l-Fitr, which consists of half a sa' of wheat, flour, or fruits, or one sa' of barley. This shouId be distributed to the poor before the prayers of the festival are said. (Hidiyah, vol. i. p. 62.) ['IDU 'L-FITR.]

SA'D IBN ABI WAQQAS. Called also Sa'd ibn Malik ibn Wahb az-Zubri. He was the seventh person who embraced Islam, and was present with Muhammad in all his battles. He died at 'Atiq .A.H. 55, at the age of 79, and was buried at al-Madinah.

SA'D IBN MU'AZ. The chief of the Banu Aus. He embraced Islam at al-Madinah after the first pledge at 'Aqabah. He died of wounds received at the battle of the Ditch, A.H. 5. (See Muir's Life of Mahomet,. vol iii. 282.)

SA'D IBN 'UBADAH. One of the Companions and an Ansari of great reputation. He carried the standard at the conquest of Makkah. Died A.H. 15.

SADR. , or Sadru 's-Sudur. The chief judge. Under Muhammadan rule, he was especially charged with the appointment of religious grants and the appointment of law officers.

SADUM. [SODOM.]

AS-SAFA. A hill near Makkah. One of the sacred places visited by the pilgrims during the Hajj. [PILGRIMAGE.]

SAFAR. Lit. "The void month.' The second month of the Muhammadan year. So called because in it the ancient Arabs went forth on their predatory expeditions and left their houses sifr, or empty; or, according to some, because when it was first named it occurred in the autumn, when the leaves of the trees were sifr, or "yellow." (Ghiyasu 'l-Lughah, in loco.) [MONTHES.]

SAFF. An even row or line of things.

(1) A. term used for a row of persons standing up for prayers.

(2) As-Saff, the title of the LXIth Surah of the Qur'an, in the 6th verse of which the word occurs for the close unbroken line of an army.

AS-SAFFAT. pl. of saffah, "Ranged in ranks". The title of the xxxviith Surah of the Qur'an, in the first verse of which the angels are mentioned as being ranged in ranks.

SAFIYAH. One of the wives of Muhammad. She was the widow of Kininah, the Jewish chief of Khaibar, who was cruelly put to death. In after years it is said Muhammad wished to divorce her, but she begged to continue his wife, and requested that her turn might be given to 'Aylshah, as she wished to be one of the Prophet's "pure wives" in Paradise.

SAFIYU 'LLAH. Lit. "The Chosen of God." A title given in the Traditions to Adam, the father of mankind. [ADAM.] 555

SAFIYU 'LLAH. . The Zipporah of the Bible. The wife of Moses. According to Muslim Lexicons, she was the daughter of ,Shu'aib. [MOSES.]

SAFWAN IBN UMAIYAH. A Sahabi of reputation. A native of Makkah. He was slain the same day as the Khalifah 'Usman.

SAHABI. fem. Sahabiyah. "An associate." One of the Companions of Muhammad. The number of persons entitled to this distinction at the time of Muhammad's death is said to have boon 144,000, the number Including all persons who had ever served as followers of the Prophet, and who had actually seen him. The general opinion being that one who embraced Islam, saw the Prophet and accompanied him, even for a short time, is a Sahabi, or "associate." [ASHAB.]

SAHIBU 'N-NISAB. A legal term for one possessed of a certain estate upon which zakat, or "legal alms," must be paid. Also for one who has sufficient means to enable him to offer the sacrifice on the great festival, or to make the pilgrimage to Makkah. The possessor of 200 dirhems, or five camels, is held to be a Sahibu 'n-Nisab, as regards zakat.

SAHIBU 'Z-ZAMAN. "Lord of the Age." A title given by the Shi'ahs to the Imam Mahdi. (Ghiyusu 'l-Lughah, in loco.)

SAHIFAH. , pl. suhuf. Lit. "A small book or pamphlet," A term generally used for the one hundred portions of scripture and said to have been given to Adam, Seth, Enoch, and Abraham, although It is used in the Qur'an (Surah lxxxvii. 19) for the books of Abraham and Moses: "This is truly written in the books (suhuf) of old, the books (suhuf) of Abraham amid Moses.

SAHIFATU 'L - A'MAL. . The "Book of Actions," which is said to be made by the recording angels (Kiramu 'l-Katibin) of the deeds of men, and kept until the Day of Judgment, when the books are opened. See Qur'an :—

Surah 1. 16: "When two (angels) charged with taking account shall take it, one sitting on the right hand and another on the left."

Surah xvii. 14, 15: "And every man's fate have We (God) fastened about his neck; and on the Day of Resurrection will We bring forth to him a book, which shall be proffered to him wide open Read thy Book: There needeth none but thyself to make out an account against thee this day." [KIRAMU 'L-KATIBIN, RESURRECTION.]

SAHIHU 'L-BUKHARI. The title of the first of the Kutubu 's-Sittah, or "six correct" books of traditions received by the Sunnis. It was complied by Abu 'Abd 'llah Muhammad ibn Isma'il Bukhari, who was born at Bukhrah, A.H. 194, and died at Khartang, near Samarkand, A.H. 256. It contains 9,882 traditions, of which 2,628 are held to be of undisputed authority. They are arranged Into 160 books and 3,450 chapters. [TRADITIONS.]

SAHIHU MUSLIM. The title of the second of the Kutubu 's-Sittah, or" six correct" books of the traditions received by the Sunnis. It was compiled by Abu 'l-Husain Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj al-Qushairi, who was born at Naishapur, A.H. 204, and died A.H. 261. The collection con-tame 7,275 traditions, of which, it is said 4,000 are of undisputed authority. The books and chapters of the work were not arranged by the compiler, but by his disciples. The most celebrated edition of this work is that with a commentary by Muhylyu 'd-din Yahya an-Nawawi, who died A.H. 676. [TRADITIONS.]

SAHM. Lit. "An arrow used for drawing lots." A term in Muhammadan law for a portion of an estate allotted to an heir. (Hamilton's Hidiyah, vol. iv. p. 487.)

SAHUR. The meal which is taken before the dawn of day during the Ramazan. It is called in Persian Ta'am-i-Sahari. In Hindustani, Saharqahi. In Pushto Peshmani. [RAMAZAN.]

SAILBAH. Anything set at liberty, as a slave, or she-camel, and devoted to an idol. Mentioned once In the Qur'an, Surah v. 102: "God hath not ordained anything on the subject of sa'ibah, but the unbelievers have invented it."

SA'ID IBN ZAID. A Sahabi who embraced Islam in his youth. He was present with Muhammad in all his engagements except at Badr. He is held to be one of the 'Asharah Mubashsharah, or ten patriarchs of the Muslim faith. Died at 'Aqiq, A.H. 51, aged 79.

SAIFU 'LLAH. "The Sword of God." A title given by Muhammad to the celebrated General Khalid ibn aI-Walid. (Mishkat, book xxiv. ch. viii.)

SAIHUN. The river Jaxartes. Said to have been one of the rivers of Eden.

SAINTS. In Muhammadan countries, reputed saints are very numerous. Very many religious leaders obtain a great reputation for sanctity even before their deaths, but after death it is usual for the followers of any well-known religious teacher to erect a shrine over his grave, to light it up on Thursdays, and thus establish a saintly

reputation for their departed guide. Very disreputable persons are thus often reckoned to have died in the "odor of sanctity." At Hasan Abdal in the Punjab (celebrated in 556

The story of Lala Rookh), there is a shrine erected over a departed cook ,who for many years lived on his peculations as keeper of the staging bungalow. When he died, about ten years ago, his family erected over his remains a shrine of some pretensions, which even in the present generation is an object of devout reverence, but which, in the next, will be the scene of reputed miracles. This is but an example of many thousands of shrines and saintly reputations easily gained throughout Islam.

It is generally asserted that according to the teachings of Islam, the Prophets (ambiya') were without sin, but there is a tradition, related by Anas, which distinctly asserts the contrary, and states that Muhammad not only admitted his own sinfulness, but also the fall of Adam, the murder committed by Moses, and the three lies told by Abraham. (See Mishkat, book xxiii. ch. xii.) But it is very remarkable that, according to this Hadis, Muhammad does not charge Jesus Christ with having committed sin. The immaculate conception and the sinlessness of Chriat are admitted doctrine of Islam. [JESUS. CHRIST.]

The terms pir and wali are common titles for those who by reputed miracles and an ascetic life, have established a reputation for sanctity, for whom in Persian the title buzurg is generally used,. The titles qutb and ghaus are very high orders of sanctity, whilst zahid and 'abid are employed for persons who devote their lives to religious contemplation and worship.

The Sufis use the word salik,"pilgrim" or "traveller," for one who has renounced the world for the "path" of mysticism, whilst faqir is a title of more general application to one who is poor in the sight of God. Shaik and mir, used for old men, also express a degree of reputation in the religious world: shaik (in India) being a title generally conferred on a convert from Hinduism to Islam. Saiyid or "lord," is a. title always given to the descendants of Muhammad, mir being sometimes used for the same. Miyan, "master" or "friend," is generally used for the descendants of celebrated saints, or as a mere title of respect.

SA'IR. "A flaming fire." The special place of torment appointed for the Sabeans. (See aI-Baghawi's Commentary on the Qur'an) It. occurs sixteen times in the Qur'an (Surah iv. 11, and fifteen other places), where it does not seem to be applied to any special class.

SAIYIBAH. A legal term for a woman who departs from her husband, whether through divorce or the death of her husband, after the first connection.

SAIYID. A term used for the descendants of Muhammad from his daughter Fatimah by 'Ali. The word only occurs twice in the Qur'an – in Surah iii. 34, where it is used for John Baptist; and in Surah xii. 25, where it stands for the husband of Zalikhah.

According to the Majmu 'l-Bihar, p. 151, it means "lord, king, exalted, saint, merciful, meek, husband," &c.

There are two branches of Saiyids - those descended from al-Hasan and those descended from al-Hussin (both the sons of 'Ali.)

These descendants of Muhammad are prayed for at every period of the daily prayers [PRAYERS], and they are held in all Muhammadan countries in the highest respect, however poor or degraded their position may be.

The term Saiyid is also given as a name to persons who are not descended from Muhammad, e.g. Saiyid Shah, Saiyid Amin, &e., although it is a mere assumption, in addition to the term Saiyid, the term Badshah, Shah, Mir, and Sharif, are applied to those descended from Bibi Fatimah.

The author of the Akhlaq-i-Jalali estimated in his day the descendants of Muhammad to be not less than 200,000.

SAJDAH. vulg. sijdah. Lit. "Prostration,"

(1), The act of worship in which the person's forehead touches the ground in prostration. [PRAYER.]

(2) As-Safdah, the title of the xxxiind Surah of the Qur'an, in the 15th verse of which the word occurs: "They only believe in our signs who, when they are reminded of them, fall down adoring and celebrate the praises of their Lord."

SAJDATU 'S-SAHW. "The prostrations of forgetfulness." Two prostrations made on account of forgetfulness or inattention in prayer. Muhammad said, "When any of you stand up for prayer, and the devil comes to you and casts doubt and perplexity into your mind, so that you do not know bow many rak'ahs you have recited, then prostrate yourself twice.

SAJDATU 'SH-SHUKR. "A prostration of thanksgiving." When a Muslim has received some benefit or blessing, he is enjoined to make a prostration in the direction of Makkah, and say, "Holiness to God! and Praise be to God, There is no deity but God! God is most Great!" (Raddu 'l-Muhtar, vol i. p. 816.)

SAJJADAH. The small carpet, mat, or cloth, on which the Muslim prays. [JAI-NAMAZ, MUSALLA.]

SAKHR. The jinn or devil who is said to have obtained possession of 557

Solomon's magic ring, and to have personated the King for forty days, when Sakhr flew away and threw the ring into the sea, where it was swallowed by a fish, which was afterwards caught and brought to Solomon, who by this means recovered his kingdom.

AS-SAKHRAH. "The Rock." The sacred rock at Jerusalem on which the Temple was erected, and on which now stands the Qubbata 's-Sakhrah, the "Dome of the Rock," known to English readers as the Mosque of 'Umar. This rock is said to have come from Paradise, and to be the foundation stone of the world, to have been the place of prayer of all prophets, and, next to the Ka'bah, the most sacred spot in the universe. Imam Jalalu 'd-din as Suyuti, in his history of the Temple of Jerusalem (Reynold's edition, p. 44), gives the following traditional account of the glorious Sakhrah.

"We are informed by lbn al-Mansar that the Rock of the Baitu 'l-Muqaddas, in the days of Solomon, was of the height. of twelve thousand cubits; each cubit at that time being the full cubit, viz, one modern cubit, one span and one hand-breadth. Upon it also was a chapel, formed of aloes (or sandal) wood, in height twelve miles (sic); also above this was a network of gold, between two eyelet-beads of pearl and ruby, netted by the women of Balka in the night, which net was to serve for three days; also the people of Emmaus were under the shadow of' the chapel when the sun rose and the people of

Baitu 'r-Rahmah when it set, and even others of the valleys were under its shadow; also upon it was a jacinth (or ruby), which shone in the night like the light of the sun ; but when the light began to dawn its brilliancy was obscured; nor did all these cease until Nebuchadnezzar laid all waste, and seized whatever he found there, and carried it into Greece.

"Again, by a tradition we learn that the Sakhrah of Baitu 'l-Muqaddas was raised aloft into the sky, to the height of twelve miles, and. the space between it and heaven was no more than twelve miles. All this remained in the same state until Greece (or Rome) obtained the mastery over it, subsequent to its devastation by Nebuchadnezzar. But when the Greeks obtained possession of it, they said, "Let us build thereupon a building far excelling that which was there before." Therefore they built upon it a building as- broad at the base as it was high in the sky, and gilded it with gold and silvered it with silver. Then, entering 558

therein, they began to practise their associating paganism, upon which it turned upside-down over them, so that not one of them came out.

"Therefore, when the Grecian (king) saw this, be summoned the Patriarch and his ministers (deacons), and the chiefs of Greece, and said, 'What think ye?' who replied, 'we are of opinion that our idol-gods are not well pleased, and therefore will not receive us favourably.' Hereupon he commanded a second temple to be built, which they did, spending a great sum thereon, and having finished the second building,

seventy-thousand entered it as they had entered the first. But it happened to them as it had happened to the first; when they began their Paganism it turned over upon them.' Now their king was not with them. Therefore, when he saw this, he assembled them a third time, and said unto them, "What think ye?' who said, 'We think that our Lord is not well pleased with us, because we have not offered unto him abundantly; therefore he has destroyed what we have done, therefore we should greatly wish to build a third.' They then built a. third, until they thought they had carried it to the greatest possible height, which having done, he assembled the Christians, and said unto them, 'Do ye observe any defect?' who said, 'None, except that we must surround it with crosses of gold and silver.' Then all the people entered it, to read and cite (sacred things) having bathed and perfumed themselves, and having entered it, they began to practise their associating Paganism, as the others had done before them;- whereupon down fell the third building upon them. Hereupon the king again summoned them together, and asked their counsel about what he should do. But their dread was very great; and whilst they were deliberating, there came up to them a very old man, in a white robe and a black turban; his back was bent double and he was leaning upon a staff. So he said, 'O, Christian people, listen to me! listen to me! for I am - the oldest of any of you in years, and have now come forth from among the retired votaries of religion, in order to inform you that, with respect to this place, all its possessors are accursed, and all holiness hath departed from it, and hath been transferred to this (other) place. I will therefore point out this as the place wherein to build the Church of the Resurrection. I will show you the spot, but you will never see me after this day, for ever. Do, therefore, with a good will that which I shall tell you.' Thus he cheated them, and augmented their accursed state, and commanded them to cut up the rock, and to build with its stones upon the place which he commended them.623


T.

TA'AH. Lit. "Obedience." A word which occurs once in the Qur'an Surah iv. 83: "Thev say 'Obedience!'" is an old Arabic word used for the worship and service of God.

TA'ALLUQ. Lit. "That which is suspended." A division or district. A term applied in India to a district including a number of village, for which a fixed amount of revenue is paid, and the possession of which is hereditary as long as the revenue is paid. These ta'alluqs, or, as they are commonly called taluk, are of two kinds: (1) Huzuri (from "the State"), of which the revenue is paid direct to Government; and (2) Mazkuri (from , "specified"), of which the revenue is paid through a chief, 624

who thus farms the revenue. The term was introduced to India by the Muslim conquerors.

TA'AM. [FOOD].

TA'AWWUZ. The ejaculation: "I seek refuge from God from cursed Satan," which forms part of. the Muhammadan. daily prayer;. It is called also 'auzun bi'llah. [PRAYER.]

TABARRUK. The commutation for an offering incumbent upon a religious medicant holding some endowment (waqf).

TABA'U 'T-TABI'IN. Lit. "The followers of the followers." Those who conversed with the Ta'bi'un (which term is used for those who conversed with Companions of Muhammad). Traditions related by them are received, but are of less authority, than those related by persons who had seen the Prophet.. [TRADITIONS.]

TABIB. A doctor of medicine. One who practises at-tibb, the "scion of medicine." Hakim (lit. "a philosopher is also used to express a medical practitioner."

TABI'UN. pl. of Tabi'. Those who conversed with the Associates or companions of Muhammad. The tradition which they related are of high authority and form part of the Sunnah or traditional law. [TRADITIONS.]

TABLES. OP THE LAW. Arabic Alwah , pl. of Lauh. The giving of the Law to Moses on tables is mentioned in the Qur'an, Surah vii. 142: "We wrote for him (Moses) upon tables (alwah) a monition concerning every matter." But Muslim doctors are not agreed as to number of the tables. The commentators al-Jalalan say that there were either seven or ten. [TEN COMMANDMENTS.]

TABUK. A valley in Arabia, celebrated as the scene of one Muhammad's military expeditions, and as the place where he made a treaty with John the Christian prince of Ailah. [TREATY.]

TABUT. (1) The Ark the Covenant, mentioned in the Qur'an, Surah ii. 249: "Verily the sign of his (Saul's) kingship shall be that the Ark (Tabut) shall come to you: and in it Sakinah from your Lord, and the relics left by Moses and Aaron: the angels shall bear it."

Tabut is the Hebrew Teban used for Noah's Ark; and the Ark of bulrushes, Ex. ii 3, and not ', Aron, the word in the Bible for the Ark of the Covenant.

The commentator, al-Baizawi, says the Sakinah was either the Taurat, or Books of Moses, or an idol of emeralds or rubies, the head and tail of which was like that of a

goat, and the wings of feathers, and which uttered a feeble cry; and when the ark was sent after an enemy, then this was sent. But some say it was a representation of the prophets.

Al-Jalalan say the relics left in the Ark were the fragments of the two tables of the Law, and the rod and robes and shoes of Moses, the mitre of Aaron, and thee vase of manna. [ARK OF THE COVENANT, SAKINAH.]

(2) A coffin or bier for the burial of the dead.

(3) The representation of the funeral of al-Hussain. [MUHARRAM.]

(4) The box or ark in which the body of the child Moses was placed by his mother for fear of Pharaoh. See Qur'an, Surah xx. 39: "When we spake unto thy mother what was spoken: 'Cast him into the ark: then cast him on the sea [the river], and the. sea shall throw him on the shore: and an enemy to me and an enemy to him shall take him up.' And I myself have made thee an object of love, That thou mightest be reared in mine eye."

TADBIR. . Post obit manumission of slaves. In its primitive sense it means looking forward to the event of a business in the language of the law, it means a declaration of a freedom to be established after the master's death. ' As when the master says to his slave, "Thou art free after my death." The slave so freed is called a mudabbir. (Hamilton's Hidayah, vol. i. p. 475.) [SLAVERY.]

TAFAKKUR. Lit. " Contemplation or thought. According to the Kitabu 't-Ta'rifat, it is the lamp of the heart whereby a man sees his own evils or virtues.

TAFSIR. Lit. Explainlng." A term used for a commentary on any book, but especially for a commentary on the Qur'an. [COMMENTARIES.]

AT-TAGHABUN. . "Mutual deceit.' The title of the 64th Surah of the Qur'an the IXth verse of which begins thus: "The day when He shall gather you together for the day of the assembly will he the day of Mutual Deceit".

That is, when the blessed will deceive or disappoint the damned by taking the places which they would have had in Paradise had they been true believers, and vice versa.

TAGHLIB. . An Arabian tribe who, on the first spread of Islam, were occupying a province in Mesopotamia, and professing the Christian faith.. The Banu Taghlib sent an embassy to Muhammad, formed of sixteen men, some Muslims and some Christians. The latter wore crosses of gold. The Prophet made terms with the Christians, stipulating that they should themselves continue in the profession of their religion, but should not baptize their children 625

into Christian faith. (Sir W. Muir, from Katibu 'l-Waqidi, p. 61.

AT-TAGHTIS. A term which occurs in the Kashfu 'z-Zanun, for baptism." [INJIL, SIGHBAH.]

TAGHUT. . An idol mentioned in the Qur'an:-

Surah iv. 54 "They believe in. Jibt and Taghut."

Surah ii. 257: "Whoso disbelieves in Taghut and believes in God, he has got a firm handle, in which is no breaking off."

Surah ii. 259: "But those who misbelieve their patrons are Taghut, these bring then forth to darkness."

Jalalu 'd-din says Taghut was an idol of the Quraish, whom certain renegade Jew honoured in order to please the tribe.

Mr. Lane observes that in the Arabian Nights the name is used to express the devil as well as an idol.

TA HA. . The title of the xxth Surah of the Qur'an, which begins with these Arabic letters. Their meaning is uncertain. Some fancy the first letter stand for tuba, "beatitude," and the second for Hawiyah, the name of the lowest pit of hell Tah is also, like sah, and the English "hush," an interjection commanding silence, and might be here employed to enjoin a silent and reverential listening to the revelation to follow.

TAHALUF. . The swearing of both plaintiff and defendant. In civil suit of both seller and purchaser. In disagreement, if both should take an oath the Qazi must dissolve the sale, or contract (Hamilton's Hidayah, vol. iii. p. 85.)

TAHANNUS. . Avoiding and abstaining from sin. Worshipping God for a certain period in seclusion. The word is used in the latter sense for the seclusion Muhammad on Mount Hira', when he is supposed to have received his first revelation. (Mishkat, book xxiv. c. v.) [INSPIRATION, QUR'AN]

TAHARAR. . "Purification," including wazu', tayammum, wasah, ghusl, and miswak, accounts of which are given under their respective articles. [PURIFICATION.]

TAHIR. . A. woman in a state of purity [PURIFICATION.]

TAHLIL. . The ejaculation "La ilalu, illa 'llah!" "There is no deity but' God!" (Mishkat, book x. ch. ii.)

Abu Hurairah relates that the Prophet said, "That person who recites 'There is deity but God,' one hundred times, shall receive rewards equal to the emancipation of ten slaves, and shall have one hundred good deeds recorded to his account, and one hundred of his sins shall be blotted out, and the Words shall be a protection from the devil." [ZIKR.]

TAHMID. . The ejaculation "al-Hamdu li-'llah!" , "God be praised!" (Mishkat, book x. ch. ii.)

'Umar ibn Shuaib relates from his forefathers that the Prophet said, "He who recites 'God be praised,' a hundred times in the morning and again a hundred times in the evening, shall he like, a person, who has provided one hundred horsemen for a jihad, or 'religious war.'"

TAHRIF. . The word used by Muhammadan writers for the supposed corruption of the Jewish and Christian scriptures. [CORRUPTION OF THE SCRIPTURES.]

AT-TAHRIM. . "The Prohibition" The title of the 66th Surah of the Qur'an, which begins with the words; "Why O Prophet dost thou forbid that which God, hath made lawful to thee, from a desire to please thy wives." The object of this chapter was to free Muhammad from his obligation to his wife Hafsah, to whom he had recently sworn to separate entirely from the Coptic slave-girl Mariyah.

TAHZIB. . A book of traditions received by the Shi'ahs, complied by Shaikh Abu Ja'far Muhamrnad, A.H. 466.

AT-TA'IF. . The name of a town, the capital of a district of the same name in Arabia, which Muhammad besieged A.H. 8, but the city was surrounded by strong battlements and was provisioned for some months. The siege was, therefore, raised Muhammad; after he had cut down and burned its celebrated vineyards. (Muir's Life of Mahomet, new ed. p. 432.).

TAIRAH. . "Lightness; levity of mind." Condemned in the Hadis.

TAIY. . An Arabian tribe who emigrated from al-Yaman to the Najd about the third century. Some of them embraced Judaism and some Christianity, while a portion remained pagans and erected a temple to the idol Fuls. The whole tribe eventually embraced Islam, A.D. 632, when 'Ali was sent to destroy the temple of Fuls.

Hatim al-Ta'iy, a Christian Bedouin Arab, celebrated for his hospitality, is the subject of Eastern poetry. He lived in the "time of ignorance," viz, before Muhammad, but his son 'Adi became a Muslim, and is numbered among the "Companions." Hatim at-Ta'iy's most famous act of liberality was that which he showed to an ambassador of the Greek Emperor, sent, to demand of him as a present for his master, a horse of very great price. The generous Arab, before he knew the object of this person's mission, slaughtered his horse to regale him, having nothing at the time in his house to serve in its stead. It is also said that he often caused as many as forty camels to be slaughtered for the 626

Entertainment of his guests and the poor Arabs of the desert.

TAJ. . "A crown; a diadem." The Muslim Khalifahs never wore a crown, the word is therefore not used in Muslim theology, but it is used by the faqirs for the cap worn by a leader of a religious order, which is generally of a conical shape.

AT-TAKASUR. ."Multiplying." The title of the CIInd Surah of the Qur'an, the opening, verses of which are:

"The desire of increasing riches occupieth youTill you come to the grave."

TAKBIR. . The expression, "Alluhu akbar!" "God is very great.!" (Mishkat, book x. ch. ii.)

The ejaculation frequently occurs in the daily liturgy and in the funeral office. [PRAYER.]

TAKBIRU 'T-TAHRIMAH. The first takbir in the liturgical prayer, said standing, after the recital of which the worshipper must give himself up entirely to worship. [PRAYER, TAKBIR.]

TAKHARUJ. . An arrangement entered into by some heirs-at-law with others for their share of the inheritance, in consideration of some specific thing which excludes them from inheritance. (Hamilton's Hidiyah, vol. iii. p. 201.)

AT-TAKWIR. "The Folding-up." The title of the LXXXXIst Surah of the Qur'an, which opens a solemn announcement of the Judgment Day by the words: "When the shall be folded up."

TAKYAH. Lit. "A pillow; a place of repose." Used in all Muhammadan countries for —

(1) A place in which some celebrated saint has stayed in Central Asia, these places are often merely marked by a few stones and a flag, but they are held sacred.

(2) A monastery, or religious ,house ,in which faqirs and ascetics reside, as the Taktyahs at Constantinople and Cairo.

(3) A hostel or rest-house, as the Takyah at Damascus, which is a hostel for pilgrims. Dr. Robinson describes it as a large quadraugular enclosure, divided into two courts, in the southern court of which there is a large mosque. Around the wall of the court run's a row of cells, with a portico or gallery of columns in front.,. This takyah was founded by Sultan' Salim, A.D. 1516. (Researches vol. iii. p. 459.)

TALAQ. .

(1) The sentence of divorce. [DIVORCE.]

(2) The title of the LXVth Surah of the Qur;an which treats of the subject of divorce.

TALBIYAH. . Lit. "Waiting or standing for orders." The recitation of the following words during the pilgrimage to Makkah: "Labbika! Allahummah! Labbaiku! Allakummah! Labbaika Labbaika! La Sharika laka ! Labbaika! Inma 'l-hamda wa-ni'amata laka! Wa 'l-mulka! La Sharika-laka!" "I stand up for Thy service, O God! I stand up!. I stand up!, There is no partner with Thee! I stand up for Thy service! Verily Thine is the praise, the beneficence, and the kingdom! There is no partner with Thee!"

From the Mishkat (book xi. ch. ii. pt. 1), it appears that this hymn was in use amongst the idolaters of Arabia before Muhammad's time. [HAJJ.]

TALHAH. son of 'Ubaidu 'llah, the Quraish, was a grand-nephew of Abu Bakr. He was a distinguished Companion, and was honoured with the position of one of the "Asharrah Mubashsharah, or "ten patriarchs of the Muslim faith." He saved the life of Muhammad at the battle of Uhud. He was slain in the fight of the Camel, A.H. 36, aged 64, and was buried at at-Basrah.

TALIB. . Lit. "One who seeks." An inquirer. A term generally used for a student of divinity, is Talibu 'l-'ilm.

TALISMAN. Arabic tilsam; pl. Talasim. The English word is a corruption of the Arabic. A term applied to mystical characters, and also to seals and stones upon which such characters are engraved or inscribed. The characters are astrological, or of some other magical kind. Talismans are used as charms against evil for the preserving from

enchantment or from accident; they are also sometimes buried with a hidden treasure to protect it. [AMULET. EXCORCISM.] 627

TALKING. [CONVERSATION.]

TALMUD. The traditional Law of the Jews. From Heb. lamad, "to learn.." The learning of the Rabbis. Mr. Emanuel Deutsch says:-

"It seems as if Muhammad had breathed from his childhood almost the air of contemporary Judaism, as is found by us crystallized in the Talmud, the Targum and the Midrash.

"It is not merely parallelisms, reminiscences, allusions, technical terms, and the like of Judaism, its law and dogma and ceremony, its Halacha and its Haggadah (its law and legend), which we find in the Koran; but we think Islam neither more nor less than Judaism as adapted to Arabia—plus the Apostleship of Jesus and Muhammad." (Literary Remains, p. 64.)

How much Muhammad was indebted to the Jewish Talmud for his doctrines, ethics, and ceremonial, is shown in an essay, by the Jewish Rabbi, Abraham Geiger, in answer to the question put by the University at Bonn: "Inquiratur in fontes Alcorani seu legis Mohammedicae eos, qui ex Judaeismo dorivandi sunt," of which a German translation has appeared, Was hat Mohammed aus dem Judenthumne aufgenommen? (Bonn, 1833), and is treated of in the present work in the article on. JUDAISM.

The Talmud consists of two parts: The Mishna, or the text (what is called in Arabic the Matn), and the Gemara, or Commentary (Arabic Sharh). These two form the Talmud.)

The Mishna (from Shanah, to "repeat") or the oral law of the Jews, was not committed to writing until about the year A.D. 190, by Rabbi Judah, although it is said it was first commenced by Rabbi Akibah, A.D. 180.

The Gemara (lit. "that which is perfect") are two commentaries on the Mishna. The one compiled by Rabbi Jochonam at Jerusalem about the middle of the third century, and the other by Rabbi Ashe at Babylon, about the middle of the sixth.

Canon Farrar (Lift of Christ, vol. ii. p. 848), says: "Anything more utterly unhistorical than the Talmud, cannot be conceived. It is probable that no human writings ever confounded names, dates, and facts, with more absolute indifference."

And doubtless it is this unsatisfactory, feature in the Talmud of the Jews which, to a great extent, accounts for the equally unhistorical character of the Qur'an.

For information on the Talmud, the English reader can consult the following works: The Talmud, by Joseph Barklay, LL.D., Bishop of Jerusalem, 1878: A Talmudic Miscellany, by Paul Isaac Hershon, 1880; Selections from the Talmud, by II. Polono;

The Talmud, an article in the Quarterly Review, October, 1867, by Emanuel Deutsch; The Talmud, a chapter in The Home and Synagogue of the Modern Jew (Religious Tract Society). A complete translation of the Talmud is being Undertaken by Mr. P.I. Herehon. See Dr. Farrar's Preface to the Talmudic Miscellany.

TALQIN. Lit. "Instructing," An exhortation or instruction imparted by a religious teacher. It is specially used for the instruction given at the grave of a departed Muslim, at the close of the burial service, when one of the mourners draws near the middle of the grave, addresses the deceased, and says:—

"O servant of God, and child of a female servant of God.

"O son of such an one, remember the faith you professed on earth to the very Last; this is your witness that there is no deity but God, and that certainly Muhammad is His Apostle, and that Paradise and Hell and the Resurrection from the dead are real; that there will be a Day of Judgment; and say.; 'I confess that God is my Lord, Islam my religion,' Muhammad (on whom be the mercy and peace of God) my Prophet, the Qu'ran my guide, the Ka'bah my Qiblah, and that Muslims are my brethren.' O God, keep him (the.. deceased) firm in his faith, and widen his grave, and make his examination (by Munkir and Nakir) easy, and exalt him and have mercy on him, O 'Thou most Merciful!" [BURIAL.]

TALUT. . [SAUL.]

TAMATTU. Lit. "Reaping advantage!' The act of. performing the 'Umrah until its completion, and then performing the Hajj as a separate ceremony, thus reaping the advantages of both. [HAJJ, UMRAH.]

TAMIM. An independent Arab tribe of Makkan origin who occupied the north-eastern desert of Najd. They fought by the side of Muhammad at Makkah and Hunain.

TAMJID. The expression, "La haula wa la quwwata ilta bi-'llahi 'l 'aliya 'l-'azan" "There is no power and strength but in God, the High one, the Great." (Mishkat, book x. ch. ii.)

Abu Hurairah relates that the Prophet said, "Recite very frequently, 'There is no power and strength but in God,' for these words are one of the treasures of Paradise. For there is no escape from God but with God. And God will open for the reciter thereof seventy doors of escape from evil, the least of which is poverty."

TANASASUKH. (I) In Muhammadan law, the death of one heir after another before the partition of an inheritance.

(2) At-Tanasukh. The metempsychosis or Pythagorean system of the transmigration. of souls, a doctrine held by the Hindus and Buddhists, but forming no part of the Muhammadan system.

TANFIL. "Plundering in religious warfare." Commended in the Qur'an, 628

Surah viii. I : "They will question thee about the spoils. Say: The spoils are God's and the Apostle's."

TAQARRUB. Lit. "Seeking admittance or striving to draw near." A term used to express the desire of propitiating the Deity by prayer, almsgiving or sacrifice.

TAQDIR. Lit. " To measure." The doctrine of Fate or Predestination, al-Qadr [PREDESTINATION.]

TAQIYAH. . Lit. "Guarding oneself." A Shi'ah doctrine. A pious fraud whereby the Shi'ah Muslim believes be is justified in either smoothing down or in denying the peculiarities of his religious belief, in order to save himself from religious persecution.. A Shi'ah can, therefore, pass himself off as a Sunni to escape persecution. The Shi'ah traditionists relate that certain persons inquired of the Imam Sadiq if the Prophet had ever practised taqiyah, or "religious dissimulation," and the Imam replied. "Not after this verse was sent down to the Prophet, namely, Surah v. 71: 'O thou Apostle! publish the whole of what has been revealed to thee from thy, Lord ; if thou do it not, thou hast not preached His message and God will not defend thee from wicked men; for God guides not the unbelieving people.' When the Most High became surety for the Prophet against barm, then he no longer dissimulated, although before this revelation appeared be had occasionally. done so." (The Hayatu 'l-Qulub, Merrick's ed., p. 96.) [SHI'AH.]

TAQLID. . Lit. "Winding round." (1) Putting .a wreath. round a victim destined to be slain at Makkah. (2) Girding with a sword, as a sign of investiture of a high dignitary. (3) A term used in Muhammadan law for the following of a religious leader without due inquiry.

TAQWA. . [ABSTINENCE.]

TARAWIH. . The plural of tarwih, "Rest." The prayers, of usually twenty rak'ahs, recited at Eight during the month of. Ramazan: so called because the congregation sit down and rest after every fourth rak'ah and every second "Salam." (RAMAZAN.]

TARIKAH. . A legacy, a request, an inheritance.

AT-TARIQ. . "The night- comer." The title of the LXXXVIth Surah of the Qur'an, beginning thus:

"By the heaven, and by the night-comer!But what shall teach theeWhat the night-corner is?Tis the star of piercing radiance."

According to al-Wahidi, these words were revealed when Abu Talib, at the time of the evening meal, was startled by a shooting star. Noldeke, however, observes that the three verses seem rather to apply to a planet or a fixed star of particular brightness.

TARIQAH. . "A path" A term used by the Sufis for the religious life.

TARWIYAH. . Lit. "Satisfying thirst," or, according to some, "giving attention." The eighth day of the pilgrimage; so called either because the pilgrims give their camels - water on this day, or because Abraham gave attention (rawwa) to the vision wherein he. was instructed to sacrifice his son Ishmael (?) on this day.

TASAWWUF. . A word used to express the doctrines, of the Sufis or Muhammadan mystics. Sufiism. The word does not occur in the celebrated Arabic Dictionary, the Qamus, which was compiled an. 817, nor in the Sihah, A.H.. 393. [SUFI.]

TASBIH. . (1) The. ejaculation,' "Subhana 'llah!" , "I extol the holiness of God!" or "O Holy God!" A most meritorious ejaculation which, it recited one-hundred times, night and morning, is said by the Prophet to atone for man's sins, however many or great., (Mishkat, book v. ch. ii.)

(2) A- Rosary.. [ROSARY: ZIKR.]

TASHAHHUD. . Lit. "Testimony." A declaration of the Muslim faith recited during the stated prayers, immediately after the Tahiyah, in the same attitude, but with the first finger of the right hand extended, as a witness to the Unity of God. It is as follows: "I testify that there is no deity but God, and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God." It is also used as an expression of faith upon a person becoming a Muhammadan. (Mishkat; book iv. ch. xvi.) [PRAYERS.]

TASHRIQ. . Lit. Drying flesh in the sun." A name given to three days after the sacrifice at Makkah during the Pilgrimage, either because the flesh of the victim is then dried, or because they are not slain until sunrise. [HAJJ.]

TASLIM. . The benediction at the close of the usual form of pryaer, "As-salamu 'alaikum wa-rahmatu 'llah . 629

, "The peace and mercy of God be with you." [PRAYERS.]

TASMI'. The following ejaculation which is recited by the Imam in the daily prayers: "God hears him who praises Him." [PRAYERS.]

TASMIYAH. Lit. "Giving a name." (1) A title given to the Basmalah, or the initial sentence, "In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful." This occurs at the commencement of each chapter or Surah of the Qur'an, with the exception of the ixth Surah. IQUR'AN.] (2) Also used at the commencement of any religious act (except sacrifice), such as prayer, ablutions, &c. (3) The usual "grace before meat," amongst Muslims. [BISMILLAH.]

TASNIM. Lit. "Anything convex and shelving at both sides." The name of a fountain In Paradise mentioned in the Qur'an, Surah lxxxiii. 28: "Mingled therewith shall be the waters of Tasnim."

TASWIB. Repeating the phrase, "As salatu khairun mina 'n-naum" (i.e. "Prayer is better than sleep"), in the Azan for the early morning prayer. [AZAN, PRAYER.]

TATAWWU'. An act of supererogation. A term which includes both the sunnah and nafl actions of the Muslim (q.v.).

AT-TATFIF. Giving "Short Measure." The title of the LXXXIIIrd Suah of the Qur'an, beginning with the words:

"Woe to those who stint the measure:Who when they take by measure from others, exact the full;But when they mete to them or weigh to them, minish—Have they no thought that they shall be raised againFor a great day.

We learn from the Itqan that some commentators see in this passage allusions to Maidnah circumstances, and consequently think that the Surah, or at least part of it, was revealed in that town. But in connection with such obviously Makkan verses, as 30 and following, where it is said:

"The sinners, indeed, laugh the faithful to scorn,And when they pass by them, they wink at one another,

And when they return to their own people, they return jesting.And when they see them, they say, 'Verily these are the erring ones"—

it appears evident, that the pride and arrogance of the Makkans, founded on their ill-gotten wealth, is contrasted with the humble and precarious condition of the followers of Muhammad, to convey at the same time a solemn warning, that the positions will be reversed on the Great Day of Reckoning.

TATHIR. A purifying or cleansing of anything which is ceremonially unclean. For example, if a dog drinks from a vessel, it becomes najis, or "impure," but it can be purified (tathir) by washing it seven times. A mosque which has been defiled can be cleansed with dry earth or water and by recitals from the Qur'an. If the boots on the feet have been defiled, they can be purified by rubbing them on dry earth.

Bara' ibn 'Azib says that Muhammad taught that the micturation of an animal lawful for food does not sender clothes ceremonially unclean. (Mishkat, book iii. ch. ix.) [PURIFICATION.]

TATTOOING. Muhammad forbade the custom of the idolaters of Arabia to prick the hands of their women and to rub the punctures over with wood, indigo, and other colours. (Mishkat, book xii. ch. i. Pt. 1.)

TAUBAH. (1) Repentance. (2) At-Taubah, a title of the ixth Surah of the Qur'an. [PARDON, REPENTANCE.]

AT-TAUBATU 'N-NASUH. Lit. "Sincere repentance." A term used by divines for true repentance of the heart, as distinguished from that only of the lips.

TAUHID. A term used to Express the unity of the Godhead, which is the great fundamental basis of the religion of Muhammad. [GOD.]

TAUJIH. Any pious ejaculation recited by the pious before or after the Takbir. (Mishkat, book iv. Ch. xi) [PRAYER.]

TAURAT. The title given to the Qur'an (Surah iii. 2), and in all Muhammadan works, for the Books of Moses. It is the Hebrew Torah, "the Law."

The author of the Kashfu 'z-Zunun (the 630

biographical dictionary of Haji Khalifah says:-

The Tarut, is the inspired book which God gave to Moses,. and of which there are three well-known editions.. (1) The Tauratu 's-Sabari'in 'the Torah of the Seventy,' which was translated from the Hebrew into Greek by seventy-two learned Jews. (It is admitted by Christian writers that the Law, i.e. the Pentateuch, alone was translated first. It has since been translated into Syriac and Arabic. (2) The Tauratu 'l- Qarra'in wa Rabbaniyin, 'the Taurat of the learned doctors and rabbins.' (3) The Tauratu 's-Samirah. The Samaritan Pentateuch.'"

The same writer says the learned who have examined these editions of the Taurat, found that although they agreed with each other and. taught the unity of God, they do not; contain an account of the stated prayers, the last, the pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and almsgiving, nor anything regarding heaven or hell, which is, he adds, a proof of the Taurat. having been altered by the Jews. (Kashfu 'z-Zunun, Flugel's edition, vol. li; p. 459.)

Although Muhammad professed to establish the Taurat of Moses (see Qur'án, Surahs ii. 180; iii. 78 ;. iv. 135), it would appear from the Traditions that he did not view with favour the reading of it in his presence.

It is related that Umar once brought a copy of the Taurat to the Prophet, and said," This is a copy of the Taurat." Muhammad 'was silent, and 'Umar was about to read some portions of it. Then Abu Bakr said,' "Your mother weeps for your. Don't you see the Prophet's face look angry! Then 'Umar looked,, and be saw the Prophet was angry, and he said, " God protect me from the anger of God and of His Apostle.' I am satisfied with God as my Lord; Islam as my creed, and Muhammad as my Prophet." Then Muhammad said, "If Moses were alive and found my prophecy, he would follow me.". [OLD TESTAMENT.]

AT-TAUWAB. Literally One who turns frequently," hence "the Relenting." One of the ninety-nine names or attributes of God. Preceded by the article,, as a name of God, it occurs. four times in the Suratu 'l.Baqarah (ii. 35, 51, 122, 155), and twice in the Suratu 't-Taubah (ix. 105, 119). In three of these passages, God's relenting mercy is illustrated by striking instances taken from ancient and contemporaneous history, viz, in the case of Adam of the Jews after their worshipping the golden calf, and of the three men who did not accompany Muhammad in the expedition to Tabuk, and who, put under interdiction after his return, were not released from it till after fifty days of penance.

A Surah ii. 35 "And words of. prayer learned Adam from his Lord; and God relented towards him; verily, He is the Relenting, the Merciful."

Surah ii. 51: "And remember when Moses said to his people: 'O my people! Verily ye have sinned to your own heart, by your taking to yourself the calf to worship it. Be turned then to your Creator, and slay the guilty among you; this will be best for you with your Creator.' So he related towards you: verily He is the Relenting, the Merciful."

Surah iv. 119 "He has also turned .in Mercy unto the three who were left behind, so that the earth, spacious as it is, became too strait for them ; and their souls became so

straitened within them, that there was no refuge from God but unto Himself.. Then was He turned to them that they might turn to Him. Verily, God is He that turneth, the, Merciful."

In the other places, mentioned above, and in two more (Surahs xiiv. 10, and xlix. 12), where the word is used as andjective without the article, it describes God as ever ready to turn in forgiveness of man in general and to the Muslim in particular, if they turn in repentance unto him.

TAWAF. The ceremony of circumambulating the Ka'bah seven, times, three times in ii quick step and four at the ordinary pace. It is enjoined in the Qur;an, Surah xxii. 27. Shaikh 'Abdu 'l-Haqq says it was the custom of the Arabian idolaters to perform the tawaf naked. [HAJJ.]

TA'WIZ. Lit. "To flee for refuge." An amulet or charm. A gold or silver case, inclosing quotations from the Qur'an, or Hadis, and worn upon the breast, arm, neck, or waist. [AMULET.]

TAXATION. There are three words used for taxation in Muslim books of law. (1) 'Ushr "the tenth";(2) Kharaj "land revenue"; (3) Jizyah "capitation tax."

Lands, the proprietors of which become Muslims, or which the Imam devides among the troops, are. Ushri, or subject to. tithe, because it is necessary that something should be imposed and deducted from the subsistence of Muslims, and a tenth is the proportion most suitable to them, as that admits the construction of ant., oblation or act of piety and, also, because this is the most equitable method, since in this way the amount of what is levied depends upon; the actual product of the lands.

Lands, on the other hand, which the Imam subdues by force of arms, and then restores to the people of the conquered territory, are Kharaji, or subject to tribute, because it is necessary that something be imposed and deducted from: the subsistence of infidels, and tribute is the. most suitable to their situation, as that bears the construction of a punishment, since it is a sort of hardship, the tax upon tribute land being due from the proprietor, although he should not have cultivated it. It is to be remarked, however, that Makkah is excepted from this rule, as Muhammad conquered that territory by force of arms, and then restored it to the inhabitants without imposing tribute. 631

It is written in the Jami'u 's-Saghir that all land subdued by force of arms, if watered by canals cut by the Gentiles, is subject to tribute, whether the Imam have divided it among the troops, or restored it to the original inhabitants; and if there be no canals, but the land be watered by springs, which rise within, it is subject to tithe, in either case, because tithe is peculiar to productive land, that is, land capable of cultivation, and which yields increase, and the increase produced from it is occasioned by water. The standard, therefore, by which tribute is due is the land being watered by tribute water, namely, rivers, and the standard by which tithe is due is the land being, watered by tithe water, namely, springs.

If a person cultivate waste lands, the imposition of tithe or tribute upon it (according to Abu Yusuf) is determined by the neighboring soils; in other words, if the neighbouring lands be subject to tithe, a tithe is to be imposed upon it, or tribute if they be subject to tribute; because the rule respecting anything is determined by what is nearest to it; as in the case of a house, for instance, the rule with. respect to it extends to its court-yard, although it be not the owner's immediate property. The tribute established and imposed by 'Umar upon the lands of al-'Iraq was adjusted' as follows :—Upon every jarib of land through which water runs (that is to say, which is capable of cultivation) one sa' and one dirham, and upon every jarib of pasture-land five dirhams, and upon every jarib of gardens and orchards ten dirhams, provided they contain vines and date-trees.

This rule for tribute upon arable and pasture lands, gardens, and orchards, is taken from 'Umar, who fixed it at the rates above-mentioned, none contradicting him; wherefore it is considered as agreed to by all the Companions. Upon all land of any other description. (such as pleasure-grounds, saffron fields, and so forth) is imposed a tribute according to ability; since, although 'Umar has not laid down any particular rule with respect to them, yet as he has made ability the standard of tribute upon arable land, so in the same manner, ability is to be regarded in lands of any other description. The learned in the law allege that the utmost extent of tribute is one half of the actual product, nor is it allowable to exact more; but the taking of a half is no more than strict justice, and is not tyrannical because, as it is lawful to take the whole of the persons and property of infidels, and to distribute them among the Muslims, it follows that taking half their incomes is lawful a fortiori.

(3) Jizyah, or capitation tax, is of two kinds. The first species is that which is established voluntarily, and by composition, the rate of which is such as may be agreed upon by both parties. The second is that which the Imam himself imposes, where he conquers infidels, and then confirms them in their possessions, the common rate of which is fixed by his imposing upon every avowedly rich person a tax of forty-eight dirhams per annum, or four dirham. per month; and upon every person in middling circumstances twenty-four dirharns per annum of two dirham per month; and upon the labouring poor twelve dirhams per annum or one dirham per month.

(For further information see Raddu 'l-Muhtar, vol. ii. 7; Fatawa-i-'Alamgiri, ii. 860 Hidayah, vol. i. 102.)

TAYAMMUM. Lit. "Intending or proposing to do a thing." The ceremony of ablution performed with sand instead of water, as in the case of wazu'. The permission to use sand for this purpose, when water cannot be obtained, is granted in the Qur'an,Surah v.9:—

"If ye cannot find water, then take fine surface sand and wipe your faces and your hands therewith. God does not wish to make any hindrance for you."

[t is related in' the Traditions that Muhammad said: "God has made me grater than all preceeding prophets, inasmuch as my ranks in worship are like the ranks of angels;

and the whole earth is fit for my people to worship on: and the very dust of the earth is fit for purification when water cannot be obtained. (Mishkat, book iii. ch. xi).

Tayammum, or "purification by sand," is allowable under the following circumstances (1) When water cannot be procured except at, a distance of about two miles. (2) in case of sickness when the use of water might be injurious; (3) when water cannot be obtained without incurring danger from an enemy, a beast, or a reptile; and (4) when on the occasion of the prayers of a Feast day or at a funeral, the worshipper is late and has. no time to perform, the wa;ü'. On ordinary days this substitution of tayammum for wazu' is not allowable. [WAZU'.]

TA'ZIAH. Lit. "A consolation." A representation or' model of the tomb of Hasan and Husain at Karbala, carried in procession at the Muharram by the Shi'ahs. It is usually made of a light frame of wood-work, covered with paper, painted and ornamented, and illuminated within and without. It is sometimes of considerable size and of elaborate execution according to the wealth of the owner. [MUHARRAM.]

632

TA'ZIR. From 'azr, "to Censure or repel." That discretionary correction which is administered for offences, for which if add, or "fixed punishment," has not been appointed.

According to the Sunni law the following are the leading principles of Ta'zir :—

Ta'zir, in its primitive sense, means "prohibition," and also "instruction" in Law it signifies an infliction undetermined in its degree by the law, on account of the right either of God, or of the individual; and the occasion of it is any offence for which hadd, or "stated punishment," has not been appointed, whether that offence consist in word or deed.

Chastisement is ordained by the law, the institution of it being established on the authority of the Qur'an, which enjoins men to chastise their wives, for, the purpose of correction and amendment; and 'the same also occurs in the Traditions. It is, moreover, recorded that the Prophet chastised a person who had called another perjured; and all - the Companions agree concerning this, Reason and analogy, moreover, both evince that chastisement ought to be inflicted for ants of an offensive nature, in such a manner that men may not become habituated to the commission of such acts; for if they were, they might by degrees be led into the perpetration of others more atrocious. It is also written, in the Fatawa-i-Timur Tashi of Imam Sirukhsh, that in ta'zir, or "chastisement.," nothing is fixed or determined, but that the degree of it is left, to the discretion of the Qazi because the design of it is correction, and. the dispositions of men with respect to it are different, some being sufficiently corrected by reprimands, whilst others, more obstinate, require confinement, and even blows.

In the Fataw-i-Shaifi'I it is said that there are four orders or degrees of chastisement:- First, the chastisement proper to the most noble, of the noble (or, in other words,

princes and men of learning); which consists merely in admonition, as if the Qazi were to say to one of them, "I understand that you have done this, or thus," so as to make him ashamed. Secondly, the chastisement proper to the noble (namely, commanders of armies, and chiefs of districts), which may be performed in two ways, either by admonition (as above), or by jarr, that is, by dragging the offender to the door, and. exposing him to scorn. Thirdly, the chastisement proper to the middle order (consisting of merchants and shopkeepers), which may be performed by, jarr (as above), and also by imprisonment; and Fourthly, the chastisement proper to the lowest order in the community, which may be performed by jarr, or by imprisonment, and also by blows.

It is recorded from Abu Yusuf that the ruler of a country may inflict chastisement by means of property, that is, by the exaction of a small sum in the manner of a fine, proportioned to the offence; but this doctrine is rejected by many of the learned.

Imam Timur Tashi says that chastise went, where it is incurred purely as the right of God, may be inflicted by any person whatever; for AbÜ Ja'far Hinduani, being asked whether a man, finding another in the act of adultery with his wife, might slay him, replied, "If the husband know that expostulation and beating will be sufficient to deter the adulterer from a future repetition of his offence, he must not slay him; but if he sees reason to suppose that nothing but death will prevent a repetition of the, offence, in such case it is allowed to the husband to slay that man: and if the woman were consenting to his act, it is allowed to her husband to slay her also;" from which it appears that any man is empowered to chastise another by blows, even though there be no magistrate present. He, has demonstrated this fully in the Muntafi' and the reason of it is that the chastisement in' question is of the class of the removal of evil with the hand, and the Prophet has authorized every person to remove evil with the hand, as he has said: "Whosoever among ye see the evil, let him remedy it with his own hands; but if he be unable so to do, let him forbid it with his tongue." Chastisement, therefore, is evidently contrary to punishment, since authority, to inflict the latter does not appertain to any but a magistrate or a judge. This species of chastisement is also contrary to the chastisement which is incurred on account of the right of the individual (such as in cases of slander, and so forth), since that depends upon the complaint of the injured party, whence no person can inflict it hut the magistrate, even under a private arbitration, where the plaintiff and defendant may have referred the decision of the matter to any third person.

(5) Chastisement, in any instance in which it is authorized by the law, is to be inflicted where the Imam sees it advisable.

If a person accuse of whoredom a male or female slave, an ummu 'l-walad, or an infidel, he is to be chastised, because, this accusation is an offensive accusation, and punishment for slander is not incurred by it, as the condition, namely, Ihsan (or marriage in the sense which induces punishment for slander), is not attached to the accused: chastisement, therefore, is to be inflicted. And in the same manner, if any person accuse a Muslim of any other thing than whoredom (that is, abuse him, by calling him a reprobate, or a villain, or an infidel, or a thief), chastisement is incurred, because he injures a Muslim and defames him; and punishment (hadd) cannot be considered as due from analogy, since analogy has no concern with the necessity of punishment : chastisement, therefore, is to be inflicted., Where the aggrieved party is

a slave, or so forth, the chastisement must be inflicted to the extremity of it: but in the case of abuse of a Muslim, the measure of the chastisement is left to the discretion of the magistrate, be it more or less; and whatever he sees proper let him inflict. 633649


U.

'UBADAH IBN AS-SAMIT. One of the Ansars of al-Madinah, who was afterwards employed by Abu Bakr to collect the scattered sentences of the Qur'an.

'UBUDIYAH . [SLAVERY.]

AL-UFUQU 'L-A'LA. Lit. "Loftiest Tract." (1) The place in which it is said Gabriel was when he taught Muhammad, see Surah liii. 7: "One mighty in power (Shadidu 'l-Quwa) taught him, endowed with sound understanding, and appeared, he being in the loftiest tract."

(2) According to the Sufis, it is the highest spiritual state a man can attain in the mystic life.

UHNUKH. . The Enoch of the Old Testament, supposed. to be the Idris of the Qur'an. A full account of this person will be found in the article on IDRIS.

UHUD. . Ohod. A hill about three miles distant from al-Madinah, and described by Burckhardt as a rugged and almost insulated offshoot of the great moutain range. Celebrated for the battle fought by Muhammad and the victory gained over the Muslims by the Quraish, A.H. 8. (Muir's Life of Mahomet, new ed. p. 266 seqq. [MUHAMMAD.]

UJ. . The son of 'Uq. A giant who is said to have been born in the days of Adam, and lived through the Deluge, as the water only came up to his waist, and to have died in the days of Moses, the: great lawgiver having smitten him on the foot with his rod. He lived 3,500 years. (Ghiyasu l'-Lughat, in loco.) The Og of the Bible, concerning whom as-Suyuti wrote a long be taken chiefly from Rabbinic traditions. (Ewald, Gesch, i. 306.) An apocryphal book of Og was condemned by Pope Gelasius (Dec. vi. 13.)

UKAIDAR. . The Christian chief of Dumah, who was taken prisoner by Khalid, A.H. 9. (Muir's Life of Mahomet, new ed. p. . 458.)

In the Traditions it is said: "Khalid took Ukaidar prisoner because the Prophet forbade killing him. And the Prophet did not kill him, but made peace with him, when he paid the poll-tax" (Miskat book xvii. cli. ix.)

Sir W. Muir says he became a Muslim, but revolted after the death of Muhammad.

'UKAZ. . An annual fair of twenty-one days, which was held between at- Ta'if and Nakhiah, and which was opened on the first day of the month of Zu 'l-Qa'dah, at the commencement of the three sacred months. It was abolished by Muhammad.

Mr. Stanley Lane Poole says (Selections from the Kur-an):-

"There was one place where, above all others, the Kaseedehs (Qasidahs) of the ancient Arabs were recited.: this was 'Okadh ('Ukaz), the Olympia of Arabia, where there was held a great annual Fair, to which not merely the merchants of Mekka and the south, but the poet-heroes of all the land. resorted. The Fair of 'Okdadh was held during the sacred months,—a sort of 'God's Truce,' when blood could not be shed without a violation of the ancient customs and faiths of the Bedawees. Thither went the poets of rival clans, who had as often locked spears as hurled rhythmical curses. There was little fear of a bloody ending to the poetic contest, for those heroes who, might meet. there with enemies or blood .avengers are said to have worn masks as veils, and their poems were recited by a public orator at their dictation. That these precautions and the sacredness of the time could not always prevent the ill- feeling evoked by the pointed personalities of rival singers leading to a fray and bloodshed is proved by recorded instances; but such results were uncommon, and as a rule the customs of the time and place were respected. In spite of occasional broils on the spot, and the lasting feuds which these poetic contests must have excited, the Fair pf' 'Okadh was a grand institution. It served as a Locus for the literature of all Arabia: everyone with any pretensions to poetic power came, and if he could not himself gain the applause of the assembled. people, at least he could form one of the critical audience on whose verdict rested the fame or the shame of every poet. The Fair of 'Okadh was a literary congress, without formal judges, but with unbounded influence. It was here that the polished heroes of the desert determined points of grammar and prosody; here the seven Golden songs were recited, although (alas for the charming legend!) they were not afterwards suspended on the Kaabeh; and here a magical language, the language of the Hijaz, was built out of the dialects of Arabia, and was made ready to the skilful hand of Mohammad, that he might conquer the world with his Kur-an.

"The Fair of 'Okadh , was not merely a centre of emulation for Arab poets: it was also an annual review of Bedawee virtues. It was there that the Arab nation once-a-year inspected itself, so to say, and brought forth and criticised its ideals of the noble and the beautiful in life and in poetry. For it was in poetry that the Arab – and for that matter 650

each man all the world over — expressed his highest thoughts, and it was at 'Okadh that these thoughts were measured by the standard of the Bedawee ideal. The Fair not only maintained the highest standard of poetry that the Arabic language has over reached: it also upheld the noblest idea of life and duty that the Arab nation has yet set forth and obeyed. 'Okadh was the press, the stage, the pulpit, the Parliament, and the Académie Française of the Arab people; and when, in his fear of the infidel poets (whom Imra-el-Keys was to usher to hell), Mohammad abolished the Fair, he destroyed the Arab nation, even whilst he created his own new nation of Muslims; and the Muslims cannot sit in the places of the old pagan Arabs."

'UKUF. . Lit. "Remaining behind." A term used to express a life of prayer of one who remains constantly in the mosque.

'ULAMA'. . , pl.. of 'alim. "One who knows; learned: a scholar." In this plural form the ward is used as the title of those bodies of learned doctors in Muhammadan divinity and law, who headed by their Shaiku 'l-Islam, form the theocratic element of the government in Muslim countries, and who by their fatwas or decisions in questions touching private and public matters of importance, regulate the life of the Muhammadan community.. Foremost in influence and authority are. naturally reckoned the 'Ulama, of Constantinople, the seat of the Khahifah and of Makkah, the Holy City of Islam. Like the Ashab or Companions of the Prophet under his immediate successors. they correspond in a certain measure to what we would call the representative system of our modern constitutions, In partially limiting and checking the autocratism of an otherwise absolute Oriental ruler.

ULUHIYAH. . "Divinity; godhead"

ULU 'L-'AZM. . "The Possessors of. Constancy" A title given to certain prophets in the Qur'an, said by the commentators to have been Noah, Abraham, David, Jacob, Joseph, Job, Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad, (Vide. Ghiyasu 'l-Lughat.) See Surah xlvi. 34: "Then be thou constant, as the Apostles endowed with a purpose were constant, and hasten not on."

UMANA'. . pl. amin. "Faithful Ones." A title given by the Sufis to those pious persons who do not make their religious experiences known. They are known also as the Malamatiyah, or those who are willing to undergo misrepresentation rather than boast of their piety.

UMAR. . IBN AL_KHATTAB (Omar) the second Khalifah, who succeeded Abu Bakr, A.H. 13 (A.D. 684), and was assassinated by Firoz, a Persian slave. A.H. 23 (A.D. 644), after a prosperous reign of ten years. His conversion to Islam took place in the sixth year of Muhammad's mission, and the Prophet took 'Umar's daughter Hafsah as his-third wife.

'Uinar is eminent amongst the early Khalifahs for having chiefly contributed to the spread of Islam. Under hi the great generals, Abu 'Ubaidah, Khald ibn al-Walid, Yazid, drove the Greeks out of Syria and Phoenicia; Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, Qaqa'ah, Nu'man, completed the conquest of the two 'Iraqs and the overthrow of the Persian Empire; 'Amr ibn al-'As (commonly called Amru) subdued Egypt and part of the Libyan coast, after having, as commander in Palestine, prepared by his victories and a severe siege, the surrender of Jerusalem [JERUSALEM] into the Khalifah's own hands. 'Umar's name is, moreover, intimately connected with the history of Islam, by the initiatory and important share which he took in the first collection of the Qur'an, under Abu Bakr, by the official introduction of the Muhammadan era of the Hijrah, and by the first organisation of the diwan, or civil list of the Muhammadans. The two former subjects have been treated of in this Dictionary in their proper places; the third institution, which laid the foundation to the marvellous successes of the Muslim arms under this and the succeeding Governments, is ably explained in the following extract from Sir W. Muir's Annals of tile Early Caliphate :—

"The Arabian nation was the champion of Islam, and to fight its battles every Arab was jealously reserved. He must be the soldier, and nothing else. He might not settle down in any conquered province as cultivator of the soil; and for merchandise or other labour, a busy warlike life offered but little leisure. Neither was there any need. The Arabs lived on the fat of the conquered land, and captive natives served them. Of the booty taken in war, four parts were distributed. to the army in the field; the fifth was reserved for the State; and even that, after discharging public obligations, was shared among the Arabian people. In the reign of Abu Bakr, this, was a simple matter. But in the Caliphate of Omar, the spoil of Syria and of Persia began in ever-increasing volume to pour into the treasury of Medina, where it was distributed almost as soon as received. What was easy in small beginnings, by equal sharing or discretionary preference, became now a heavy task. And there began, also, to arise new sources of revenue in the land assessment, and the poll-tax of subject countries, which, after defraying civil and military charges, had to be accounted for to the Central Government; the surplus being, like the royal fifth, the patrimony of the Arab nation.

"At length, in the second or third year of his Caliphate, Omar determined that the distribution should be regulated on a fixed and systematic scale. The income of the commonwealth was to be divided, as heretofore, amongst the Faithfu1 as their heritage, but 651

upon a rule of precedence befitting the military and theocratic groundwork of Islam. For this end three points only were considered: priority of conversion, affinity to the Prophet, and military service. The widows of Mahomet, 'Mothers of the Faithful,' took the precedence with an annual allowance of 10,000 pieces each; and all his kinsmen were with a corresponding liberality provided for. The famous Three Hundred of Bedr had 5,000 each; presence at Hodeibia (Hudaibiyah) and the Pledge of the Tree, gave a claim to 4,000 such as took part in quelling the Rebellion (immediately after Muhammad's death), had 8000; and. those engaged in the great battles of Syria and Irac, as well as sons of the men of Bedr, 2,000; those taking the field after the actions of Cadesiya and the Yermuk, 1,000. Warriors of distinction received an extra grant of 500. And so they graduated downwards to 200 pieces for the latest levies. Nor were the households forgotten. Women had, as a rule, one-tenth of a man's share. Wives,

widows, and children had each their proper stipend; and in the register, every infant, as soon as born, had the title to be entered, with a minimum allowance of ten pieces, rising with advancing age to its proper place. Even Arab slaves (so long as any of that race remained) had strange to say, their portion.

* * * * *

The Arabian aristocracy thus create was recognised by the whole Moslem world The rank and stipend now assigned. descends in the direct line of birth. Even reward given for special gallantry in the field were heritable. By making thus the revenues of Islam the heritage of the nation , militant, and their martial genius was maintained, and their employment perpetuated as the standing army of the Caliphate.

* * * * *

"To carry out this vast design, a register had to be, drawn and kept up of every man, woman and child, entitled to a stipend from the State — in other words, of the whole Arab race employed in the interests of Islam. This was easy enough for the higher grades, but a herculean task for the hundreds and thousands of ordinary fighting men and their families who kept streaming forth from the Peninsula; and who, by the extravagant indulgence of polygamy, were multiplying rapidly. But the task was simplified by the strictly tribal composition and disposition of the forces. Men of a tribe, or branch of a tribe, fought together; and the several corps and brigades being thus territorially arranged in clans, the Register assumed the same form. Every soul was entered under the stock, and tribe and class whose lineage it claimed. And to this exhaustive classification we owe in great measure the elaborate genealogies and tribal traditions of Arabia before Islam. The Register, itself, as well as the office for its maintenance and for pensionary account was called the Dewan (Diwan), or Department of the Exchequer" (Sir W. Muir, Annals of the Early Caliphate, London, 1883, p. 228.)

It was fortunate for Islam, that the reign of Abu Bakr, short in duration. but pregnant with decisive issues. should precede that of 'Umar. During the critical period immediately after Muhammad's death, when three false prophets and a prophetess gathered increasing numbers round their rebellious standards, when in the north, east, and south of the Peninsula, tribe after tribe, apostatized from the newly-adopted creed, and when al-Madinah itself was repeatedly threatened by hostile invasions of the neighbouring clans it needed all the spirit of compromise and conciliation which blended in Abu Bakr'a character with penetrating shrewdness and dauntless courage, to steer the bark of the Muslim commonwealth through the dangers which were surrounding it on every side. 'Umar's irrepressible impetuosity would, at that time, probably have caused more harm than good, while, on the other hand, the unprecedented success which crowned Abu Bakr's wise and temporising politics, taught him to temper his own impulses of bold enterprise with prudence and cautiousness, when, in his turn, the responsibilities of office rested on his shoulders.

The original violent bent of Umar's nature is forcibly illustrates by the history of his conversion, as it is told in various traditions. In his youth and early manhood, a zealous and devoted adherent of the religion of his forefathers, he hated and persecuted Muhammad as a dangerous innovator, who had come to lead his people

astray, and to sow discord between them. Infuriated at some fresh success of the pretended Prophet, he sallied forth one day to kill him, when he met his kinsman, Nu'aim ibm 'Abdi-ilah, who, seeing him armed and fiercely excited, asked him "Whither goest thou, and what is thy intent? "I seek Muhammad," was 'Umar's reply, "and I will slay him; he has vilified our gods and dishonourod our ancestors." "Passion blinds thee," retorted Nu'aim; "knowest thou not that, if thou killest Muhammad, thou wilt draw the vengeance of the Hashimites and the Bani Muttalib upon thy head? Better far it would be for thee, to heed the welfare of thy own family, and to bring back to the right path those members of it who have forsworn their ancestral religion." "And who are they," asked 'Umar. "Thy brother-in-law, Sa'id ibn Zaid, and Fatimah, thy very own sister." answered Nu'aim.

Forthwith the incensed man hurried on to the house of the culprits. Here Khabbab ibn al-Aratt, a devoted disciple of Muhammad the same who had made them acquainted with his teaching and won them over to Islam unknown to 'Umar, was reading with them at that moment a new fragment of the Qur'an. When he heard 'Umar coming, he concealed himself, and Fatimah tried to hide the manuscript in the bosom of her dress. On entering, 'Umar asked: "What 652

have you been reading just now? I heard your voices!" "Nothing," she replied, "thou art mistaken? "'You have been reading something, and I am told that you belong to the sect of Muhammad." With those words he threw himself upon his brother-in-law, and struck him. Fatimah rushed in between them. Both husband and wife boldly confused:- "Yes, we are Muslims; we believe that there is no god but God, and that Muhammad is his sent one; kill us, if thou willt."

No sooner had 'Umar seen the blood flowing from a wound which he had inflicted on his sister, than shame for his own unmanly act, coupled with admiration of their courageous conduct, brought about a powerful revulsion of his feelings. 'He asked to be shown the manuscript, and when, after his solemn promise not to destroy it, the fragment was handed over to him, be read:-

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