Transportation Research Part D 11 (2006) 459–463

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Notes and comments

Virtual mobility and organizational reality – a noteon the mobility needs in knowledge organisations

Claus Lassen a,*, Bjørge Timenes Laugen b, Petter Næss a

a Aalborg University, DK-9220 Aalborg Ø, Denmarkb University of Stavanger , N-4036 Stavanger, Norway

Abstract

This article addresses the potential for reducing international work-related air travelling through the use of informationand communication technologies such as videoconferences and e-learning in knowledge companies. It looks at the poten-tial for reducing travel related to such things as meetings and teaching. In the absence of regulations, however, we do notfind potential for reducing the number of trips of this type because they do not facilitate face-to-face contacts. Thereforethe conclusion is, that policy and planning have to look for other options for pursuing ‘sustainable mobility’ policies in thefuture.� 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Information and communication technologies; Work-related travel; Air transport; Mobility planning

1. Introduction

The transition from an industrial to a knowledge society with a steadily increasing proportion of the pop-ulation engaged in developing, using and communicating scientific expert knowledge (Drucker, 1994), is some-times seen as an opportunity to reduce pollution and environmental damage. The knowledge industries1

neither emit chemicals in the air nor contaminate water or soil, and computers and photocopiers accountfor a relatively modest proportion of the national electricity consumption. The increasing importance ofknowledge industries in the overall economy has also been mentioned as an example of a ‘dematerialization’(Heiskanen and Jalas, 2000) that may make continual economic growth compatible with reduced materialconsumption and pollution.

It is far from certain, however, that knowledge industries actually account for less environmental damagethan other types of enterprises. Employees of knowledge industries often travel a lot in connection withtheir work; e.g., according to a 2001 survey, 40% of all flights from Danish airports had a business purpose

1361-9209/$ - see front matter � 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.trd.2006.09.001

* Corresponding author.E-mail address: claus@plan.aau.dk (C. Lassen).

1 Defined as industries that generate, process, and apply efficient knowledge-based information.

Table 1Use of work-related travel in the case companies

International work-related travel HP AAU

Share of respondents with international work-related travel 75% 69%N 193 547

Share of international work-related travel by a 85% 94%N 721 1108

460 C. Lassen et al. / Transportation Research Part D 11 (2006) 459–463

(Transportraadet, 2001). The amount of air traffic within Scandinavia and internationally has increased dur-ing the last decades for all purposes (Rideng and Denstadli, 1999; Frandberg, 1998).2

International work-related air traffic has environmental and social impacts. These trips are often long, andbecause of the more aggressive impact of CO2 emissions in the higher strata of the atmosphere, their globalclimate change effects are more serious than comparable surface trips (Western Norway Research Center,1999).3 Emissions from international flights are not included in the Kyoto protocol on greenhouse gasesbecause of difficulties in allocating emissions between countries. Airline fuel has also been exempt from taxsince 1944 under the rules of the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO).4

It is often argued that information and communication technology (ICT) can reduce the amount of work-related travel; i.e., face to face contacts are easily replaced by virtual communication. The aims here are toidentify both the level and characteristics of long-distance, work-related travel among employees in knowledgeorganisation and the potential for reducing travel in knowledge organisations through increased use of ICT.To understand why long-distance, work-related travel takes place, it is important to understand its social basisand why there is a desire to travel (Urry, 2003).

2. Approach

To explain some of the driving forces behind the long-distance work-related trips two Danish enterprisesare examined: Aalborg University (AAU) and Hewlett-Packard Denmark (HP). Methodically the case studyinvolves:5

• Web-based questionnaires to all 1800 employees.• Face-to-face interviews with 11 selected employees.

In addition, experiences from the Norwegian e-learning research project Nettlaer are included. Nettlaer wascarried out between 1999 and 2002, and funded by the Norwegian Research Council. The main purpose of theproject was to investigate how ICT can be used in different course contexts to maximise the learning results.The experiences are from some 30 courses at secondary school and university levels for both full time and parttime students.

3. Findings

The case study shows that the majority of employees at Hewtlett-Packard (75%) and Aalborg University(69%) are travelling internationally every year and that the air travel is the dominant means of transport whena work-related trip is carried out (Table 1). This probably means that employees in the two cases have a higher

2 The number of passengers on international flights has increased with 78% and international take-offs and landings by over 100% from1990 to 2001 (Statistics Denmark, 2002).

3 Furthermore, long distance travel can have adverse effects on workers’ everyday life, e.g. family life, leisure, and social networks.4 A United Nation body, whose purpose is to oversee international air transport.5 The case study is based on 547 respondents and 1108 registered trips at Aalborg University and 193 respondents and 721 registered

trips in 2002 at Hewlett-Packard. The study also included 6 qualitative research interviews at Aalborg University and 5 qualitative researchinterviews at Hewlett-Packard.

Table 2Destinations and purpose of work-related travel in the case companies

International work-related travel HP AAU

Destinations Scandinavia 26% 22%Europe 67% 56%Outside Europe 7% 22%Sum 100% 100%

Purpose Conference/congress 13% 49%Foreign departments 21% 0%Sale, purchase, negotiation 25% 2%Research and development 0% 12%Consultancy 16% 4%Course 15% 4%Teaching/supervision 6% 12%Meeting 2% 10%Other purpose 2% 7%Sum 100% 100%

N 721 1108

Table 3The degree of self-determination in relation to international work-related travel in case companies

Individual freedom to choose physical international work-related travel HP AAU

Completely their own decision 4% 24%Predominantly their own decision 32% 48%Partly own decision 41% 22%Little influence 22% 6%No influence 1% 0%Sum 100% 100%N 144 379

C. Lassen et al. / Transportation Research Part D 11 (2006) 459–463 461

level of consumption of energy and emission of greenhouse gas than the average Danish person. There is how-ever a big difference in the employees use of air trips (Table 2). The employees at Hewlett-Packard travelmostly inside Europe, typically for purposes of sales, negotiations and co-operation but also for internal tripsto others departments, while the employees at Aalborg University more often travel outside Europe typicalwith the purpose of participating in conferences. The average emission of CO2 coming from the those engagedin international travelling at Aalborg University is about 11 metric ton/per employees/year and at Hewlett-Packard 8 metric ton/per employees/year.6

Work-related travel has often been considered a result of the demands and expectations from the employer(Davidson, 1994), but this may be only partly true. There exists a core of obligations where the employees,though cultural embedded expectations, are expected to be physical present in relation to events, placesand people. For example, it is expected that the employees from Aalborg University do research and commu-nicate this research internationally. Likewise, at Hewlett-Packard each individual employee is committed toset company goals, and thus effectively forced to participate in project nationally as well as internationally.It is very difficult for the individual employees to decline obligations if they want to keep their present jobs.

We find, however, that, in general, the employees can influence the timing of a work-related trip and how itis carry them out. Only 23% of the employees at Hewlett-Packard and 6% at Aalborg University indicate thatthey have little or no influence at all on their international work-related travel while the majority in indicatethat they have influence to different degrees (Table 3). Work-related travelling is thus not only a question ofemployees facing demands from the employer about going to specific places within a set period of time. Inter-national work-related travel is created through a process whereby the individual is influenced by external

6 Estimation is based on figures from Western Western Norway Research Center (1999).

Table 4Important factors for international work-related travel in case companies

Important individual factors behind international work-related travel HP AAU

Share of employees that indicate that networking is important for work-related travel 81% 90%Share of employees that indicate identity is important for work-related travel 44% 48%Share of employees that have carry out leisure activities in relation to work-related travel 21% 37%N 144 379

462 C. Lassen et al. / Transportation Research Part D 11 (2006) 459–463

demands for being mobile, but the individual employees’ requests, choices and priorities also play importantroles in the ways in which international work-related trips are carry out.

In Table 4 the most important individual factors behind international work-related travel are illustrated.First, the case study shows that networking is a very important reason for going on international trips. Net-working includes a strong informal element and informal relations that are characterized by a strong need ofphysical proximity and co-presence. A face-to-face meeting is an important element when two people want tobe confident with one another. Urry (2002) has pointed out that co-presence offers eye contact that is neededto establish intimacy and trust. For example a knowledge worker describes how the real meeting is startingwhen the official meeting is over or during the break in the corridors. An important point from the case studyis that networking and new informal relations are very difficult to establish through video-meetings, e-mail,voicemails, telephone and other virtual communication systems.

A second factor affecting travel is the influence of an international identity among the employees. Identity isdefined here as sources of meaning that the actors themselves, and by themselves, construct though a processof individualisation (Castells, 1997). At Aalborg University, 48 % of those surveyed indicated that the ques-tion of identity plays an important part in relation to international work-related travel likewise the figure atHewlett-Packard is 44% (Table 4). This is also supported by qualitative data from the study. The employeesuse ‘identity accessories’ in their work of constructions, not only locations and places, but also the movementbetween these places and locations. For this group of the employees, ‘consumption of distance’ becomes a fun-damental element in the creation of their identity. They consider themselves international persons and theywant a job that includes international trips. An international identity is not causing travel in itself, but it isa barrier to increasing use of virtual communication technologies because this kind of identity contributesto maintaining some of the employees in their present patterns of behavior.

A third factor behind international travel is the opportunity to carry out tourism activities in relation tointernational work-related travel. A number of the employees visit tourist places, go sightseeing or experiencehistorical localities alone or in company with colleagues, friends and family when they are on a work-relatedtrip. This is, however, more common among the employees at Aalborg University compared to the employeesat Hewlett Packard. The employees not only practise work activities but also consume places as a tourist andthe chances of a tourist experience reduce the motivate to use of virtual commutations technologies.

It is not evident that the use of virtual communication increases or decreases the need for physical traveland face-to-face communication. The respondents were asked about their opinions about video-meetingsand videoconferences, and to evaluate the opportunity to replace their physical trips with video-meetingsetc. The results indicate that those surveyed at Hewlett-Packard, who more often tried to participate invideo-meetings and videoconferences, are more optimistic about the potential of this technology to reducephysical travelling (Tables 5 and 6). Another important finding, however, is that only a small proportionof the employees at Aalborg University and Hewlett-Packard believe that this technology can significantlychange their physical travel patterns.

Respondents at Hewlett Packard say that the videoconferencing equipment available is not satisfactory forfrequent use, because of poor voice and picture quality. The development of videoconferencing technology hasbeen rapid during, and much of the equipment at Hewlett Packard is recognised as old, with less functionalityand lower quality than is the state of the art. At Aalborg University another technological barrier makes vid-eoconferencing laborious. The networks at most offices are protected by firewalls that do not allow commu-nication outside the university. This means that the employees cannot run videoconferences from their ownoffice, but have to access another room with proper equipment and network access.

Table 5Experience with video technologies in case companies

Use of video technology HP AAU

Share of employees participated in video meetings 82% 33%N 144 379

Table 6Employees estimate of the potential for reducing international work-related travel in case companies

The potential of reducing physical work-related travel with video technology HP AAU

Share of employees answering video technology can replace a large majority trips 9% 3%Share of employees answering video technology can replace some of trips 43% 18%Share of employees answering video technology is only a supplement to physical meetings 48% 79%Sum 100% 100%N 144 379

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Experiences from Nettlaer indicate that excellent sound quality is the most important factor for a successfulvideoconference. This is because voices need to be heard clearly to avoid misunderstandings occurring. Goodquality pictures seem to be of less important.

The case studies indicate that there is connection between knowledge of a technology and the willingness touse it. In both cases, respondents who have tried virtual communication and have knowledge about the tech-nology are more likely to use it for communication, compared to those who have not tried or have only limitedknowledge.

References

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