Volume 1, Issue 1 of Tropical Plant Research

www.tropicalplantresearch.com 1 Published online: 30 April 2014

ISSN: 2349 1183

1(1): 0103, 2014

Research article

Some new additions to the lichen family Roccellaceae

(Arthoniales) from India

A. R. Logesh, Santosh Joshi, Komal K. Ingle and Dalip K. Upreti*

Lichenology laboratory, Plant Diversity Systematics and Herbarium Division, CSIR-National Botanical

Research Institute, Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow-226001, Uttar Pradesh, India.

*Corresponding Author: [email protected] [Accepted: 15 March 2014]

Abstract: Three species of crustose lichens (Bactrospora acicularis, B. intermedia and Sigridea

chloroleuca) belonging to the family Roccellaceae are reported here as new records for India. The

taxonomic characters of each species were described briefly and supported by ecology, distribution

and illustrations.

Keywords: Lichens - New records - Eastern Himalayas - Southern India

[Cite as: Logesh AR, Joshi S, Ingle KK & Upreti DK (2014) Some new additions to the lichen family

Rocellaceae (Arthoniales) from India. Tropical Plant Research 1(1): 13]

INTRODUCTION

The genus Bactrospora A. Massal. was revised by Egea & Torrente (1993) and represented by 20 species

and one variety, among them four were previously reported from India Bactrospora jenikii (Vzda) Egea &

Torrente, B. lamprospora (Nyl.) Lendemer, B. metabola (Nyl.) Egea & Torrente, B. myriadea (Fe) Egea &

Torrente (Singh & Sinha, 2010). The genus Bactrospora differs from similar genera Lecanactis and Opegrapha

by lecideine ascomata, dark proper exciple and elongate, transversely septate, fragmenting ascospores (Ponzetti

& McCune, 2006). The allopatric genus Sigridea was monographed by Tehler (1993) with four species world-

wide. In India Nylander (1867) recorded single species of Sigridea as Platygrapha galucomoides Nyl. which is

now known as Sigridea glaucomoides (Nyl.) Tehler. Sigridea species are recognized by white thallus, circular

ascomata, well developed thalline margin, hyaline, 3-septate, curved ascospores with one end tapering and the

presence of psoromic acid. The closely related genus Schismatomma differs in having endophloeodal to

incoherently organized thallus, poorly developed thalline margin, elongate ascomata and chemistry with

roccellic acid (Tehler, 1993).

In the present study four species, Bactrospora acicularis, B. intermedia and Sigridea chloroleuca are

described as new records for the country that were collected from Eastern Himalayas and Southern India.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The investigation is based on the recent lichen collections from dry deciduous forests of Southern India for

lichen collection and the material preserved in the herbarium of the CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute,

Lucknow (LWG). Morphological examination of the samples was carried out using LeicaTM

S8APO stereo-

zoom microscope and anatomy was observed with hand cut sections mounted in distilled water, 5% potassium

hydroxide solution (KOH) and 1% Lugols solution under LeicaTM DM500 compound microscope. Thin Layer

Chromatographic analysis (TLC) was carried out in solvent system-A following the method of Walker & James

(1980).

NEW RECORDS

1. Bactrospora acicularis (Dodge) Egea & Torrente, Lichenologist 25(3): 211255, 1993. (Fig. 1A).

Lecanactis acicularis Dodge, Nova Hedwigia 16: 488, 1969.

Thallus crustose, epiphloedal, continuous and cracked, areolate, thin. Ascomata sessile, round shaped, 0.4

1.0 mm diam., black, epruinose, smooth. Exciple brownish to black. Hymenium I+ blue. Paraphyses branched

and anastamosing. Asci 80120 912 m. Ascospores Patellarioides type, 6080 1.53 m, 1519 septate.

Chemistry: K-, C-, P-, KC-. No chemical substances detected in TLC.

Ecology and Distribution: This species was previously known from two different localities in Chile (Egea &

Logesh et al. (2014) 1(1): 0103 .

www.tropicalplantresearch.com 2

Figure 1. Habit: A, Bactrospora acicularis; B, Bactrospora intermedia; C, Sigridea chloroleuca.

Scale bars = 2 mm (A,C); 1 mm (B).

Logesh et al. (2014) 1(1): 0103 .


Torrente, 1993), is a new record for India found growing on tree in Tiger hill area of Darjeeling district in

Eastern Himalayas.

Specimen examined: India, West Bengal, Darjeeling district, Tiger Hill, north face of the hill, alt. 2550

m,1967, D.D. Awasthi & M.R. Agarwal, 67-7 (LWG-LWU).

2. Bactrospora intermedia Egea & Torrente, Lichenologist 25(3): 211255, 1993. (Fig. 1B)

Thallus crustose, corticolous, distinctly brown to black, thin. Ascomata scattered, submerged in the thallus,

round shaped, black in colour, 0.40.6 mm diam., lacking margin, disc convex. Hymenium I+ reddish.

Subhymenium brown, I+ red turning into bluish. Paraphysoids branching and anastomosing. Asci 100120

1015 m. Patellarioides-type ascospores, 90110 24 m, transversely 2328 septate.

Chemistry: K-, C-, P-, KC-. No lichen substances detected in TLC.

Ecology and Distribution: Earlier this species is known only from its type locality in Chile (Egea & Torrente,

1993), is a new record for India found growing on the barks of Vetaria sp.

Specimen Examined: India, Kerala, Malapuram district, Valli Kunnu, 1975, A. Singh & M. Ranjan, 102338

(LWG).

3. Sigridea chloroleuca (Mull. Arg.) Tehler, Nova Hedwigia 57 (34): 428 (1993). (Fig. 1C) Platygrapha chloroleuca Mll. Arg., Flora 63: 275-290 (1880).

Schismatomma chloroleucum (Mll. Arg.) Zahlbr., Gebrder Borntraeger 554, 1924.

Thallus ecorticated, cracked, smooth to verruculose, whitish to grey. Ascomata sessile, rarely constricted at

base, round to irregular, younger apothecia immersed to emergent, apothecial disc grey to brown, white

pruinose, margin thin, paler than the disc and thallus, getting thinner or excluded at maturity apothecia, 0.51.5

mm in diam. Exciple brown, 3035 m thick. Hypothecium brown to dark brown, I/KI-. Hymenium hyaline to

yellowish, clear, I+, KI+ pale blue. Paraphyses branched, articulate, anastomosing, tip slightly swollen. Asci

clavate-cylindrical, 8-spored, 6080 1015 m. Ascospores fusiform, transversely 37 septate, straight to

slightly curved, 22.927.8 3.25.3 m.

Chemistry: K-, P+ golden yellow, C-, KC-. Psoromic acid and pinkish grey spot with hollow at Rf class 3

detected in TLC.

Ecology and Distribution: This species was found growing over the Ficus trees at the dry deciduous forests of

southern India. Earlier it was only known from Venezuela found growing on the barks of different trees in dry

forests (Tehler, 1993).

Specimen examined: India, Tamil Nadu, Salem District, Palamalai Hills, 1 km towards Kemmampatty

village, 700 m alt. on Ficus sp., 13.02.2012, A.R. Logesh, K.K. Ingle, P. Shukla 12-016466 (LWG).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Authors are thankful to the Director, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow for providing

necessary facilities to carry out the work and Department of Biotechnology, New Delhi

(BT/PR1457/NBD/39/204/2011) for financial support.

REFERENCES

Egea JM & Torrente P (1993) The lichen genus Bactrospora. The Lichenologist 25: 211255.

Nylander W (1867) Lichenes Kurziani e Calcutta. Flora. 50: 39.

Ponzetti J & Mc Cune B (2006) A new species of Bactrospora from northwestern North America. Bryologist

109: 8588.

Singh KP & Sinha GP (2010) Indian Lichens: Annotated Checklist. Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata, India,

pp. 508.

Tehler A (1993) The genus Sigridea (Roccellaceae, Arthoniales, Euascomycetidae). Nova Hedwigia 57(3-4):

417435.

Walker FJ & James PW (1980) A revised guide to the microchemical technique for the identification of lichen

products. Bulletin of British Lichenological Society 46: 1329.


ISSN: 2349 1183

1(1): 0407, 2014

Research article

Ectohydric moss, Thuidium tamariscellum, monitors atmospheric

Lead (Pb) pollution in Baguio City, Philippines Madison P. Munar

*, Ralph Robie B. Oreiro and Roland M. Hipol

Department of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Baguio,

Governor Pack Road,2600 Baguio City, Benguet, Philippines


Abstract: This is the first study in the Philippines which adopted the standard moss monitoring

procedure to address Lead (Pb) contamination in the ambient air of Baguio City. Pb is considered

as one of the seven criteria pollutants by United States Environmental Protection Agency. Analysis

of exposed moss tissues was performed using Flame-Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry by

Baguio Water District. There is high metal loading observed on the tissues of Thuidium

tamariscellum (Mll. Hal.) Bosch & Sande Lac. after exposure along and in between major road

intersections in the city.There is no significant variation in Pb concentration in the exposed moss

as revealed by One-Way Analysis of Variance. This study reports the presence of Pb in the

ambient air of Baguio City and the lack of monitoring is harmful to people and environment.

Nevertheless, this study offers cost-effective air monitoring method that can be adopted in cities as

newer available technology. Keywords: Air pollutants - Flame-Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS) - Heavy metal -

Ectohydric moss - Lead (Pb) - Thuidium tamariscellum (Mll. Hal.) Bosch & Sande Lac.

[Cite as: Munar MP, Oreiro RRB & Hipol RM (2014) Ectohydric moss, Thuidium tamariscellum (Mll. Hal.)

Bosch & Sande Lac. to monitor atmospheric Lead (Pb) pollution in Baguio city, Philippines. Tropical Plant

Research 1(1): 47]

INTRODUCTION

Standard German Moss Monitoring Procedure was put in place to determine the quality of air and as basis in

drafting laws on air quality standards in European countries (Martin & Coughtrey, 1982; Fernandez &

Carballeira, 2000; Schilling & Lehman, 2001). According to Yunus et al. (1996), current metal fluxes from the

atmosphere to the biosphere are significantly increased as a product of various anthropogenic inputs such as,

combustion of fossil fuels, agricultural dust, and metallurgy. Thuidium B.S.G. is genus of ectohydric mosses which belong to the group of Subclass Bryidae - the jointed toothed mosses (Schofield, 1985). The properties

of T. tamariscellum (Mll. Hal.) Bosch & Sande Lac. such as the absence of cuticle, high surface area to

volume ratio and absence of stomata make it a good candidate for monitoring air pollutants. Mosses draw

negligible amounts of water and minerals from the soil and rely mostly on the input of atmospheric nutrients by

wet and dry deposition (Schilling & Lehman, 2001). Mosses have high cation exchange capacity (CEC) making

them efficient hyperaccumulators of metals present in the atmosphere. They also lack well developed vascular

tissue so that there is minimal translocation of the bioaccumulated metals in its tissues (Ruhling & Tyler,

1968).The main objective of this study is to evaluate the dry-deposition of Pb, one of the hazardous criteria

pollutants as indicated by the National Ambient Air Guideline System of the Philippine Clean Air Act (RA 8749)

in the tissues of bioindicator organism, T. tamariscellum, exposed along and in between major road intersections

in Baguio City.


Moss Collection and Exposure

Mosses were collected in Busol Watershed at Barangay Aurora Hill, Baguio City. Disposable latex gloves

were worn during the collection and the mosses were placed in a zip lock plastic bag. Professor Roland Hipol of

the University of the Philippines Baguio identified the moss as T. tamariscellum (Mll. Hal.) Bosch & Sande

Lac. (Fig. 1A,B).

Munar et al. (2014) 1(1): 0407 .


The moss samples with equal dry weights of five grams were transplanted in polyethylene bags. Replicates

of moss bags were installed at a height of at least two meters from the ground. Moss bags were installed along

and in between major road intersections in Baguio City (Fig. 1C,D). The moss bags were exposed for a period

of about three months or 12 weeks.

Acid digestion of exposed moss tissues

After the exposure period of 12 weeks, the moss bags were collected with disposable latex gloves and were

placed in zip lock plastic bags. The samples were oven-dried for 24 hours, and crushed using mortar and pestle.

The crushed samples were subjected to a mixture of concentrated HNO3 and HClO4 (4:1 v/v), and boiled in 250

ml beaker at 130C until the organic material is oxidized and the solution is evaporated to dryness. The pellets

were dissolved in HNO3 and demineralized H2O (1:4 v/v) and stored in 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask (Folkeson,

1979).

Heavy Metal Analysis

Heavy metal analysis was done as described in the protocol of Environmental Management Bureau-

Cordillera Administrative Region (EMB-CAR). One hundred ml of acid preserved sample was transferred into

Figure 1. Thuidium tamariscellum; A, with numerous papillose cells; B, viewed under H.P.O, 400x; CD, Actual specimen exposed along and in between road intersections in Baguio City.

Munar et al. (2014) 1(1): 0407 .


clean 150 ml beaker. Three ml of concentrated nitric acid was added slowly. The beaker was placed on a hot

plate, and the sample was evaporated to less than five ml. The sample was not allowed to boil and that no area at

the bottom of the beaker was allowed to go dry. The sample was cooled. Another three ml concentrated nitric

acid was added; the beaker was covered with watch glass and returned to the hotplate. The temperature of the

hotplate was increased so that a gentle reflux action occurs. Heating is continued and acid was added as

necessary until digestion is completed (indicated by a light colored residue). A 1:1 HCl (about five ml) was

added and heated for 15 minutes to dissolve any residue. The beaker and watch glass was rinsed with distilled

water and filtered to remove insoluble materials. The final volume was adjusted to 100 ml with distilled water.

The digested samples were submitted to the Baguio Water District (BWD) for the aspiration process. The

samples were examined using Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS).

Data Analysis

Lead concentration before and after exposure were statistically analyzed using T-test (one-tail right test) to

determine whether there is an observable increase in the concentration of Pb in the tissues of exposed mosses.

One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to determine whether there is a significant variation on the

bioaccumulated heavy metals on the different exposure sites.

Table 1. Intersite comparison of dry-deposition of Pb.

Exposure Site* Conc. of dry-deposited

Pb (g/m3)

Difference between before and after

exposure conc. of Pb (g/m3)

Heavy Metal Loading

(%)

Before exposure 0.21 - -

1 2.14 1.93 90.2

2 1.94 1.73 89.2

3 2.36 2.15 91.1

4 2.26 2.05 90.7

5 1.88 1.67 88.8

*The five exposure sites includes the (1) Intersection of Magsaysay Road and Session Road where the

Continuous Automatic Ambient Air Quality Monitoring System of EMB-CAR is located, (2) Intersection at the

upper Session Road, (3) Intersection at Quirino Highway (Bokawkan-Naguillian), (4) Intersection at the Baguio

Center Mall and Magsaysay Road, (5) Harrison Road and Governor Pack Road Intersection.

RESULT

The difference between Pb concentration before and after exposure was presented in table 1.One-tailed T-

test at 5% level of significance showed that the Pb concentration in the five sites after exposure is greater than

the concentration before exposure.

DISCUSSION

Evaluation of T. tamariscellum

The availability and abundance of T. tamariscellum in Baguio City is the main reason why it was used in the

study. The initial concentration of Pb (0.21 g/m3) measured in the control sample is associated by the leaching

process from the Pinus canopy where the moss samples were collected (Schilling & Lehman, 2001). As

observed in the high metal loading (8891%) in the tissues of T. tamariscellum, the efficiency of these

organisms to hyperaccumulate metal present in the air as reported in earlier studies is strongly supported

(Schilling & Lehman, 2001).

Analysis of Pb dry-deposition

The standard tolerable limit of Pb in the ambient air set by the National Ambient Air Guideline System

(NAAGS) of the Philippine Clean Air Act (RA 8749) and National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)

set by US EPA is 1.5 g/m3 per three months exposure period. The data showed that the dry-deposited Pb in the

exposed samples exceeds the standard tolerable limit. In the Intersection of Magsaysay Road and Session Road

where the monitoring station of EMB-CAR is located, the level of Pb is about 2.14 g/m3. This concentration

exceeds the tolerable limit in the ambient air as indicated by NAAGS and NAAQS. The Continuous Ambient

Air Monitoring Station in Baguio city only measures sulfur dioxide, ozone and toluene. This monitoring station

does not measure Pb which is one of the criteria pollutants along with ozone (O3), carbon monoxide (CO),

nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), total suspended particles, photochemical oxidants. Pb is largely

Munar et al. (2014) 1(1): 0407 .


contributed by the combustion of fossil fuels and exposure to this toxic gas is detrimental to the health of young

children (US EPA).

CONCLUSION The use of T. tamariscellum in determining the dry-deposition of Pb offers inter-site comparison of heavy

metal contamination in different road intersections in Baguio City. This study revealed that there is aggravation

of Pb level from the tolerable limit set by US EPA and this is attributed to the growing number of vehicles in the

city. The assumption that Pb is not to be found in the ambient air by merely banning the use of leaded gasoline

poses more harm than good. Nevertheless, the use of T. tamariscellum was observed to be effective

bioaccumulator of heavy metal such as Pb as observed on the high metal loading after exposure. The use of

moss to monitor air quality offers cost-effective and allows inter-site comparison of air pollution scenario which

cannot be done with a single monitoring station.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Special thanks to Dr. Elsie Jimenez of the University of the Philippines Baguio for her encouragement and

inputs in synthesizing this paper. High gratitude is extended to Baguio Water District for the analysis of our

samples. The authors expressed no conflict of interest.

REFERENCES

Fernandez JA, Raboal J & Carballeira (2000) Use of native and transplanted mosses as complementary

techniques for bio-monitoring mercury around an industrial facility. The science of the total environment.

Santiago de Compostela, Spain, 256: 151161.

Folkeson L (1979) Interspecies calibration of Heavy metal concentrations in nine mosses and lichens:

Applicability to deposition measurements. Water, air, and soil pollution 11: 253260.

Martin MH & Coughtrey PJ (1982) Biological Monitoring of Heavy Metal Pollution. Applied Science

Publishers, London, p. 475.

Ruhling A & Tyler G (1968) An ecological approach to the lead problem. Botaniska Notiser 122: 248342.

Schilling JS & Lehman ME (2001) Bioindication of atmospheric heavy metal deposition in the Southeastern US

using the moss Thuidium delicatulum. Natural Sciences Department-Longwood College, Fermville, U.S.A.,

36: 16111618.

Schofield WR (1985) Introduction to Bryology. Macmillan. Macmillan Publishing Co., New York.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1999) Integrated Risk Information System, U.S. Environmental

Protection Agency. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) on Lead and Compounds (Inorganic).

National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, Washington,

DC. Available from: http://www.epa.gov/iris/subst/0277.htm (accessed: 5 Feb. 2008).

Yunus M, Singh N & Iqbal M (1996) Global status of air pollution: an overview. In: Yunus M & Iqbal M (eds)

Plant responses to air pollution: Wiley, Chichester, UK.


ISSN: 2349 1183

1(1): 0813, 2014

Research article

Moss flora of Mount Abu (Rajasthan), India:

An updated checklist

Afroz Alam*, Saumya Pandey, Vanshika Singh, Shiv Charan Sharma and Vinay Sharma

Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Banasthali University, Rajasthan-304022, India.


Abstract: Mount Abu is an ignored mountain range to some extent by Indian bryologists. Very

little information is available regarding bryoflora of this mountain range. In present study an

attempt has been made to provide an updated checklist of moss flora of the region. The study is

based on previous as well as newly collected moss taxa from the region. The new addition to the

region include Anoectangium clarum, Brachymenium indicum, Bryum uliginosum, Entodon

plicatus, Entodon concinnus, Fissidens sylvaticus var. taraicola, Fissidens sylvaticus var.

auriculatus, Hyophila spathulata, Plagiothecium cavifolium and Stereophyllum tavoyense.

Keywords: Bryophytes - Musci - Mount Abu - Rajasthan

[Cite as: Alam A, Pandey S, Singh V, Sharma SC & Sharma V (2014) Moss flora of Mount Abu (Rajasthan),

India: An updated checklist. Tropical Plant Research 1(1): 813]

INTRODUCTION

Mount Abu (72.7083E 24.5925N), the famous hill

station in Rajasthan, is the highest elevated topography

between Nilgiris and Himalayas. An isolated elevation

of Aravalli ranges, Mt. Abu is situated in Sirohi district

of Rajasthan bordering Gujarat (Fig. 1). With average

height of 1400 m, the highest peak in Mt. Abu is Guru

Shikhar (1722 m) (Bapna & Vyas, 1962). Various

rivers, lakes and, waterfalls originate from Mt. Abu,

and general vegetation is evergreen forests, therefore

the region is referred to as 'A heaven in the desert'. Mt.

Abu mountain range is also famous for several ancient

Hindu temples (e.g. Shri Raghunathji Temple, Adhar

Devi temple, Dattatreya and famous Jain temples -

Dilwara temples).

Climate of the region is usually dry like that of major regions of Rajasthan, in greater part of the year, but the

temperature is always 1015C lower than the adjacent lowlands. Summer season prevails from mid of April to

mid of June with average maximum temperature of around 36C. The hottest month is May (32C) and coolest

is January (17C). The region receives sufficient rains during the monsoons due to its relief and geographical

settings. The annual rainfall is about 1778 mm. The annual mean humidity is 64%, reaches to maximum (99%)

during monsoon. Winters are cool in Mt. Abu with mercury fluctuating around 16C to 22C. Average night

temperature is around 4 to 12C. Often night are chilling with the temperature dipping to as low as 2C to

3C during winters.

The soil is somewhat calcareous in texture with sufficient amount of Calcium carbonate, Potassium,

phosphates and nitrates. Soil water content ranges from 22% to 30%. Soil pH ranges from 7.5 to 8, revealing

alkaline nature (Bapna & Vyas, 1962). Overall, the macro and microhabitats of Mt. Abu are suitable for the

abundant growth of bryophytes. Bryofloristically Mount Abu is the richest place in Rajasthan with maximum

diversification of corticolous as well as terricolous forms (Fig. 2).

Figure 1. Map of Rajasthan showing location of study

area.

Alam et al. (2014) 1(1): 0813 .


A B

C D

E F

Figure 2. AD, Different locations of Mount Abu (Rajasthan) at a glance; EF, Collection of corticolous and terricolous mosses.

There are few reports available regarding floristic work in Mount Abu like Macdam (1890); King (1879);

Champion (1937); Mahabale & Kharadi (1946) but all were related to spermatophyte. Bryologists of the country

generally overlooked the exploration of this place for various reasons. As a consequence in earlier bryological

works by Mitten (1859), Stephani (19011924) and Chopra (1938, 1943) there was no record of bryophytes.

Later on Kashyap (1929, 1932) mentioned the presence of Plagiochasma appendiculatum and Cyathodium

tuberosum. In 1945, Chavan & Mahabale noticed Riccia discolor and Asterella angusta beside Plagiochasma

appendiculatum, however, they were dealing with hepatics of Gujarat mainly. While Mahabale & Kharadi

(1946) mentioned the occurrence of Riccia discolor and Plagiochasma appendiculatum during ecological study

of area. The first serious attempt was made by Bapna (1958) when he reported 24 species from Mount Abu.

Alam et al. (2014) 1(1): 0813 .


Afterward, Bapna & Vyas (1962) published a preliminary account about the liverworts of Mount Abu and

extended the list up to 28 taxa of liverworts and hornworts. This account is probably the only authentic record

available so far as far as liverworts are concerned. Regarding mosses only few sporadic reports had been

published with limited circulation and remain less known (Choudhary & Deora, 2001).

This study is an effort has made to fill this lacuna. The study reveals the complete and updated status of

mosses of this region. The earlier reported number of species (Bapna, 1958; Bapna & Vyas, 1962; Lal 2005)

have also included along with newly reported taxa.


The following checklist of mosses is based on moss specimens collected from different localities of Mount

Abu during 20121013. The identification of taxa was done with the help of Gangulee (19691980). Earlier

reported taxa are also included with their current status. All species listed in the literature were checked against

the TROPICOS database (at the Missouri Botanical Garden). Present status is adopted from The Plant List and

taxa are listed according to the classification scheme of Buck & Goffinet (2000). The distribution of listed taxa

in India is also given (Appendix I). The collected specimens are preserved and deposited in the Banasthali

Vidyapith Herbarium (BVH), Tonk Rajasthan.

RESULTS

The present checklist of moss flora of Mt. Abu revealed the occurrence of 46 species of mosses which are

belonging to 5 orders; 12 families and 30 genera. Out of these 44 retained their valid status, while 2 previously

reported species come under the doubtful category i.e. unresolved name. Whereas, Anoectangium clarum,

Brachymenium indicum, Bryum uliginosum, Entodon plicatus, Entodon concinnus, Fissidens sylvaticus var.

taraicola, Fissidens sylvaticus var. auriculatus, Hyophila spathulata, Plagiothecium cavifolium and

Stereophyllum tavoyense have been reported new from the region. This great diversity of mosses in this range

confirms the potential of Mt. Abu in terms of bryodiversity particularly of mosses. Hence more explorations are

required to this hilly range of Aravalli.

DISCUSSION

The checklist of mosses of these regions reveals that in terms of taxa the most diversified order is Pottiales

with 1 family, 11 genera and 14 species. This is followed by order Bryales (2 families, 6 genera and 12 species)

then comes order Hypnales (6 families, 8 genera and 11 species), followed by Dicranales (2 families, 2 genera

and 6 species) and the least represented order is Funariales (1 family, 3 genera and 3 species). Overall, the most

prominent family is Pottiaceae consisting of 11 genera with 14 species. Genera like Bryum, Fissidens and

Brachymenium are most diversified while 16 genera are representation with a single species only.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to Prof. Aditya Shastri, Vice Chancellor, Banasthali University, Rajasthan for his

encouragement and support.

REFERENCES

Bapna KR (1958) A note on the Hepatic flora of Mount Abu. Current Science 27: 259260.

Bapna KR & Vyas GG (1962) Studies in the liverworts of Mount Abu (India). A Preliminary Account.

Journal of the Hattori Botanical Laboratory 25: 8190.

Buck WR & Goffinet B (2000) Morphology and classification of mosses. In: Shaw AJ & Goffinet B (eds)

Bryophyte Biology. Cambridge University Press, pp. 71119.

Champion HG (1937) A preliminary survey of the forest types of India and Burma. Indian Forster 1: 1286.

Chaudhary BL & Deora GS (2001) The mosses of Mt. Abu (India). In: Nath V & Asthana AK (eds),

Perspectives in Indian bryology. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, India, pp. 87125.

Chavan AR & Mahabale TS (1945) Distribution of liverworts in Gujrat. Proceeding 32nd

Indian Science

Congress, p.70.

Chopra RS (1938) Notes on Indian Hepaticae. I. South India. Proceeding Indian Academy of Science ser. B 7:

239251.

Chopra RS (1943) A census of Indian hepatics. Journal of Indian Botanical Society 12: 3562.

Alam et al. (2014) 1(1): 0813 .


Gangulee HC (19691980) Mosses of Eastern India and Adjacent regions. Fascicles, Books and Allied Limited,

Calcutta, pp. 18.

Kashyap SR (1932) Liverworts of the W. Himalayas and the Punjab Plain, Part 2. Lahore.

Kashyap SR (1929) Liverworts of the W. Himalayas and the Punjab Plain, part 1. Lahore.

King G (1879) The sketch of the flora of Rajputana. Indian Forster 72: 213225.

Lal J (2005) A checklist of Indian Mosses. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh. Dehra Dun, India. pp. 1164.

Mahabale & Kharadi (1946) On some ecological features of the vegetation of Mt. Abu. Proceeding National

Academy of Science 116: 1323.

Mahabale TS & Chavan AR (1954) The distribution of liverworts in Gujarat. J. M. S. Univ. Baroda II (2): 13

16.

Mcadam (1890) A list of trees and plants of Mount Abu. Jodhpur. pp. 1-28.

Mitten W (1859) Musci Indiae Orientalis. Linn. Soc. Bot. Suppl. 1: -171.

Stephani F (19011905) Species Hepaticarum 2: 1 615 (1901: 1193; 1902: 194341; 1903: 342452; 1904:

453502; 1905: 503615) Geneve.

Stephani F (19171924) Species Hepaticarum 6: 1763 (1917: 1128; 1918: 129176; 1921: 177240; 1922

241368; 1923: 369432; 1924: 433763). Geneve.

Appendix - I

Name of Species Mount

Abu

Western

Himalayas

Eastern

Himalayas

South

India Status

A. ORDER: POTTIALES M. Fleisch.

1. FAMILY: Pottiaceae Schimp.

i. Anoectangium Schwgr.

1. A. stracheyamum Mitt. + + + + Accepted

(Choudhary & Deora 2001)

2. A. clarum Mitt. + + + - Accepted

(New reported)

ii. Barbula Hedw.

3. B. constricta Mitt. + + + - Accepted


iii. Bryoerythrophyllum P. C. Chen

4. B. recurvirostrum (Hedw.) P. C. Chen + + + - Accepted


iv. Didymodon Hedw.

5. Didymodon vinealis (Brid.) R. H. Zander

Syn. Barbula vinealis Brid. + + + -

Accepted


v. Gymnostomiella M. Fleisch.

6. G. vernicosa (Hook. ex Harv.) M.

Fleisch + + + +

Accepted


vi. Hydrogonium (Mll. Hal.) A. Jaeger.

7. H. arcuatum (Griff.) Wijk & Margad. + + + + Accepted


8. H. consenguineum (Thwaites & Mitt)

Hilp. + + + +

Accepted


vii. Hyophila Brid.

9. H. involuta (Hook.) A. Jaeger + + + + Accepted


10. H. spathulata (Harv.) A. Jaeger + + + - Accepted

(New Report)

viii. Semibarbula Herz. & Hilp.

11. S. orientalis (F. Weber) Wijk &

Margad. + + + +

Accepted


ix. Timmiella (De Not.) Limpr.

12. T. anomala (Bruch & Schimp.) Limpr. + + - + Accepted


x. Tortula Hedw.

13. T. muralis Hedw. + + - -

Accepted


Alam et al. (2014) 1(1): 0813 .


xi. Weissia Hedw.

14. W. controverse Hedw. + + - + Accepted


B. ORDER: BRYALES Limpr.

2. FAMILY: Bryaceae Schwgr

xii. Anomobryum Schimp.

15. A. auratum (Mitt.) A. Jaeger + + + + Accepted


xiii. Brachymenium Schwgr.

16. B. acuminatum Harv. + + + + Accepted


17. B. exile (Dozy & Molk.) Bosch &

Sande Lac. + + + +

Accepted


18. B. indicum (Dozy & Molk) Bosch &

Sande Lac + - - -

Accepted

(New Reported)

xiv. Bryum Hedw.

19. B.argenteum Hedw. + + - + Accepted


20. B. paradoxum Schwagr. + + - + Accepted


21. B. recurvulum Mitt. + - + + Accepted


22. B. uliginosum (Brid.) Bruch & Schimp + + + - Accepted

(New Reported)

xv. Gemmabryum J. R. Spence & H. P. Ramsay

23. G. apiculatum (Schwagr.) J. R. Spence

& H. P. Ramsay

Syn. Bryum plumosum Dozy & Molk.

+ + + + Accepted


xvi. Ptychostomum Hornsch.

24. P. capillare (Hedw.) D. T. Holyoak &

N. Pedersen

Syn. Bryum capillare Hedw.

+ + + + Accepted


3. FAMILY: Bartramiaceae Schwgr.

xvii. Philonotis Brid.

25. P. mollis (Dozy & molk.) Mitt. + - - + Accepted


26. Philonotis thwaitesii Mitt.

Syn. Philonotis revoluta Bosch & Sande Lac. + + + -

Accepted


C. ORDER: FUNARIALES M. Fleisch

4. FAMILY: Funariaceae Schwgr.

xviii. Funaria Hedw.

27. F. hygrometrica Hedw. + + + + Accepted


xix. Loiseaubryum Bizot 28. Loiseaubryum nutans (Mitt.) Fife.

Syn. Funaria nutans (Mitt.) Broth. + + + -

Accepted


xx. Physcomitrium (Brid.) Brid.

29. P. japonicum (Hedw.) Mitt + + + - Accepted


D. ORDER: HYPNALES (M. Fleisch.) W. R. Buck & Vitt

5. FAMILY: Fabroniaceae Schimp.

xxi. Fabronia Raddi

30. F. minuta Mitt. + + - - Accepted


xxii. Levierella Mll. Hal.

31. Levierella neckeroides (Griff.) O Shea & Matcham

Syn. Livierella fabroniacea Mull. Hal.

+ + - - Accepted


6. FAMILY: Entodontaceae Kindb.

xxiii. Entodon Mll. Hal.

32. E. myurus (Hook.) Hampe + + + - Accepted


33. E. prorepens (Mitt.) A. Jaeger + + + - Accepted


34. E. cocinnus (De Not.) Par. + - - - Accepted

(New Report)

Alam et al. (2014) 1(1): 0813 .


35. E. plicatus Mull. Hal + + + +

Accepted

(New Report)

7. FAMILY: Stereophyllaceae (M. Fleisch.) W. R. Buck & Ireland

xxiv. Stereophyllum Mitt.

36. S. tavoyense (Hook. ex Harv.) A. Jaeger + + - + Accepted

(New report)

8. FAMILY: Sematophyllaceae Broth.

xxv. Wijkia H. A. Crum

37. W. tanytricha (Mont.) H. A. Crum + - - + Accepted


9. FAMILY: Plagiotheciaceae (Broth.) M. Fleisch.

xxvi. Plagiothecium Bruch & Schimp.

38. P. cavifolium (Brid.) Z. Iwats + - - - Accepted

(New Report)

10. FAMILY: Meteoriaceae Kindb

xxvii. Diaphanodon Renuald & Cardot.

39. D. procumbens (Mull.Hal) Renauld &

Cardot + + + -

Accepted


xxviii. Pseudobarbella Nog.

40. P. compressiramea (Renauld and

Cardot) Nog. + + + -

Accepted


E. ORDER: DICRANALES H. Philib. & M. Fleisch.

11. FAMILY: Fissidentaceae Schimp.

xxix. Fissidens Hedw.

41. F. curvato-involutus Dixon + + + + Accepted


42. F. diversifolius Mitt. + + - + Accepted


43. Fissidens geminiflorus Dozy & Molk

Syn. F. geminiflorus var. nagasakinus

(Besch) Z. Iwats

+ - - - Accepted


44. F. sylvaticus var. auriculatus (Mull.

Hal.) Gangulee + + + -

Unresolved

(New Report)

45. F. sylvaticus var. taraicola (Mull. Hal.)

Gangulee + + + -

Unresolved

(New Report)

12. FAMILY: Bruchiaceae Schimp.

xxx. Trematodon Michx.

46. T. sabulosus Griff. + + + - Accepted



ISSN: 2349 1183

1(1): 1425, 2014

Research article

Effect of edaphic factors on the diversity of VAM fungi

Deepak Vyas1 and Rajan Kumar Gupta

2*

1 Lab of Microbial Technology & Plant Pathology, Dr. H.S. Gour University Sagar, Madhya Pradesh, India 2 Department of Botany, Pt. L.M.S. Govt. P.G. College, Rishikesh 24921 (Dehradun), Uttarakhand, India

Corresponding Author: [email protected] [Accepted: 10 April 2014]

Abstract: The present study deals with the diversity and distribution of VAMF at different sites

with different selected plants. Maximum number of VAMF species were found at site IV (57

species) out of which Glomus species was most dominant (58%), followed by Acaulospora (19%),

Scutellospora (8%), Sclerocystis (4.8%) and Gigaspora (1.6%) respectively. In site II 56 species of

VAMF were observed with Glomus (55%), followed by Acaulospora (22.5%), Scutellospora

(8%), Gigaspora (1.6%) and Sclerocystis (3.2%) respectively. In site III 55 species of VAMF

occurred with Glomus (51.6%) followed by Acaulospora (22.5%), Scutellospora (9.7%),

Sclerocystis (4.8%) and Gigaspora (0%) respectively. In site I 54 species of VAMF were found;

out of these Glomus was highest 53% followed by Acaulospora (22.5%), Scutellospora (5%),

Sclerocystis (1.6%) and Gigaspora (1.6%) respectively. These results suggest that selected study

sites are rich in VAMF frequency and diversity. The Shanon-Wiever index confirms that diversity

of VAMF fungal species varies with the test plant and maximum diversity was observed with

Ocimum sanctum (3.948), and Withania somnifera (3.909) respectively. Maximum ANOVA value

recorded in case of and Withania somnifera (0.20) and Ocimum sanctum (0.19) respectively.

Maximum richness value was observed in case of Ocimum sanctum (0.3948) than Withania

somnifera (0.0391).

Keywords: Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) - Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM) -

Withania somnifera - Ocimum sanctum

[Cite as: Vyas D & Gupta RK (2014) Effect of edaphic factors on the diversity of VAM fungi. Tropical Plant

Research 1(1): 1425]

INTRODUCTION

Mycorrhizae are the mutualistic symbiosis (non-pathogenic association) between soil borne fungi and the

roots of higher plants (Quilambe, 2003). Mycorrhizal associations are found in wide range of habitats usually in

the roots of angiosperms, gymnosperms and pteridophytes. They also occur in the gametophytes of some

mosses, lycopods and psilotes, which are rootless (Mosse et al., 1981; Vyas et al., 2007, 2008). Arbuscular

mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) have shown to be potentially able to take up both organic (Hodge et al. 2001,

Campbell & Fitter, 2001) and inorganic nitrogen from the soil (Govindarajulu et al., 2005). Vesicular-arbuscular

mycorrhizal (VAM) fungi are essential components of ecosystem for both re-vegetation of the degraded lands

and maintenance of soil structure (Caravaca et al., 2005), thereby reducing the risks of erosion and

desertification. Soil characteristics, plant species, and climate may all regulate the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi

community. The distribution of certain VAM fungal species has been related to soil pH, phosphorus level,

salinity, soil disturbance (Abbott & Robson, 1991), vegetation (Johnson et al., 1992), or hydrologic condition of

the soil (Ingham & Wilson, 1999; Miller & Bever, 1999). In general terms, increase in soil pH, nutrient status

and salinity in soil are related to a decrease in VAM root colonisation or spore density (Abbott & Robson,

1991). Despite the importance of VAM fungi in the physiology and nutrition of plants, as well as in shaping

plant communities, factors affecting the presence, diversity, spore density, and root colonisation by AM fungi in

soil are poorly understood (Grime et al., 1987; Van der Heijden et al., 1998; Smith et al,. 1999). One reason is

the difficulty of establishing causation from correlation of soil and plant factors with VAM fungal populations.

Another reason is that AM fungi can associate with a wide range of hosts present in community, but the

sporulation rates of AM fungi have been found to be host dependent (Bever et al., 1996; Lugo and Cabello,

2002). Host-dependence of VAM fungal population growth rates in soil may play an important role in the

Vyas & Gupta (2014) 1(1): 14-25

.


maintenance of VAM fungal species diversity in grasslands (Bever et al., 1996), and suppression of mycorrhizal

symbioses may result in a decrease in dominant plant population and an increase in species diversity (Hartnett &

Wilson, 1999). In addition, plant diversity may increase or decrease if the dominant plant competitors are more

weakly or strongly mycotrophic than their neighbours (Hartnett & Wilson, 1999).

An additional factor influencing populations of VAM fungi in soil, which may in turn affect the performance

of plant species relative to each other, is the hydrologic condition of the soil, which may vary seasonally. The

hydrologic condition of the soil plays an important role in determining plant community structure, and is even

more important when soils are commonly subjected to periods of dryness and flooding (Chaneton et al., 1998).

VAM fungi have been found in the roots of many plants in wetlands (Ingham & Wilson, 1999; Miller & Bever,

1999) or salt marshes (Brown & Bledsoe 1996). This is relevant because the fungi are believed to require well

aerated soils, and are thought to have problems adapting to flooded conditions (Mosse et al., 1981).

Nevertheless, little is known of VAM fungi patterns in wetlands or of the influence of the hydrologic condition

of the soil on populations of AM fungus species.

Medicinal plants have been backbone of Indian traditional medicine system Ayurveda. Among the

mentioned plants in various Ayurveda texts two herbs Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) and Tulsi/ Holy basil

(Ocimum sanctum) are known for their extensive use in traditional Indian medicine. The major biochemical

constituents of Ashwagandha are steroidal alkaloids and steroidal lactones in a class of constituents called

withanolides. At present, 12 alkaloids, 35 withanolides, and several sitoindosides from this plant have been

isolated and studied. A sitoindoside is a withanolide containing a glucose molecule at carbon 27. Much of

Ashwaganda's pharmacological activity has been attributed to two main withanolides, withaferin A and

withanolide D. These days many people cultivating medicinal plants to fulfil the increasing demands of

pharmaceutical industries.. Tulsi, the holy basil is one of the most cherished herbs for its many healing and

health-giving properties in the Orient. Some of the main chemical constituents of tulsi are: oleanolic acid,

ursolic acid, rosmarinic acid, eugenol, carvacrol, linalool, -caryophyllene (about 8%) (Kuhn & Winston 2007)

-elemene (c.11.0%), and germacrene D (about 2%) (Puri 2002). Current research offers substantial evidence

that Tulsi reduces stress, enhances stamina and endurance, increases the body's efficient use of oxygen, boosts

the immune system, reduces inflammation, protects against radiation damage, lessens aging factors, supports the

heart, lungs and liver; has antibiotic, antiviral and antifungal properties; enhances the efficacy of many other

therapeutic treatments; and provides a rich supply of antioxidants and other nutrients

Thus prompted with above mentioned facts we undertook present study to understand how AM fungi play

their role in association with the two above mentioned medicinal plants, in order to understand their bio-

fertilizing potential which can be exploited accordingly.


For the present investigation two test sites were selected, (I) Kariaya Village (II) Jaitpur Village in Shahdol

district of central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. The experiments were conducted for quantitative and

qualitative estimation of AM fungi from rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere soil and roots of test plants.

The rhizosphere soil and root samples of selected test medicinal plants were collected from different soil

depths (i.e. 010, 1020, 2030, 3040 cm). The VAM spores were isolated from the collected soil samples by

wet sieving and decanting method (Gerdemann & Nicolson, 1963). Mycorrhizal spores were identified

according to their spore morphology using conventional taxonomic key of Schenck & Perez (1990) and

descriptions from http://invam.wvu.edu/the-fungi/classification. For the estimation of AM spores, a technique

provided by Gour & Adholeya (1994) was followed. The soil pH was determined in 1:5 suspension of soil:

deionized water ratio, electrometrically by glass electrode pH meter 335 (Jackson, 1982). Statistical analysis of

data for comparison of means, analysis of variance (ANOVA) was followed after Gupta & Kapoor (1997).

RESULT

Variance in relative abundance of VAMF spores was observed, with test plants Withania somnifera and

Ocimum sanctum, growing in the Karaiya village and Jaitpur village, along soil depth gradient (Table 1).

Maximum value was recorded up to 10 cm depth and minimum was recorded at 3040 cm depth.

Vyas & Gupta (2014) 1(1): 14-25

.


Vyas & Gupta (2014) 1(1): 14-25

.


The Shannon-Weaver index value suggests that W. somnifera harbours more diverse morphotypes than O.

sanctum (Table 2). Comparatively, soil of Jaitpur (H, 2.351) village harbour greater number of morphotypes in

W. somnifera than of Karaiya (H, 2.250). However,

Shannon Weaver index (H') value obtained from the different depth of rhizosphere of O. sanctum growing

in Jaitpur village soil showed maximum value at the depth of 10-20 cm (2.143), and further deeper region

showed linear decrease an H' value. O. sanctum growing Karaiya village showed maximum H` value up to 10

cm depth and below this H' value gradually decreased.

The evenness (J') of VAMF shows interesting trends, where there is little hike in J' value at 2030 cm and

3040 cm deep in soils from W. somnifera plants growing in Jaitpur village, at Karaiya village no such

significant difference in J' value was observed (Table 2). Data of evenness (J') of VAMF in soils from

O.sanctum in both the sites (i.e. Karaiya village soil and Jaitpur village) soil didnt showed definite trend. Where

at Kariaya village soil J' value almost remains same up to 30 cm depth, with sudden significant reduction in J'

further (Table 2). In contrast to this Jaitpur village soil J' value though remains same up to the depth of 30 cm

but a significant increased at 40 cm depth (Table 2).

Site Shannon Index with

evenness

Soil depth (cm) Total

(MeanSD) 010 1020 2030 3040

Karaiya village Soil

Withania somnifera H

I 2.258 2.131 1.831 1.252 1.8680.450

JI 0.88 0.89 0.88 0.90 0.880.009

Ocimum sanctum H

I 2.20 2.048 1.818 0.899 1.7410.580

JI 0.95 0.93 0.93 0.82 0.900.050

Jaitpur village Soil

Withania somnifera H

I 2.371 2.248 1.909 1.63 2.030.34

JI 0.84 0.83 0.87 0.91 0.860.03

Ocimum sanctum H

I 2.04 2.143 1.947 1.767 1.9740.15

JI 0.88 0.89 0.88 0.98 0.900.04

Table 2. Shannon-Weaver diversity index (HI) and evenness (J

I) of VAM fungi associated with test medicinal

plants at two different sites in different soil depths.

Figure 1. Distribution of VAMF species in the

rhizosphere soil of Withania somnifera and Ocimum

sanctum.

Figure 2. Occurrence of VAMF species associated

with either Withania somnifera or Ocimum sanctum

growing in Karaiya village and Jaitpur village.Ocimum

sanctum.

Vyas & Gupta (2014) 1(1): 14-25

.


The study revealed in total, 27 morphologically distinct VAM species isolated from the rhizosphere of

Withania somnifera and Ocimum sanctum growing at the two study sites (Fig. 1). Out of 27 VAM fungal

species, 13 different species were found associated only with W. somnifera, six species were found only with O.

sanctum and eight species were found common in both the plants. Thus, a total of 21 species associated with W.

somnifera and 14 species were found associated with O. sanctum (Fig. 1).

Among the 21 VAM species found associated with W. somnifera, five VAMF species viz. Acaulospora

mellea, A. scrobiculata, Glomus claroideum, G. etunicatum and G. macrocarpum were not found in Jaitpur soil,

whereas A. bireticulata, A. denticulata, G. dimorphicum were not found in Jaitpur village soil (Fig. 2).

Acaulospora sp., A. nicolsonii, G. clarum and G. hoi were the prominent species of the VAM fungi which were

isolated from surface to 40 cm. depths in the Karaiya village soil. G. intraradices and G. mosseae were isolated

from the depth of 30 cm. A. denticulata and Glomus sp. were obtained from the depths of 1020 and 2030 cm.

G. ambisporum, and G. fasciculatum were isolated from 010 and 1020 cm depths. A. bireticulata, G. australe,

G. desrticola, G. dimorphicum, and G. pustolatum were isolated from 010 cm depth in the Karaiya village soil

(Table 1).

In the Jaitpur village soil, A. nicolsonii, G. clarum, G. hoi and G. intraradices were isolated from the topsoil

to of 40 cm depth. G. etunicatum, G. mosseae and G. versiforme were collected from of 30 cm depth. A. mellea

and G. desrticola were isolated from 010, 1020, and 3040 cm soil depth. A. scrobiculata, G. australe, G.

fasciculatum, G. macrocarpum, and G. pusotlatum were isolated from 010 and 1020 cm depth. Acaulospora

sp. and Glomus sp. were isolated from 010 and 2030 cm depth. G. ambisporum was isolated only 1020 cm

(Table 1).

Out of 27 VAMF species, 14 species were found associated with O. sanctum in both the sites (Fig. 1).

Among the 14 VAMF species, three species viz. A. foveata, Entrophospora infrequens and G. etunicatum were

not found in Karaiya village soil (Fig. 2). A. nicolsonii and G. clarum were the two VAMF species found very

prominent in Karaiya village soil and isolated in all measured soil depth. A. spinosa, G. fasciculatum, G.

heterosporum and G. hoi were isolated from the depth of 30 cm. Whereas, A. scrobiculata, G. ambisporum and

G. intraradices were isolated from the depth of 20 cm. G. botryoides was isolated in topsoil (010 cm) and

Scutellospora pellucida was isolated from 2030 and 3040 cm soil depth (Table 1).

In the Jaitpur village soil, A. nicolsonii, G. clarum, G. hoi and G. intraradices were isolated from the topsoil

to of 40 cm depth. G. etunicatum, G. mosseae and G. versiforme were collected from of 30 cm depth. A. mellea

and G. desrticola were isolated from 010, 1020, and 3040 cm soil depth. A. scrobiculata, G. australe, G.

fasciculatum, G. macrocarpum, and G. pusotlatum were isolated from 010 and 1020 cm depth. Acaulospora

sp. and Glomus sp. were isolated from 010 and 2030 cm depth. G. ambisporum was isolated only 1020 cm

(Table 1).

Out of 27 VAMF species, 14 species were found associated with O. sanctum in both the sites (Fig. 1).

Among the 14 VAMF species, three species viz. A. foveata, Entrophospora infrequens and G. etunicatum were

not found in Karaiya village soil (Fig. 2). A. nicolsonii and G. clarum were the two VAMF species found very

prominent in Karaiya village soil and isolated in all measured soil depth. A. spinosa, G. fasciculatum, G.

heterosporum and G. hoi were isolated from the depth of 30 cm. Whereas, A. scrobiculata, G. ambisporum and

G. intraradices were isolated from the depth of 20 cm. G. botryoides was isolated in topsoil (010 cm) and

Scutellospora pellucida was isolated from 2030 and 3040 cm soil depth (Table 1).

In Jaitpur village soil Glomus clarum, G. fasciculatum and G. intraradices were isolated from 40 cm depth.

A. nicolsonnii, G. heterosporum and G. hoi were collected from 30 cm depth while, Aculospora foveata, Glomus

ambisporum and G. etunicatum 20 cm depth. A. spinosa was isolated from 1020, 2030 and 3040 cm soil depths, respectively. Here, also Glomus botryoides was isolated from the topsoil. Entrophospora infrequens

was isolated from 2030 and 3040 cm depth and Sculellospora pellucida was isolated from 3040 cm depth (Table 1).

The 14 VAMF species associated with W. somnifera, commonly occur in both the sites (i.e. Karaiya village

soil as well as Jaitpur village soil) (Fig. 3). Among 14 VAMF species, 11 species associated with O. sanctum. It

was also observed that 6 VAMF species viz. Aculospora nicolsonii, Glomus ambisporum, G. clarum, G.

fasciculatum, G. hoi and G. intraradices were found associated with both the test plants at in both the sites.

However, three species Aculospora bireticulata, A. denticulata and Glomus desrticola which are associated with

Withania somnifera were found only in Karaiya village soil.

Vyas & Gupta (2014) 1(1): 14-25

.


A linear regression analysis with coefficient of determination (= squared correlation coefficient or r2) of

VAMF spore population with soil depth, soil pH, and soil moisture per cent in Withania somnifera and Ocimum

sanctum at both the sites were presented in (Fig. 4 A-F) and (Fig. 5AF). It is clearly evident from the result that

the VAMF spore population showed a strong negative correlation with soil depth, pH and moisture of the soil. It

is assumed that an increase in single variable (depth pH, or moisture) resulted in decrease in VAMF spore

population in both the test plants at both the sites. In Karaiya village soil, depth and moisture of rhizosphere soil

of both the test plants show highly significant correlation, while, variation found in correlation between soil pH

and spore population of both the plants. In Karaiya village, VAMF spore population had weak correlation

Ta

ble

3

. C

om

par

ativ

e an

alysi

s o

f av

erag

e v

alu

es

of

soil

p

H,

soil

mo

istu

re,

VA

MF

sp

ore

p

op

ula

tio

n

and

S

han

no

n-W

eav

er

div

ersi

ty

ind

ex w

ith

ev

enn

ess

at f

ou

r so

il d

epth

s fr

om

th

e K

arai

ya

vil

lag

e an

d

Jait

pu

r v

illa

ge

Figure 3. Common occurrence of VAMF species

associated with Withania somnifera and Ocimum

sanctum growing in Karaiya village or Jaitpur village.

Figure 4. Regression of VA mycorrhizal fungal spore

population with soil depth; soil pH; soil moisture

percent in Withania somnifera (AC) and Ocimum sanctum (DF) at Karaiya village.

Figure 5. Regression of VA mycorrhizal fungal spore

population with soil depth; soil pH; soil moisture percent

in Withania somnifera (AC) and Ocimum sanctum (DF) at Jaitpur village.

Vyas & Gupta (2014) 1(1): 14-25

.


0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

W. somnifera O. sanctum W. somnifera O. sanctum

Karaiya Village Jaitpur Village

VA

MF S

pore

Popula

tion

0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 Soil Depth (cm)

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5


Karaiya Village Jaitpur Village

Soil M

ois

ture

(%

)

0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40

Soil Depth (cm)

(r2=0.563) with the pH of rhizosphere soil with W. somnifera in comparison to O. sanctum (r

2=0.943). In Jaitpur

village soil, VAMF spore population showed similar trend as observed at Karaiya village soil with the depth and

percent moisture of rhizosphere of both the plants. These two attributes significantly, correlated with the VAMF

spore population (Fig. 5 AF).

The data presented in Table 3 show the comparative analysis of average values of soil pH, soil moisture,

VAMF spore population and Shannon-Weaver diversity index at four soil depths from both the sites. The

mycorrhizal population dropped significantly from the upper to lower soil depth level. Both the soils showed

similar relationships for depths and mean total spore population (Fig. 6).

In the present study average soil moisture present initially increased two fold with the increasing depth (Fig.

7). Average soil pH found increased. Interestingly, soil pH values showed a general tendency to increase with

increasing soil depth in both the site (Fig. 8).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

In the present study, the rhizosphere of two medicinal plants viz. Withania somnifera and Ocimum sanctum

in different soil depth at two locations showed common as well as variant VAMF flora. Such variations in the

VA mycorrhizal fungal community at different rhizosphere zone of plants have been reported earlier (Jakobsen

& Nielsen, 1983; 1986; Thompson, 1991; Oehl et al., 2005). We investigated the rhizosphere soil over a depth

range from surface to40 cm depth. As expected from 0 to 20 cm depth the rhizosphere of both the plants

contained the greater VA mycorrhizal fungal spore populations. Ecological studies on the community structure

of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are generally restricted to the main rooting zone from 10 to 25 cm soil depth

(Douds et al., 1995; Guadarrama & Alvarez-Sanchez, 1999; Bever et al., 2001).

Data from both the site considered together, it was found that the fungal community composition changed

with the soil depth, VA mycorrhizal fungal spore population were found decreasing with increasing soil depth.

These data compliment the observations of Oehl et al. (2005) that VAM spore abundance and species richness

decreased with increasing soil depth. Few studies also support, which done in the subsoil that increasing soil

depth, a decrease was found in the percentage of roots colonized by AMF (Jakobsen & Nielsen, 1983; Rillig &

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9


Kariaya Village Jaitpur Village

Soil p

H

0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40

Soil Depth (cm)

Figure 6. VA mycorrhizal spore population per 100

gm of rhizosphere soil of test medicinal plants in two

different sites, at different soil depth.

Figure 7. Soil moisture percent of rhizosphere soil of

test medicinal plants in two different sites at different

soil depth.

Figure 8. Soil pH of rhizosphere soil of test medicinal plants in two

different sites at different soil depth.

Vyas & Gupta (2014) 1(1): 14-25

.


Field, 2003), in the number of infective propagules (An et al., 1990), and in the amount of extra radical AMF

hyphae (Kabir et al., 1998).

In the present study maximum number of morphotypes as well as maximum percent population of spores

was recorded under the genus Glomus. The genus Glomus is reported to be the dominant VAM fungi in some of

the forest ecosystems (Sharma et al., 1986; Tamuli & Boruah, 2002). Vyas & Soni, 2004; Vyas et al., 2006;

have reported dominance of Glomus from Sagar. Dwivedi et al., 2004, suggested physico chemical properties of

soil of Sagar are responsible for the occurrence of differential VAMF.

Here, many species were recorded in low numbers that too in one of the samplings only in the test sites. The

rarity of some species may be an account of their narrow adaptability in contrast to Glomus species, which

showed adaptability. Schenck & Kinloch (1980) attributed the abundance of Glomus species in the soils to their

wide adaptability to different plants and environmental conditions.

Many species of VA mycorrhizal fungi were frequently found in the Jaitpur village. Interestingly, these

species does not found in the Karaiya village soil such as Aculospora foveata, A. mellea, A. scrobiculata,

Entrophospora infrequens, Glomus claroideum, G. etunicatum, and G. macrocarpum. However, their number

decreases along with increasing soil depths. It is assumed that these VA mycorrhizal fungi, at least in central

India preferentially inhabit undisturbed topsoil, rich in organic matter as occurring in Jaitpur village is as a good

example. Another possibility is that they might need specific plant hosts.

Differences in VA mycorrhizal species in the rhizosphere region with two plants growing in two different

soils may be attributed to the physico-chemical properties of both the soils. It is deduced from the results that

soil of Jaitpur village is a natural soil, loamy in structure. Therefore, does not retain water, because pore size of

soil particles is bigger which provide enough space for spores and mycelium to proliferate even in deeper zones.

In contrast to the Karaiya village soil is a mixed soil having loam and clay 1:1 combination hence, it does not

provides adequate space to VAMF spores to generate/ proliferate. Since, a clay soil particle has capacity to

retain water, therefore moisture content in the soil remains for larger duration, which resulted in to poor

occurrence of VAMF. Wet conditions are known for their deleterious effect on VAMF population (Dubey,

2006).

Aculospora nicolsonii, Archaeospora gerdemannii, Glomus clarum, G. fasciculatum, G. heterosporum, G.

hoi, G. intraradices and G. mosseae are frequently found in different rhizosphere zone with both the plants at

both the sites. Oehl et al., (2003) called this type of VAMF species as AMF 'generalists' or even AMF 'weed'

species (JPW Young Pers.com). We assume that even these AMF 'generalists' might fulfil different ecological

functions.

Entrophospora infreuens and Scutellospora pellucida in particular associated with O. sanctum were found

to occur more abundantly with increasing soil depth. Thus at least with respect to spore formation, these species

appear to be specialized for deeper layers of the soils. This observation agrees with earliest findings of Mader et

al., 2002; Jansa et al., 2003; Oehl et al., 2004. The occurrence of Scutellospora calospora and S. pellucida spore

were found to be negative correlated with soil contents of available phosphorous (Oehl et al., 2004). These

findings suggest these possible reasons for the stimulation of development of S. pellucida in deeper soil layers,

mainly the reduced mechanical soil disturbances and this effect to decreased supply of phosphorous.

In the present study there was highly negative significant correlation observed between soil parameters and

fungal spore density in the samplings. The ability of the soil to support mycorrhizal population significantly

decreases with increasing soil depth and is no doubt, greatly influenced by the total number of VA mycorrhizal

propagules at a given depth. The average VA mycorrhizal spore population approaches zero at increased soil

depths. Linear regression is a reasonably accurate statistical model for the data. However, mycorrhizae are

absent at the soil surface, where there are no roots, yet linear models have a 'Y' intercept at zero depth. In reality,

VA mycorrhizal spore population should be zero at the soil surface (zero depth), so linear models do not account

for the absence of mycorrhizae at the soil surface. The use of narrow soil profiles (12 cm) for estimating fungal

population could be a solution for developing a biological, nonlinear model that reflects the actual ability of the

soil to support mycorrhizal formation.

Fibrous root systems such as those found in W. somnifera decrease with increasing soil depth. Data from

cultivated soil (Sutton & Barron, 1972; Smith, 1978), from grassland soil (Sparling & Tinker, 1975), and from

semi-arid soil (Schwab & Reeves, 1981) also support our results. These observations strongly support Redhead's

(1977) conclusion that VAM decrease markedly below 15 cm and are consistent with similar observations of

Warcup (1951) for saprobic fungi. Mycorrhiza and fungal propagules of VAMF may occur at much greater

Vyas & Gupta (2014) 1(1): 14-25

.


depths in soil than those depths that we examined. It was found both colonization percent and intensity

decreased with increasing depth in Tall grass or True prairie species, but Glomus fasciculatum was associated

with forbs roots at depths to 220 cm.

These results suggest that spore viability may vary with soil moisture, and spore germination may occur at

soil moisture levels that are not optimal for plant roots. Our data support previous observation of Trinick (1977)

that the amount of moisture initially present in soil may affect mycorrhizal colonization of roots and thus the

fungal spore density of soil. It was also observed that a significant linear relationship between moisture initially

present in the soil and VA mycorrhizal spore population. Spore density of VA mycorrhizal fungi inversely

propositional to moisture therefore losses the VAMF. Though relationship between soil moisture and spore

population is highly significant relationship, get overriding factor is depth this can be justified simply by fewer

roots, fewer mycorrhiza and fewer propagules in collected soil from lower depths.

Survival of VA mycorrhizal fungi and subsequent spore germination may depend on a species' adaptation

and on the influence of physical parameters of the soil such as pH (Green et al., 1976). Friese & Koske (1991)

found no significant correlation between VA mycorrhizal fungal spore clumping and soil pH. Bagyaraj (1991)

points out that the interpretation of a pH effect on VAM fungal spore germination is difficult because many

chemical properties of soil vary with changes in pH. Soil pH over a range of 4.8-8.0 significantly influenced

germination of Glomus epigaeum Daniels & Trappe spores; optimum germination occurred at pH 7 (Daniels &

Trappe, 1980). The regression analysis of the VAMF spore population of the rhizosphere soil of test plants and

soil pH shows a significant relationship. Spore density decrease as soil pH increases. Our results indirectly

support Powell and Bagyaraj's (1984) conclusion that pH can influence spore germination in VAM fungal

species, and that spore germination occurs within a range that is acceptable for plant growth. In spite of the

significant relationship between soil pH and fungal population, the overriding factor seems to be the depth. The

soil pH range covers less than one order of magnitude. As depth increases, there are fewer propagules to

contribute to mycorrhizal population.

Direct cause and effect relationships between soil moisture or pH and mycorrhizal formation are equivocal.

Peat and Fitter (1993) found no relationship between soil moisture and frequency of mycorrhizal colonization

for British plants, and they reported that VAM occur at greater maximum soil pH values (ca. 6.0) than do ecto-

or ericoid mycorrhizae. Soil from our study site ranged from pH 6.0 to 7.5. The occurrences of VAM at selected

sites are consistent with the reports of Peat & Fitter (1993) and Read (1989). We conclude that soil pH has little

direct effect on mycorrhizal population. Further Wang et al., 1993 had also reported field observations in Britain

that percentage colonization and crop yield were little affected by soil pH ranging from 4.5 to 7.5.

This study shows that the frequency of genera and species of VA mycorrhizal fungi isolated from both the

site varied with the above ground vegetation and with changes in soil moisture and soil pH. Currently, we have

limited means for accurately determining the complex of genera and species that forming symbiosis with host

plants in natural soil and that are responsible for variations in fungal density obtained from soil samples. Recent

advancements in characterizing mycorrhizae with molecular markers will greatly improve our understanding of

the ecology of these fungi.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Authors are thankful to Head, Department of Botany, Dr. H.S. Gour University, Sagar, MM thankfully

acknowledge UGC for financially assistance.

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ISSN: 2349 1183

1(1): 2627, 2014

Short communication

Sporadic flowering of Dendrocalamus longispathus (Kurz) Kurz

in Mizoram, India

H. R. Sharma1, S. Yadav

1*, B. Deka

1, R. K. Meena

2 and N. S. Bisht

3

1Advanced Research Centre for Bamboo and Rattan, Aizawl, Mizoram, India.

2 Division of Genetics and Tree Propagation, FRI, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India.

3 Rain Forest Research Institute, Jorhat, Assam, India.


[Cite as: Sharma HR, Yadav S, Deka B, Meena RK & Bisht NS (2014) Sporadic flowering of Dendrocalamus

longispathus (Kurz) Kurz in Mizoram, India. Tropical Plant Research 1(1): 2627]

The flowering in bamboos is an exceptionally interesting event because most of the species flower either

gregariously or sporadically only once every 60 to 120 years and this is not all, bamboos are monocarpic, i.e.

they flower only once, set seeds and then die. Death in large populations is a cause of concern due to ecological,

social and economic crises that set forth (John & Nadgauda, 2002).

In the past, bamboo flowering was reported to be positively correlated with inflation in rodent population

and incidence of famines in the state of Mizoram. Therefore, whenever bamboo flowering is observed in state,

scientists and foresters become anxious.

There are several theories on the unusual flowering habits of bamboo, though scientists have not yet found

any conclusive cause for the behaviour. Although environmental factors influence the growth of plants, and in

the majority of plants they trigger flowering, factors that trigger flowering in bamboo still remain a mystery

(Ramanayake SMSD, 2006).

Dendrocalamus longispathus (Kurz) Kurz is a large caespitose bamboo; culms 20 m tall, up to 10 cm in

diameter; nodes swollen; internode swollen, 2560 cm long. It occurs in moist hill slopes and along streams in

Figure 1. Flowering in Dendrocalamus longispathus

clump in forest of Mizoram.

Figure 2. Individual flowering culm of Dendrocalamus

longispathus.

Sharma et al. (2014) 1(1): 2627


the moist fertile loamy soil and particularly shaded fringes of the forest cover. It is distributed in India (Assam,

Manipur, Mizoram and Tripura), Bangladesh and Myanmar.

Dendrocalamus longispathus is an edible bamboo species and is also used for thatching, basket making,

fuel, chicks for doors, house posts and mat making, floats for timber and rafts. Culm sheaths are used for

irrigation and musical instruments and also suitable for the manufacture of craft paper (Wealth of India, 1952).

According to Gamble (1896), Dendrocalamus longispathus flowered during 1876, 187980 in Chittagong

(Bangladesh) and during 1871 & 1891 in Myanmar. Gupta (1972) reported it in flowering from Assam in 1968

and in Mizoram during 196667. Bahadur (1979) stated that it was flowering in Forest Research Institute,

Dehradun in 1979.

A survey was conducted by the authors from Advance Research Centre for Bamboo and Rattan (ARCBR),

Bethlehem Vengthlang, Aizawl, Mizoram in the different districts of the state in month of January and February

2014 (Fig. 1,2). They observed sporadic flowering of Dendro

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Volume 1, Issue 1 of Tropical Plant Research