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Wacks,DavidA."ThePerformativityofIbnal-Muqaffa 'sKallawa-DimnaandAl-Maqmtal-Luzumyyaofal-Saraqusi."JournalofArabicLiterature34.1-2(2003):178-89.http://brill.publisher.ingentaconnect.com/content/brill/jal/2003/00000034/F0020001/art00009

Ibnal-MuqaffasKallawa-Dimna,1andal-Maqmtal-luzmiyyaofal-Saraqus(d.

538/1143)constructperformancesofstorytellingeventsinaliterarysettingasawayofprovidingacontextfortheanecdotesandfablesnarratedbythecharactersineachtext.Thewayinwhichtheperformativityofeachtextisconstructedreflectstheirrespectiveculturalandliteraryheritage,aswellastheperformativenatureofMedievalArabicliteratureingeneral.Thetwotextsrepresentaconvergenceofdifferentoralnarrativetraditions:inKallawefindtheanimalfabletraditionoriginatinginIndia,andinthemaqmatheArabictraditionofpopularpreachingandstorytelling,coupledwithanecdotalreligiousliteraturesuchastheadt.TheepisodicframetalestructureintroducedintoArabicliteraturebyKallaisadaptedbythemaqma,whichcanbeseenasoneofMedievalliterature'sfirstforaysintorealisticprosefiction.

Kallawa-Dimna,translatedintoArabicfromPahlaviin748by AbdAllhIbnal-Muqaffa(102/720-139/756),isthefirstworkofliteraryprosenarrativeinArabic.ItwasoriginallycomposedinSanskritasthePanchatantrainIndiaaroundtheyear300A.D.ItremainedaworkofprosenarrativethroughsubsequenttranslationsintoPahlavi(byBurzo,physiciantoSasaniankingKhusrawAnushirwan[531-579])andthenintoArabic(Brockelmann).Asawork,ithastwosignificantlinkstoperformance.First,thetextpresentsaseriesofstorytellingevents:charactersnarrateanimalfablestooneanother.Thenarrativecontextofthefablesreproducessomeaspectsofalivestorytellingorperformanceevent,asdefinedbyanthropologistssuchasRobertGeorges,RichardBauman,andAlanDundes.Thereisastoryteller,anaudience,anda

socialcontext.Thetalestoldbythecharactersareofagenrerecognizabletotheirimmediateaudience(theothercharacters),aswellastothefictiveaudience(us).Theeventisframedbynarrativemarkerswhichsignalabeginningandendtoeachperformance.

ThetalesnarratedbycharactersinKallahaveahistoryofperfomance.TheyweredrawnfrompopulartraditionandwereoriginallycollatedbyHindupreacherswhousedthefablesasexemplarytalesintheirsermons,muchliketheDominicanandFranciscanfriarsofWesternEuropeinthe13 thand14thcenturiesC.E.2TheexemplarytaletoldbyapopularpreacherorstorytellerwouldhavebeenfamiliartoIbnal-Muqaffa saudienceaswell,butwouldhavebeenaccordedalowerlevelofprestige,asperformersmakinguseofsuchtaleswouldnothavebeenassociatedwithorganizedreligion. 3Thecompiler

ofthetalesincludedintheoriginalPanchatantrawasaBrahmin,aclergymanfromthe

1Hereafterreferredtoas"Kalla".2FortheexempluminMedievalChristianliterature,seeWelter.3Whilesuchpopularpreacherswereoriginallyadmittedtomosques,particularlyinIraq,theyeventuallybegantotakelibertiesinmixingnon-IslamicmaterialintotheirperformancesandbegantoearnthescornoforthodoxIslam.ThisdisdainonthepartofIslamicscholarswasprobablymoreduetothefactthatthequattractedlargercrowdsthantheformer(Pellat).Ingeneral,acertainmistrustofnarrativeliteraturethatcouldnotbereadilyIslamicizedobtainedinMedievalIslam(Windstedt).


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upperranksoforganizedreligion.ThiscompilerwasassemblingmaterialdrawnfromperformancesoftalescurrentinIndianoraltradition(KellerandLinkerxvi).InMedievalWesternEurope,Christianfriars,representativesofofficialreligion(liketheBrahmins),compiledcollectionsofpopulartales,whichinspiredlaterframetalesinthevernacularlanguagesofChristianEurope. 4InIslam,suchtaleswerethecurrencyofthe qa

(popularpreacherandstoryteller)andsodidnotbearthestampofapprovaloforganizedreligion(Pellat).Therefore,Kallacanbeseenasaliteraryperformancesettingfortalesthatwerehistoricallyperformed(andtransmitted)orally.

LikeKalla,themaqmagenreisalsoaliterarysettingforstorytellingevents,butwithsomecrucialdifferences.Thenarratorisperformingtalesdrawnfromfirst-handexperience,andsothedistancebetweenaudienceandtaleisreduced.Furthermore,thisnarratorisfictional,bytheadmissionofal-Saraqus himself.5Boththesettingandthetalesarepurefiction,yetthefirstpersonstanceofthenarratorinvitesthereadertoidentifywiththenarrator-as-characterwithinthetales.BybuildingonthemodelofliteraryprosenarrativeintroducedbyKalla,themaqmaintroducessuspensionofdisbeliefintoMedievalliteraryprosenarrative.6

Modernprosefictiondoesnotgenerallyresonatewithperformanceforitsreaders.Inthepresentday,readingislargelyconductedsilentlyandalone.Thistypeofprivatereadingwaspracticallyunheardofuntiltheadventofprinting,whichputsagreatdealofdistancebetweenthemoderncriticandtheMedievalrealityofreading(Coleman23).Whenthereadingpublicthinksofperformance,thoughtsturntodrama,music,perhapstopoetry.However,worksofliteraryprosenarrativeinMedievalArabichaveamuchcloserrelationshipwithoralityandperformancethanthemodernnovel.The Abbsiderawasaperiodcharacterizedbybothoralandwrittenliterature. 7WhentheformativeworksofArabicliterarynarrativewerebeingcomposed,readingwasmostoftenaperformance.Becauseofthis,writtenliteratureenjoyedafairlyimmediatesenseofaurality,andaperformativecontext.TheearliestaudiencesofIbnal-Muqaffa sKallaandal-Saraqus'sal-Maqmtal-luzmiyyawouldhaveheardthemreadaloud(Monroe2).Theseworkswerecomposedduringatimewhenlyricwastheprestigeliterarygenre,andnarrativewasheldinlowerregard,largelytheprovinceofpopular qus,storytellersandpreachers(Pellat).Literaryconnoisseursofthedayshowedadistinctpreferenceforlyric,andgenerallyheldpoetryinhigherregardthanprosenarrative.IbnRushd,inhiscommentaryonAristotle'sPoetics,explainsthisdistinction:

Hesaid:fromwhathasbeensaidabouttheintentionofpoeticalstatements,itisclearthatrepresentationthatcomesaboutbymeansoffalseinventionsnamelythethingscalledparablesandstorieslikewhatisinKallahwa-Dimnahisnotpartofthepoet'sactivity.Indeed,thepoetspeaksonlyaboutexistingorpossiblematters....Thosewhodomake

4

ForadiscussionoftheframetaleinEurope,seeIrwin,especiallypages31-35.5Despitethefactthatal-Saraqus providesanisndthatindicatesIbnTammmasnarrator,hetakescreditfortheworkinthecolophon:Letitbeknownthatthefollowingarefiftymaq mtcomposedbyAbu-lhirMuammadibnYusfal-Tammal-SaraqusinCrdoba,oneofthecitiesofal-Andalus(Monroe2002:113).Thisisastarkadmissionofthework'sfictionality.6RinaDrorywritesthatinArabicthemajordifficultyinacceptingthemaqmtconsistedinthenoveltyofovertfiction,whichviolatedthenormoffaithfullyreportingonreality(200).7Idonotbelievetherewaseveraclear-cutdistinctionbetweenthetwo;eachinfluencedtheother,andtheliterarygenrestowhichthisinteractiongavebirthweretobedevelopedandeventuallyreachedtheirpeakintheageoftheMamluks(Norris145).


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parablesandstoriesaremakingsomethingotherthanwhatpoetsmake,eveniftheyhavemadethoseinventedparablesandtalesinmeteredspeech(Butterworth83-84;ButterworthandHar d76-77).

Infact,Ibnal-Muqaffa saimintranslatingKallawasnotsomuchtopromoteprosenarrativeasaliterarygenreasitwastouseitasavehicletodisplayhighlypolished

rhetoricalstyle(Brockelmann).Similarly,themaqmawasnotoriginallyvaluedforthequalityofthenarrativeitpresented,butratherwasintendedasashowcasetoparodyexistinggenresofClassicalArabicliterature.8Theseworksbeganasliteraryexperiments;KallaappliedaliteraryArabicregistertotranslationsofforeignprose,whilethemaqmaparodiedestablishedArabicliterarygenres.Overtime,both Kallaandthemaqmtofsuchauthorsasal-Hamadhn,al-Harr,andal-Saraqusendedupasclassicsintheirownright.

Twohundredyearslater,Kallagainedpopularityforitsnarrativecontent;oncepresentedtoanArabicaudienceinsufficientlyelegantprose, Kallacametobeasuccessbasedonappreciationforitsnarrativecontent(Latham53).TheeleganceofIbnal-MuqaffasproselegitimizedtheseculartaleforliteraryArabicaudiences.Theworkwassuchasuccessinal-Andalus,thatwhenAlfonsoX(1252-1284)undertookhismassiveprojectoftranslatingscientificworksfromArabictoCastilian,heincluded Kallaastheonlyrepresentativeofprosenarrative,andin1251gaveCastilianreaders CalilaeDimna.9Inthisway,thefirstmajorworkofliteraryprosenarrativeinClassicalArabicalsobecamethefirstofitsgenreinCastilian.

Suchtranslatedworksplayanimportant(andoftenminimized)roleinthedevelopmentofaliterarytradition.Theyoftenaddressalackintheliterarysystemofthetargetculture(Even-Zohar194).Attimesthislackisduetoachangeinthedemandforliterarytexts.10Particularlyinthecaseoftheintroductionofagenrepreviouslyuncultivatedbythetargetculture,translatedworksstandasachallengetoauthorsworkinginthetargetlanguagetoassimilatethenewgenrebycreatingoriginalworksintheirownlanguage.Thisprocessofappropriationleadstoinnovationandthedevelopmentofnew,hybridgenresthatcombineaspectsoftheoriginalandtargetcultures.Ibnal-Muqaffa stranslationclothedthetalesofthePahlaviKallaintheArabicrhetoricalstylesoredolentofperformance.

Ibnal-MuqaffastranslationofKallawasinstrumentalinopeningavenuesofinnovationinArabicprosenarrative.Hisintroductionofepisodicprosenarrativeto

8WritingofthemaqmtofBadal-Zamanal-Hamadhn(358-98/968-1008),JamesMonroe(1983)hascommentedthattheworkofHamadhnwasconceived,atonelevelatleast,asaparodyofcertainnoblegenresthatalreadyexistedinArabicliterature,amongthem, adt,sra,andthelyric(38).Zubaidipointsoutthatthemaqmtwereheavilylacedwithallusionsandquotationsfrom adtliterature(343),andDrorywritesthatal-Hamadhndevelopedhismaqmtasasortofcomicrelief...parodicvariationson

familiar,oftenmuch-studiedpiecesofadabknowledge(191).9AsAlfonsoXdidnotascendtothethroneuntil1252,hecommissionedthetranslationof Kallawhilestillcrownprince.FortheCastilianCalilaeDimna,seetheeditionofBlecuaandLacarraaswellasthatofKellerandLinker.10Even-Zoharwritesofhistoricalmomentswhereestablishedmodelsarenolongertenableforayoungergeneration(194).InthecaseofKalla,thehistoricalmomentiswhenArabicliterarycultureencompassesnon-Arabgroups,suchasPersians,whohaveaccesstogenreswithoutanaloguesinArabicliterature.Ibnal-MuqaffawashimselfaPersianofnobleorigin,andconvertedtoIslamonlyinadulthood(Gabrieli).ThereforeitissafetoassumethathehadaliteraryeducationinPahlaviandthathewaswellacquaintedwithgenresfromthattradition.


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Arabicliteraturepavedthewayforlaterauthorsofmaqmt,suchasinnovatorBad al-Zamnal-Hamadhn,al-arr(446-516/1054-1122),andtheAndalus al-Saraqus.

InKallawa-Dimna,thephilosopherBaydabrelatestoKingDabalmthetaleoftheLion,thebullatraba,andthetwojackals,Kal laandDimna.Theframeoftheworkisnested,sothatfurthertalesarenarratedbytheanimalcharactersthemselves.Justas

Baydabactsascounselortohisking,Kal laandDimnaactascounselorstotheirking,thelion.WhileKallaisuprightandgiveshisadviceonlytoforwardthelion'sbestinterests,DimnaismoreambitiousanddoesnothesitatetoplaythelionoffagainstthebullinanattempttoimproveDimna'sownpositionatcourt.Mostoftheinterpolatedtalesarepoliticalinnature,andwarnagainstmisleadingappearancesanddeceptivebehavior.Kallabelongstothemirrorofprincescategoryofwisdomliteratureandwasostensiblywrittenfortheeducationofprinces,thoughthelessonscontainedwithinitobviouslyhavemoregeneralapplications.Themodeloftheoverallframeisthatofaconversationbetweenstudentandteacher,withthejackalsKal laandDimnaasteacherstothestudentlion.Thejackalsnarratetaleswhosemoralssuggestsolutionstothepoliticalproblemsposedbythelion.

Thestructureofthemaqmtissomewhatdifferent.Itconsistsofaseriesof50seeminglyindependentepisodesnarratedbyanunreliableandsometimesinconsistentnarrator,whoisalsothemaincharacterineachnarration.Ineachepisode,thenarratorencountersaneloquentrogue,usuallyshabbyinappearance.Theroguemayappearasayoungboy,andoldman,adrifter,ora shaykh.Inthecourseofeachnarrative,theroguedazzlesthenarratorwithhiseloquenceandrelieveshimofhismoneyand/orproperty.Therelationshipbetweennarratorandcharacterisaninversionofthestudent/teacherrolesplayedbythelionandthejackalsin Kalla.Intheformer,thecharactersnarratetalesoftheshortsightednessandgullibilityofothers.Inthe maqma,theteacher/rogueconsistentlydeceivesthestudent/narrator,whointurnnarratesthetalesofhisowngullibility.Inal-Maqmtal-luzmiyyaofal-Saraqus,thehaplessnarratoral-SibIbnTammmrelatestherepeatedmisfortuneshehimselfsuffersatthe

handsofthewilyoratoral-Sads.Bothworksareepisodicinnature.Itcanperhapsbearguedthattheepisodic

structureofthemaqmaisowedtotheframetalestructureintroducedtoArabicliteraturebyKallawa-Dimna.Bothworksprovidealiteraryframeworkforaseriesofstorytellingevents.Thisepisodicstructure(asopposedtomorelinearworkssuchastheByzantinenovel)ischaracteristicoforallycomposednarrative.Inprimaryoralculturesthosecultureswhichhavenotyetdevelopedorbeenexposedtowritingnarrativegenresarealmostexclusivelyepisodicandcyclical,sinceitisextremelydifficulttomaintainalengthy,specific,andlinearplotwithouttheaidofwriting.11

Themaqmtoriginatedasperformancesofparodiesofestablished topoidrawnfromadabliterature.Theauthorframestheseperformancesbyplacingtheminthe

mouthofaneloquentnarrator,whorelateshisexchangeswithanevenmoreeloquent

11Ongmaintainsthatifwetaketheclimacticlinearplotastheparadigmofplot,theepichasnoplot.Strictplotforlengthynarrativecomeswithwriting(144).OngherefollowsLord,whonotesthatoralepicisepisodicandnotrestrictedtospecificdetailsofplot,whichfallwithintheartisticpurviewoftheindividualperformer(4).InresponsetoLord'smodel,Finneganhascitedexamplesofexactmemorizationoflengthyplotsinorallytransmittednarrativesfoundinpre-literatesocieties(158).Wewouldcounterthattheseareexamplesofahighlyorganizedandsystematicattempttopreservesacredtextsinatraditionthatdoesnotadmitindividualartisticinnovation.


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Thissametypeofpopularstorytellingandoratoryismentionedinthe qadasasniyyaofAbDulaf(fl.4th/10thcentury).Thepoemisaninventoryofbeggars,pettyconartists,andstreetperformers,amongthemtheonewhotellsstoriesaboutthehistoryandlegendsoftheJews,orwhorelatesaseriesofbriefanecdotesoneafteranother(Bosworth,vol.2:195). 15Somewhatlater,afd-Dn(677/1278-750/1349),in

hisownqadasasniyyadescribesasimilartypeofcharacter:andhowoftenhaveIactedasapopularpreacherandstoryteller(i.e.asa qa),makingpeopleabsorbedandenrapturedbymystoriesandverses,andhowoftenhaveIaddressedtheminamad,derangedfashion,swingingmyheadfromsidetosidewhilstdeclaiming(Bosworth,vol.2:297). 16Al-Saraqusdescribesjustsuchacharacterinhisfourthmaqma:

WhenIwasinthedistrictofOman,byturnsexperiencingpovertyandprosperity,Iencounteredgroupaftergroupofpeoplegoingdown,singlyandinpairs,towhereamanwasstandingtellingstoriesandtales,andenduringwearinessandfatigueinthecourseofhispreaching.Attimes,he

spokeinverse,andattimesinprose,movingfluently,withoutstumblinginhisdiscourse(Monroe2002:130;al-War gl41).

Theactivitiesofsuchquwereespeciallycurtailedinal-Andalus,wheretheprevalentMlikischoolofIslamiclawwouldscarcelytoleratethem(Pellat,a).

Theperformancesofthequinmosquesorotherpublicplacesconstitutealivestorytellingevent.Inaliterarysettingsuchastheframetaleor maqma,theauthorconstructsthecontextofthestorytellingevent.Thisisnotanefforttoproducearealisticrecreationofalivestorytellingevent.Rather,theaimistolendenoughmeaningfulcontexttothetaleinorderthatitbeafeasibleeventwithintheliterarysetting.Thetalemustbetoldforareason,anditmustserveafunctionwithinthenarrativeframe.

InKallatheperformativeframeandcontextofthestorytellingeventareconstructedinafictionalenvironment.Theauthorcreatesanopportunityforacharactertotellatale.Thisopportunityarisesfromarequestforadvicemadebyanothercharacter.Therequestcanbedirect(tellmethefableabout)orindirect(Ihavesuchandsuchaproblem,pleaseadviseme).Eventhisrudimentaryperformativeframereproducessomeoftheinteractionbetweenstorytellerandaudiencecharacteristicofastorytellingevent.

Thesetwoworks,therefore,consistofaseriesofstorytellingeventsaspecifictypeofperformancerepresentedinnarrative.Asagenre,performancecreatesauniqueframeforthedeliveryofamessagethatalertstheaudiencetochoosetheappropriateinterpretativefilter.Thisfilterwillvaryaccordingtothetypeoftextperformed:anaudiencehasdifferentexpectationsofaweddingsongthantheydoofaghoststoryor

dirtyjoke.Thisframeemphasizesthesocialandaestheticaspectsoftheperformanceand,writesRichardBauman(1992),assignstoanaudiencetheresponsibilityofevaluatingtherelativeskillandeffectivenessoftheperformer'saccomplishment(44).Itisfittingthattheframetalealiteraryprosegenresoinherentlyfocusedonverbal

15TheArabictextisfoundonpage9oftheArabiceditionofthetwopoems,foundattheendofthevolumeandpaginatedintheArabicfashion.16TheArabictextisfoundonpage47oftheArabicedition.


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performancebethevehicleforthedebutofliteraryprosenarrativeinaliteraryculturedominatedbyperformative,lyricgenres.

Thepreciseconstellationofperformer,message,audienceandcontextthatobtainsforagivenperformancecanneverbereproduced.RobertGeorgeshaswrittenthatthemessageofastorytellingeventhasnoexistence outsidethestorytellingeventitself

(323).Intheframetaleormaqma,thismeansthatthetaleornarrationacquiresauniquemeaningwithinagivenframe.Forexample,inbookoneof Kalla,Dimnarelatestothelionthetaleofthefoxandthedrum.ThistaleasperformedbyDimna(Ibnal-Muqaffa132)isdistinctfromanyotherversionofthetale.Thecircumstancesofthetellingarepartandparceloftheaudience'sexperienceofthetale.Therefore,viewingDimna'staleasaperformanceleadsustoconsidercarefullytherelationshipsinvolvedinthestorytellingevent:itistheserelationshipsthatshapetheperformance.Manyaspectsofareal-lifestorytellingeventarenottypicallyaccountedforinaliterarysetting:thephysicalenvironmentandconditionsoftheevent,andtheextra-linguisticinformationconveyedinthestoryteller'smessage.Muchofthecommunicationbetweenperformerandaudienceisextralinguistic,suchasgestureandtoneofvoice(Dundes254).ThetermsusedbyGeorgesarethelingustic,paralinguistic,andkinesicmodesofcodingamessage(317).

Aspectssuchastherelationshipbetweenstorytellerandaudienceare,however,accountedforinaliterarysetting.Inthiscase,therelationshipisthatbetweenafearfulruler(thelion)lookingtohisadvisorforguidance,andawilyadvisor(Dimna)seekingtocapitalizeonhismaster'sfear.ThelionhasheardtheloudbellowingofthebullShatrabahand,notknowingitssource,isafraid( Kalla131).Dimnasuggeststhatthelioncollectmoredatabeforefearingtheunknownvoiceofthebull.Hetellsthelionaproverb:Itisnotnecessarytofearallvoices(132).ThelionthenasksDimnatotellthetaleillustratingtheproverb.Dimnahasamotivationfortellingthestory:heisattemptingtoquellthelion'sunreasonablefear.Heisalsoactingontheknowledgethatinhisroleasstorytellerhehasthedutytoformulate,encode,andtransmitthetaleaccordingto

therulesofastorytellingevent(Georges318).Thelionhasamotivationforlisteningtoandreactingtothestory:hewantstomakesenseoftheunknownvoiceandbelievethatitposesnorealthreat.Healsohastherighttoreceive,decode,andrespondtothestory(Georges318).Thesemotivationscuethecharacterstoprovidemarkersfortheperformativeframe.Thelionrequestsanelucidationofaproverbbyaperformanceoftherelatedtale:mmataladhlika?Dimnathenprovidesamarkerforthebeginningofhisperformance:zaamanna...andtellsthetale.Dimna'swordsalerttheaudiencethatwhatfollowsisapieceoflore;thisinformationbringstheaudience(thelion)intothestorytellingevent.Oncethenarrativemarkerfocusestheattentionoftheaudience,andpreparesittohearastory(asopposedtoanyothertypeofverbalutterance),theperformancecanproceed.SuchformulasarecommoninpopularEnglishtraditionas

well,forexample,onceuponatime.Dimnamarkstheendofhisperformancewithanexplanationofwhyhetoldtheparticulartale: innamarabtulakahdhal-matalali-talamaanna...andsoclosestheperformativeframe.

Themaqmtestablishtheperformativeframeinamoretraditionalmanner,usingmarkersthatarefamiliarfromtraditionalgenresofArabicliterature.Aswehavementioned,themaqmtarebelievedtobeparodicofavarietyofclassicalgenres.Becauseofthis,theirperformativepretextisintheirtransmission,afterthemannerofadtliterature.Likeadt,eachmaqmabeginswithanisndwhichtracesthechainof


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transmissionfromtheeyewitnesstotheauthor.Eachlinkinthechainconstitutesaperformanceofitsown,andsuggests,asin adtliterature,thattheintegrityofthemessageisreliantuponthenarrativeaccuracy(andmoralintegrity)ofeachtransmitter,orperformer.The isndforeachmaqmaisasfollows:

Theauthorsaid:Al-MundhiribnHummnarratedandsaid:Al-SibibnTammmnarratedtousandsaid:Iwasinacertaincountry...(Monroe2002:114;al-Wargl14)

Whilethenarrativedescriptionoftheperformanceeventinthiscaseisminimal,itdoespositaperformanceandmeansoftransmissionofatypewithwhichtheaudiencewouldbequitefamiliar.Asdiscussedabove,Monroe(1983)maintainsthatthe isndofthemaqma(referringtothoseofal-Hamadhn)wasintendedasaparodyofestablishedgenresofArabicliterature(99).Therefore,itcanbeconcludedthatinthe maqma,theneedtoconstructthestorytellingeventthatobtainsin Kalladirectlyisobviatedbecausethemaqmaisdrawingontheoralsettingofthegenresthatitparodies.Becauseitisagenreimportedfromaforeignliterature,Kallacannotdrawontheaudience'sfamiliaritywithestablishedgenresofArabicliterature.Theaudienceofthe maqma,hearingtheisnd,callsuptheimageofthetransmissionofa adtorothertraditionaltext.Thereisnoneedfortheauthortopaintthestorytellingeventindetailwithinthe maqmaitself.Forexample,thecarefullyplacednarrativemarkerscharacteristicof Kalla(discussedabove)areabsentinthemaqma;theirfunctionisfulfilledbythereproductionoftheisndatthebeginningofeachepisode.

Thedistinctwaysinwhicheachtextconstructsperformanceisamatterofgenre.Whileinthemaqma,thenarrativesineachepisodeareanecdote,anddescendfromtheArabictraditionofanecdotalliterature,inKallatheyarefable,andbelongtothe

mirrorofprincesgenreoriginatinginIndia.In al-Maqmtal-luzmiyya,thenarratoral-SibibnTammmisrelatinganecdotesinthefirstperson,andsotheauthorityofthenarrationispersonalratherthantraditional,asitiswiththefable.Charactersin Kallamarkthebeginningsoftheirfablenarrativeswithlanguagethatreferstothetransmissionofthefable,therebysituatingthemselveswithintheoralorwrittenfabletradition.Inthemaqmt,thenarratorsprofesstotellthetruestoryoftheirownexperience.Althoughtheremaybeinconsistenciesintheirnarratives(Monroe2002:90),thecontentisfairlyrealistic.Thereisnohintofthefantasticorsupernaturalinthemisadventurestheyrelate.Thisapproximationofrealisticfictionstandsincontrasttotheworldoftalkinganimalsdescribedinthefablestoldin Kalila.Inthis,themaqmarepresentsasteptowardtheprosenarrativefictionofthemodernera,thisnarrative

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Documents

Wacks (2003) Performativity Post-print