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WALKING THE MIDDLE PATH: BALANCING THE PAIRS OF
OPPOSITES THROUGH SYSTEMIC INTERACTIONS
A
Dissertation
Presented to the
Graduate Faculty of the
California School of Professional Psychology
Alliant International University
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Psychology
by
Anne-Marisa Stinson
Irvine, 2007
Abstract of Dissertation
WALKING THE MIDDLE PATH: BALANCING THE PAIRS OF OPPOSITES
THROUGH SYSTEMIC INTERACTIONS
by
Anne-Marisa Stinson
Alliant International University
Committee Chairperson: Darryl Freeland, Ph.D.
This theoretical study examines the current literature on the self from a
psychological and a spiritual perspective, using the theory of Psychosynthesis as a bridge
for Western and Eastern theories. The theory of this dissertation is built upon systemic
principles that see the self as a product of intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal
dynamics with the emphasis on interpersonal dynamics.
This study includes an examination of the nature of self, the experience of self,
and the loss of self and is based on three principles: (a) the self is comprised of two
levels: the lower self or personality and the Higher Self or Soul; (b) the lower self and
the Higher Self are experienced through mindfully balancing the pairs of opposites; and
(c) the loss of self, which is considered to be a normal occurrence and not pathological,
results from identification, caused by attachment, with one of the pairs of opposites.
Since many of the concepts in this study are highly complex and even esoteric to
some extent, in order to show the practical usage of this study, there will be a
confessional statement in chapter 3. This will serve as a defense to the practical
application and practice of this theory in the life of this researcher. This confessional
statement addresses such questions as the following: the nature of self, the experience of
the self, and the loss of self.
This study seeks to provide a new integrative perspective of the self and the loss
of self. The goal of this dissertation is to contribute to the literature by improving the
current understanding of the self and loss of self. By contributing to the literature, this
theory of the self will potentially impact not only theory, but can also infiltrate the
practice of therapy as well.
WALKING THE MIDDLE PATH: BALANCING THE PAIRS OF
OPPOSITES THROUGH SYSTEMIC INTERACTIONS
A
Dissertation
Presented to the
Graduate Faculty of the
California School of Professional Psychology
Alliant International University
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Psychology
by
Anne-Marisa Stinson
Irvine, 2007
! 2007
ANNE-MARISA STINSON
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
WALKING THE MIDDLE PATH: BALANCING THE PAIRS OF
OPPOSITES THROUGH SYSTEMIC INTERACTIONS
A
Dissertation
Presented to the
Graduate Faculty of
California School of Professional Psychology
Alliant International University
by
Anne-Marisa Stinson
Approved by: ______________________________ ______________________________
Darryl Freeland, Ph.D. Date Chairperson
_____________________________ ______________________________ Robin Bullette, Psy.D. Scott R. Woolley
Program Director ___________________________
Matthew McCann, Ph.D.
7
DEDICATION
To my husband Andrew who lovingly endured my dissertation process during the
first year of our marriage. Your love and support have been and continue to be a source
of inspiration in my life.
8
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to convey my deep sense of gratitude to my committee chair Dr.
Darryl Freeland who encouraged and supported me to follow my own path through out
my years in graduate school and with out whom I would not have had the courage to
write this dissertation.
I would also like to extend a special thanks to my other committee members Dr.
Robin Bullette and Dr. Matt McCann who offered their time, support, and consult
through out this process.
To my family, Mom, Dad, and Lizzie thank you for all of your love and support
through out the years as I struggled to find my way.
Finally, to Uta Hoehne words cannot express my gratitude to you for your endless
support, guidance, and presence. I would not be where I am today had our paths not
crossed.
9
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter Page
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1 An Integrative Theory of Self ...................................................................... 2
Lower Self and Higher Self .................................................................. 3
Balancing the Pairs of Opposites .......................................................... 5
Identification and Repression ............................................................... 6
Background of the Problem ......................................................................... 7
Concept of Self ..................................................................................... 8
Experience of Self................................................................................. 9
Loss of self.......................................................................................... 10
Statement of the Problem........................................................................... 12
Purpose of the Study .................................................................................. 12 Importance of the Study............................................................................. 13
Theoretical Foundation .............................................................................. 14
Conceptual Framework.............................................................................. 15
Limitations of the Study ............................................................................ 16
Definition of Key Terms............................................................................ 17
Summary.................................................................................................... 19 2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ................................................................. 20
The Concept of Self ................................................................................... 20
10
Chapter Page
Western Psychological Concept of Self............................................. 21
Murray Bowen .............................................................................. 24
William James............................................................................... 27
Psychoanalysis .............................................................................. 29
Carl Jung ....................................................................................... 31
Self-Psychology ............................................................................ 33 Humanistic Psychology ................................................................ 37
Psychosynthesis .............................................................................. 39
Eastern Spiritual Concept of Self....................................................... 45
Psychosynthesis ............................................................................ 46
Alice Bailey.................................................................................. 47
Bhagavad Gita .............................................................................. 48
Summary ...................................................................................... 49
3. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE .................................................................. 51 Experience of the Self................................................................................ 51 Mirroring and the Role of the Therapist ............................................. 53
Mindfulness ........................................................................................ 54 Balancing the Pairs of Opposites ........................................................ 56
Background.................................................................................. 56
Horizontal and Vertical Polarities................................................ 58
Four-Step Process for Balancing the Pairs of Opposites ............. 63
11
Chapter Page
Meditation........................................................................................... 70
The Loss of Self ...................................................................................... 73 Western Psychological Concept ......................................................... 76
Identification................................................................................. 76 Subpersonalities ........................................................................ 77
Repression..................................................................................... 77
Defense Mechanisms ................................................................ 78
Shadow...................................................................................... 81
Projection/Projective Identification .............................................. 81
Fusional Complex ......................................................................... 84
Eastern Spiritual Perspective .............................................................. 85
Glamour/Illusion........................................................................... 87
Summary.................................................................................................... 88
4. CONFESSIONAL STATEMENT............................................................................ 90 Background................................................................................................ 90 Personal Origins With Loss of Self .................................................... 91
Systemic Interactions (Interpersonal Influences) ......................... 91
Repression and Identification (Intrapersonal Influences) ............. 92
Spiritual Bypass (Transpersonal Influences) ................................ 93 Finding Myself in Therapy/Balancing the Pairs of Opposites............ 94
Defining Loss of Self in Personal Terms............................................ 96
What Happens................................................................................ 96
12
Chapter Page
Why Loss of Self Occurs ................................................................. 98
Regaining a Sense of Self .............................................................. 98
Practical Example ................................................................ 99
5. DISCUSSION......................................................................................................... 105 Conclusions.............................................................................................. 108 Implication of Findings............................................................................ 112 Therapist’s Role ....................................................................................... 113
Further Research ...................................................................................... 115 REFERENCES CITED................................................................................................. 116
13
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Few ideas are both as weighty and as slippery as the notion of the self. By “self” we commonly mean the particular being any person is, whatever it is about each of us that distinguishes you and me from others, draws the parts of our existence together, persists through changes, or opens the way to knowing who we might or should be. From knowledge of what the self truly is people have hoped to gain greater happiness, deeper fulfillment . . . Selfhood thus matters to us both as individuals and as social creatures, shaping our personal existence and our relations with those whose lives we somehow share. (Seigel, 2005, p. 3) The self, which is influenced by individual (intrapersonal), relational
(interpersonal), as well as spiritual (transpersonal) dynamics, is an elusive concept that
has been written about extensively from both the Western psychological perspective and
the Eastern spiritual perspective (Blackman, 1996; Dennett, 1974; Mruk, 2006). The
Western concept of self has been predominately limited to the study of the lower self,
which emphasizes the intrapersonal and interpersonal dynamics of the self, with little or
no recognition of the Eastern concept of self as Higher Self or soul (these terms are used
interchangeably), which emphasizes the transpersonal dynamic of the self. The Eastern
concept of self has been predominately limited to the study of the Higher Self with little
understanding of the lower self (Leary & Tangney, 2003). The perspectives of West and
East, and the ideas of lower self and Higher Self have for the most part remained distinct
(Watts, 1961). Although attempts to integrate Western and Eastern perspectives occur in
various theories, this paper focuses on the integration of both perspectives as seen in the
works of Roberto Assagioli (1965, 1973) in his theory of Psychosynthesis.
14
This model of the self is based on the premise that to understand an individual,
including his or her sense of self, experience of self, and loss of self, one must look
through a broader lens than simply the individual’s experience to include the context of
his or her environment and interactions with others. This theory is founded on a
phenomenological systemic view based on ecosystemic principles that view the self as a
subsystem of the larger interpersonal system: “The organism reacts to the field as it is
experienced and perceived. This perceptual field is, for the individual, ‘reality’ . . . . The
organism reacts as an organized whole of this phenomenal field” (Rogers, 1951, p. 484).
An individual’s behavior and sense of self is thus influenced by his or her inner
conceptualization (feelings, thoughts, and reactions to what is happening) and outer
evaluation (Tyler, 1994). The processing of this information forms a feedback loop that
informs the individual of how he or she is to behave. This loop is both recursive in that it
is ever-repeating and reciprocal in that one part acts in response to another, which then
acts in response (Jackson, 1959). Thus the formation, experience, and loss of self are all
the result of interactions within the system, which is consistent with the relational
emphasis in Marriage and Family therapy (MFT) and family systems thought and
practice (Kerr & Bowen, 1988; Nichols & Schwartz, 2004; Satir, 1991).
An Integrative Theory of Self
This study seeks to formulate an integrative theory of the self in order to answer
the following questions: What is the self? How is the self experienced? Why is the self
lost? Using the theory of Psychosynthesis to blend Western and Eastern perspectives, the
theory of this study is based on three premises, which are the products of the integration
of ideas from various Western and Eastern theories: (a) The self is comprised of two
15
levels: the lower self and the Higher Self, which are both influenced by dynamics
occurring on the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal levels (Abraham, 1993;
Assagioli, 1960, 1965; Bailey, 1951; Firman, 1991). (b) The lower self and the Higher
Self are experienced and maintained by balancing or holding the tension between pairs of
opposites manifesting on the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal levels
(Abraham, 1993; Assagioli, 1972, 1973; Bailey, 1951). (c) The loss of self, which is
considered to be a normal occurrence and not pathological, results as polarities on the
intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal levels become unbalanced either through
identification with or repression of one of the poles (Assagioli, 1965, 1973; Bailey, 1950,
1951, 1962).
Lower Self and Higher Self
This theory is based on the assumption that there is a self, which is composed of
two parts, the lower self and the Higher Self. The lower self and Higher Self are not two
different entities. They are parts of the same continuum with the I or lower self merely
reflecting the essence of the Higher Self (Assagioli, 1965, 1973; Crampton, 1977; Firman
& Russell, 1992). This model of the self is based on the belief that the integration of the
lower self and the Higher Self is the goal of psychotherapy as found in Psychosynthesis,
which has included Eastern theory (Assagioli, 1965, 1969, 1976; Crampton, 1977). The
lower self, represented by Western psychology, is seen as an internal construct influenced
by both intrapersonal and interpersonal dynamics (Bowen, 1985; Buber, 1970; Freud,
1936; Jung, 1933; Kohut, 1977; Meade, 1934) that encompass all feelings and thoughts
(Assagioli, 1973; James, 1910).
16
In Western and Eastern literature, the lower self is referred to in many ways,
depending on the theory, which can be confusing. For example, in the Western theory of
Psychosynthesis there is a clear differentiation between the lower self and the personality,
with the personality being organized around a center of the lower self (Assagioli, 1973).
Whereas, in Eastern literature the concepts of lower self and personality are used
interchangeably (Bailey, 1950, 1951). For purposes of clarity, this study uses the terms
lower self, center, I, or integrated personality interchangeably to refer to the Western
concept of self and the terms lower self and personality are used interchangeably to refer
to the Eastern concept of lower self.
The lower self is influenced by intrapersonal, meaning intrapsychic, and
interpersonal, meaning between the individual and society, dynamics (Mruk, 2006). This
results in the self being constantly shaped by the feedback loop created through the
interplay between the polarity of inner and outer (Jackson, 1959; Tyler, 1994). For
example, inner thoughts, feelings, and sensations, which manifest as intrapersonal
polarities, are constantly influenced by outer reactions, evaluations, and expectations,
which manifest as interpersonal polarities. An individual’s behavior and sense of self is
thus influenced by his or her inner conceptualization (feelings, thoughts, and reactions to
what is happening) and outer evaluation (Tyler, 1994). This lower self, consisting of the
physical, emotional, and mental levels must be integrated into a harmonious personality
through balancing the pairs of opposites on each of the levels (Assagioli, 1958, 1973).
Once the lower self is integrated, using this newly integrated center as his or her
foundation, the individual can then consciously seek to fuse with the Higher Self or soul
17
through a specific five-step process of meditation (see chapter 3) (Assagioli, 1965, 1973;
Hodgson, 2004). The Higher Self, also known as soul or the Transpersonal Self, is
thought to be the all-knowing “vibrating center of energy” inherent within every
individual (Abraham, 1993). It is from this experience of connection with the Higher
Self that one realizes that they are not only the individual self, but that they are also a part
of a larger interconnected Transpersonal Self (transpersonal dynamics) (Bailey, 1944,
1951, 1962; Firman & Russell, 1992; Strohl, n.d.). Figure 1.1 depicts the relationship of
the three levels of the lower self to the higher self.
Using the lower self as a foundation, the Higher Self
can be contacted. Figure 1. Lower self and Higher Self (researcher generated). All three levels of the lower self must be balanced starting with the physical, then the emotional, and finally the mental. Once all three levels are balanced, they will automatically begin to integrate themselves into the lower self.
Balancing the Pairs of Opposites
The lower self and the Higher Self are experienced and maintained by balancing
or holding the tension between pairs of opposites manifesting on the intrapersonal,
interpersonal, and transpersonal levels. Pairs of opposites manifest as elements of non-
self, a concept found in Psychosynthesis, which refers to anything that is not one’s
essence, including thoughts, sensations, and feelings existing on the physical, emotional,
Higher Self
Lower Integrated Self 3. Mental Level 2. Emotional Level 1. Physical Level
18
mental, personality, interindividual, and soul levels (Crampton, 1977; Gerard, 1961;
Jung, 1933). Pairs of opposites, which manifest as the relationship between two elements
that are in reality two sides of the same coin or differing degrees of the same element,
exist within all of creation (Hawkins, 2006).
In order to balance or hold the tension between the polarities, the individual must
first be able recognize each of the polarities by bringing them into conscious awareness.
Bringing polarities to consciousness is greatly aided by a relationship with another,
whereby the individual receives empathy, understanding, and accurate mirroring.
Although this relationship can occur with anyone, this study addresses the impact of the
therapeutic relationship on identifying the pairs of opposites within the individual. Once
both polarities are identified, the individual can disidentify from each of them through
mindfully shifting his or her awareness from the polarities to the conscious observer
through a process of disidentification. When the individual is able to disidentify from
both of the polarities and observe them, he or she can hold the tension between the two
contradictory elements, such as fusion/distance and order/chaos without repressing or
identifying with either (Schwartz-Salant, 2007). Assagioli (1972, 1973) outlined a
technique for balancing the pairs of opposites that is described in chapter 3. Balancing
the pairs of opposites is an ongoing process of intention, meaning the balancing of the
two poles is a goal toward which one strives and is a never-ending process.
Identification and Repression
The loss of self, which is considered to be a normal occurrence and not
pathological, results as polarities on the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal
19
levels become unbalanced either through identification with or repression of one of the
poles (Assagioli, 1965, 1973; Bailey, 1950, 1951, 1962). Identification results from an
attachment to one of the poles, which is often prompted by desires or expectations about
a certain external situation. For example, one might become identified with the
intrapersonal mental polarities of good/bad or favorable/unfavorable; the intrapersonal
emotional polarities of like/dislike or chaos/order; or the interpersonal polarities of
fusion/distance or victim/victimizer. Identification can be in response to some outer
circumstance as in a business venture, for example, thinking that the closure of a certain
business deal would be good for the company and becoming happy at the thought of it
closing and sad at the thought of it not closing (Abraham, 1993; Assagioli, 1965, 1972).
The act of identification is not a pathological occurrence, rather identification refers to
“taking on the perspective of that with which one identifies, in effect becoming that other,
as in identifying with a subpersonality, a feeling, or a mode of thinking” (Firman, 1996,
p. 18).
As the individual becomes identified/attached with one of the poles, the lower self
becomes disintegrated, and one loses touch with his or her center or I. As one identifies
with the personality on the physical, emotional, or mental levels, in addition to losing
connection with the lower self, the connection with the Higher Self is lost as well, if there
was a connection, as the attention is shifted back to the lower self (Assagioli, 1965;
Bailey, 1950). It is the identification or attachment with one of the pairs of opposites and
not the polarities themselves that causes the loss of self (Taylor, 1989).
20
Background of the Problem
The lack of a comprehensive understanding of the self results from a lack of
integration of Western and Eastern theories. This lack of understanding manifests in
three areas of contention: the concept of self, the experience of self, and the loss of self.
Concept of Self
Theories about what the self is are as diverse as the words that have been created
to describe the self (Kanter, Parker, & Kohlenberg, 2001). Although the complexities
resulting from the diversity of definitions surrounding the self are undeniable, this study
proposes that the self is a product of intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal
dynamics, which are all represented in Western and Eastern literature. Much of
psychology in particular (with the exception of systems theory), “focuses largely on the
individual, intrapsychic developmental processes, the role of the individual in the
creation of the self through decision-making, and specific behaviors, particularly those
that involve success, mastery, and achievement” (Mruk, 2006, p. 32). Contrary to
psychology, sociology places strong emphasis on interpersonal factors in the creation of
the self (Cooley, 1909; Meade, 1934). Mruk (2006) argued that both the psychological
emphasis on intrapersonal factors and the sociological emphasis on interpersonal factors
are correct and are needed in the search for a definition of the self. He also added that in
addition to intrapersonal and interpersonal factors, transpersonal factors need to be taken
into account in the search for a definition of the self.
Although transpersonal influences in the creation of self are mainly stressed in
Eastern thought, transpersonal psychology, especially Psychosynthesis, also emphasizes
them (Assagioli, 1973; Campbell, 1999; Wilber, 2000). According to Psychosynthesis,
21
“the self is an entity independent of and sovereign to the various aspects of the
personality, such as body, feelings, and mind” (Russell, 1982, p. 2). The self is
recognized on two levels: the personal self or lower self, similar to the self recognized in
other psychological theories; and the Transpersonal Self or Higher Self, which is
analogous to the Eastern concept of self as soul. Originating from Hindu thought, the
Eastern concept of self as soul or Higher Self is almost universal, with very little
variation compared to the Western psychological perspective. The self as soul, seen as
transcending the individual, has emerged as one of the main tenets of Eastern thought and
has been written about extensively for thousands of years (Leary & Tangney, 2003).
Experience of Self
Western psychology has focused primarily on the concept of lower self, which
serves to define the self rather than to shed light on the actual experience of the self. The
self is often described as an entity rather than as an experience (Mahoney, 1994).
Contrary to Western theory, in Eastern theory there is much written on the experience of
self as the Higher Self. Contacting and maintaining a connection with the Higher Self is
considered to be the goal of existence according to the Hindu scripture the Bhagavad
Gita (Besant, 1947).
The self is experienced on two levels--first the lower self and then the Higher
Self. According to Eastern theory, the Higher Self or soul is experienced as the
personality is integrated through balancing the pairs of opposites on the physical,
emotional, and mental levels (intrapersonal polarities) and then between the personality
and soul (transpersonal polarities) (Abraham, 1993; Bailey, 1951). According to Western
theory, the lower self is experienced as the personality is integrated through balancing
22
and harmonizing the physical, emotional, and mental levels. This can be accomplished
through balancing the pairs of opposites on each of these levels as well as balancing
polarities on the interpersonal level that affect the physical, emotional, and mental levels
(Assagioli, 1965, 1972, 1973). Therefore, this study is based on the principle that the
lower self and Higher Self are experienced by balancing or holding the tension between
pairs of opposites manifesting on the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal
levels.
Pairs of opposites are balanced by shifting the point of attention away from each
of the poles to the conscious observer, through the process of mindful disidentification.
As the pairs of opposites are balanced on the physical, emotional, and mental levels, the
personality is integrated around a conscious center or I--the lower self (Assagioli, 1972;
Bailey, 1951). When the lower self is experienced and maintained, the Higher Self can
then be contacted through a five-step meditation process of concentration, meditation,
contemplation, illumination, and inspiration (Hodgson, 2004; U. Hoehne, personal
communication, June 5, 2006). The Higher Self is then maintained by holding the
tension between the Higher Self and the integrated personality or lower self (Bailey,
1951). Balancing the pairs of opposites on all levels is an ongoing, moment-to-moment
activity that requires mindfulness and persistence.
Loss of Self
The loss of self results as polarities on the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and
transpersonal levels become unbalanced either through identification with or repression
of one of the poles (Assagioli, 1965, 1973; Bailey, 1950, 1951, 1962). Loss of self as it
is referred to in this study is not a pathological occurrence, rather it is an everyday
23
occurrence experienced by all individuals and is considered problematic only when it
affects an individual’s sense of identity and functioning. Loss of self is an indication that
one or more polarities have become unbalanced on one of the various levels. Both
Western and Eastern perspectives state that the loss of self results from identification
with something that is non-self, which refers to anything that is not one’s essence,
including thoughts, sensations, and feelings (Crampton, 1977; Gerard, 1961; Jung, 1933).
Loss of self resulting from a failure to balance the pairs of opposites, can be seen in the
dynamics of identification, repression, projection, projective identification, and the
fusional complex, all of which contribute to the development of defense mechanisms,
false selves, and shadow sides (Freud, 1934; Horney, 1984; Jung, 1933; Winnicott,
1958).
Eastern spiritual teachings emphasize that attachment or identification with
anything that is not the self, whether it is on the physical, emotional, or mental level, is
the cause of all suffering or loss of self, as seen in the first and second noble truths of
Buddha, which state that (a) life is suffering, and (b) all suffering is caused by attachment
(Bahm, 1958). According to Alice Bailey, whose writings merge the teachings of
Christianity, Hinduism, and Buddhism, the loss of self results from identifying with the
personality, which is caused by a failure to balance the pairs of opposites. According to
Bailey, identification manifests differently on the various levels of the personality. On
the mental level identification manifests as illusion and is “the misunderstanding of ideas
or thoughtforms” (Bailey, 1950, p. 21). When desire is added to illusion, it then becomes
glamour, which manifests on the emotional level, and according to Bailey, is much more
prevalent today than is illusion because of the emotional polarization of most people.
24
This study focuses on the concept of glamour and how this concept affects an
individual’s sense of self and loss of self.
Statement of the Problem
The literature on the topic of the self is divided into two distinct branches of
thought: the Western psychological view and the Eastern philosophical, spiritual view
(Miovic, 2004; Page & Berkow, 1991). The problem is that among these perspectives
there is little integration of theories, which results in a comprehensive lack of
understanding of the self, including what the self is, how the self is experienced, and why
the self is lost. Many individuals who find the theoretical understanding of the self to be
lacking turn to personal therapy to explain their questions surrounding their experience of
self and loss of self. Although this may provide some answers, unfortunately, the same
inadequacies exist, as therapy is led by theory. The lack of understanding, seemingly
emanating from all angles indicating a therapy not led by sufficient theory, points to the
need for a new theoretical explanation for the perplexities of the self. Clues to the
questions and problems of the self lay dispersed throughout Western psychological
theory and Eastern spiritual doctrines. The problem of this study is whether one can
extract the elements of Western psychological theory and Eastern spiritual theory from
their origins and bring them together through the bridge of Psychosynthesis to form an
integrative theory of the self.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to provide an expanded examination of the self in
order to gain an understanding of what the self is, how the self is experienced, and how
the self is lost. As evidenced by the lack of literature on the subject, there needs to be a
25
more in-depth understanding of the self. This study seeks to integrate Western
psychological and Eastern spiritual theories through Psychosynthesis to provide an
integrative and comprehensive theory of the self.
Through the integration of psychological and spiritual perspectives, the goal of
this dissertation is to contribute to the literature by improving the current understanding
of the self and loss of self. By contributing to the literature, this theory of the self will
potentially impact not only theory, but can also infiltrate the practice of therapy as well.
This study is theoretical in nature and intends to build upon existing literature on the
topic in order to create a theory base for future research that affects practice.
Importance of the Study
The importance of this study is the building of a theory, which has both personal
and clinical applications. A primary function of research is theory building. Theory then
gives rise to additional theory, which should then inform practice. Therefore, the
question must be asked: Of what practical use is this study? Since many of the concepts
in this study are highly complex and to some extent even esoteric, in order to show the
practical usage of this study, a confessional statement is included in chapter 4.
Confessional statements in psychology and philosophy date back to the work of St.
Augustine’s Confessions (386-430 A.D.), which “may provide the most penetrating
spiritual and psychological self-analysis of any work ever written” (Samples, 2001).
Consistent with the apologetics in philosophy and theology, which serve to give an
intellectual defense of one's faith (Depoe, 2006), the confessional statement in chapter 4
serves as a defense to the practical application and practice of this theory as experienced
in the life of this researcher.
26
Theoretical Foundation
The purpose of a theoretical dissertation is to review the current theories on a
specific topic in the existing literature in order to build upon the current theories and
develop a new perspective. The topic of self, including the concept of self, the
experience of self, and the loss of self from Western and Eastern perspectives, is too
broad to include a review of all the existing literature on the topic. For this reason,
specific literature from Western psychology and Eastern spiritual teachings has been
selected to support and bring substance to the central principle that the concept of self,
the experience self, and the loss of self are the products of intrapersonal, interpersonal,
and transpersonal dynamics and the polarities manifesting on these levels.
From the Western perspective, this study begins with the systemic perspective of
the self and then follows the theoretical progression of the self through the field of
psychology from (a) defining the self as the result of unconscious drives
(psychoanalysis); (b) emphasizing the internalization of self objects (self psychology);
(c) valuing the self (humanistic psychology); and (d) realizing the potential to transcend
the self (transpersonal psychology).
It is as if psychology’s progression through successive stages emphasizing instincts and unconscious drives (psychoanalysis), environmental influences (behaviorism), self-determination and free choice (humanism), and transcendence and spirituality (transpersonalism) resembles the stages of psychological growth and development a healthy person encounters. The study of the “self” has progressed from concentrating on controlling and regulating the self (psychoanalysis and behaviorism), to valuing the self (humanism), and ultimately to knowing the full possibilities and transcendence of the self through direct experiencing. (Strohl, n.d., p. 12) Western psychology provides the full progression of the self, beginning with
psychoanalysis and the examination of unconscious drives, and ending with
27
transpersonalism and the transcendence of the self. Transpersonal psychology,
specifically Psychosynthesis, bridges the gap between Western psychology and the
integration of the lower self, and the fusion with the Eastern concept of the Higher Self
(Assagioli, 1964; Besmer, 1973; Crampton, 1977).
Similar to the abundance of literature on the lower self in Western psychology,
Eastern spiritual teachings abound with literature on the Higher Self. In this dissertation,
Eastern spiritual literature on the self focuses on the teachings of Hinduism, represented
in the Bhagavad Gita, and the writings of Alice Bailey, who has written numerous books
on Eastern spirituality. Both of these resources have been chosen based on the emphasis
they lend to the organizing principle of this study--balancing the pairs of opposites.
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework in a theoretical study states the conceptual variables,
referring to those concepts discussed in chapters 2 and 3. Those variables include but are
not limited to the concept of self, the experience of self, and the loss of self as found in
select Western and Eastern literature. The variable of the concept of self is based on the
concepts of the lower self and Higher Self, as they are the products of intrapersonal,
interpersonal, and transpersonal dynamics. These concepts are found in Western
literature in the theories of psychoanalysis, Jungian psychology, self-psychology,
humanistic psychology, and Psychosynthesis and include the works of William James
(1890, 1910), Sigmund Freud (1934), Heinz Hartman (1944), Carl Jung (1933, 1955),
Heinz Kohut (1971, 1977), Carl Rogers (1980, 1989), Virginia Satir (1972, 1975),
Murray Bowen (1985), and Roberto Assagioli (1965, 1973). In Eastern literature the
concepts are found in the teachings of Hinduism, represented by the Bhagavad Gita, and
28
the works of Alice Bailey (1932, 1944). The variable of the experience of self is based
on the concepts of mirroring, mindfulness, balancing the pairs of opposites, the conscious
observer, and meditation. The variable of the loss of self is based on the concepts of
identification, repression, projection, projective identification, shadow side, fusional
complex, glamour, and illusion. The conceptual framework in this study goes beyond
conceptual variables that occur in the literature. This study also goes beyond those
concepts to ways that the theory has been experienced by the writer of this dissertation as
found in the confessional statement in chapter 4.
Limitations of the Study
This study is a theoretical review of the current literature on the nature of self, the
experience of self, and the loss of self. Therefore, it is limited in that it is not an
empirical study nor is it based on quantitative measures. Although this may be
interpreted as a weakness, it is also a strength. Theoretical studies provide deeper, more
comprehensive background examinations of the material, allowing for greater integration
and new-theory formulation. As Walsh (1988) noted “all psychologies, including
Western ones, are dependent on, and are subsets of, philosophies and cosmologies.”
Indeed “psychology always presupposes cosmology” (p. 544). All of psychology is
based on prior ideas pertaining to the nature of knowledge, reality, and existence. Thus
theory builds upon theory to produce new theory, which should then inform practice.
Definitions of Key Terms
Many of the following terms have multiple definitions, depending on the source.
The following definitions are the result of an integrative process to formulate a working
definition, which serves the context of this study.
29
Detachment. Considered to be the result of mindful disidentification. It is an
active process where one consciously holds the tension between the pairs of opposites by
acknowledging each pole and yet not identifying with either (Abraham, 1993).
Glamour. A concept originated from Alice Bailey in her book Glamour: A World
Problem, where she states that “the problem of glamour is found when the mental illusion
is intensified with desire.” Being emotional in nature, a glamour refers to anything which
one has an emotional reaction to and which pulls him or her away from his or her center,
or self, due to identification with one of the polar opposites (Bailey, 1950).
Higher Self or Soul. “A vibrating center of energy found within appearance or
form. From its very nature, the Soul is conscious or aware in three directions: it is God-
conscious; it is group conscious; and it is self-conscious” (Bailey, 1944).
Holding the tension. Refers to the process whereby the pairs of opposites are
balanced. Jung (1954) stated that inherent in all things and all situations are pairs of
opposites, which must be balanced in order that they may be transcended to something
higher. The self is maintained through holding the tension between the pairs of
opposites.
Integrated personality. Derived from transpersonal psychology and refers to the
physical, emotional, and mental levels of the personality all functioning together as a
whole. This is achieved through holding the tension between the pairs of opposites,
which leads to maintaining the horizontal point of tension (Assagioli, 1973).
Loss of self. Occurs when an individual is no longer connected to the self. This
loss is experienced as feelings of confusion, numbness, chaos, and turmoil, and is caused
by identification with either the physical, emotional, or mental levels.
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Mindfulness. “A state of consciousness which involves consciously attending to
one’s moment-to-moment experiences” (Shapiro, Carlson, Astin, & Freedman, 2006).
Non-self. Refers to anything that is not the self or the essence of an individual.
This includes all thoughts, feelings, and physical sensations (Jung, 1933; Crampton,
1977).
Pairs of opposites. Inherent in nature, everything has its shadow or opposite.
These pairs of opposites represent two poles, which must be held together by tension. In
holding the tension between the two poles, the two will merge into one (Abraham, 1993).
Self. Referred to in terms of the lower self or personality and Higher Self or Soul
(see those definitions). Although self is regarded on these two levels, they are not two
separate entities. Rather the lower self is a reflection of the essence of the Higher Self
(Crampton, 1977; Russell, 1991).
Spiritual. Used by Psychosynthesis to include many religious experiences as well
as a “range of ethical, aesthetic, and humanistic values” (Clinebell, 1981).
Will. Regarded in Psychosynthesis as “the capacity for decision, planning, and
purpose, and is regarded as a key resource in all phases” (Clinebell, 1981, p. 3). Like a
muscle it can be developed by specific exercises (Assagioli, 1973).
Summary
This chapter has presented the introduction, background of the problem,
statement of the problem, purpose of the study, theoretical foundation and conceptual
framework of the study, limitations of the study, importance of the study, and definitions
of key terms. Chapter 2 presents a review of select literature on the concept of self, thus
defining the self from Western and Eastern perspectives and establishing the theoretical
31
foundation from which concepts and ideas are elaborated on in the remaining chapters.
Chapter 3 is a continuation of the literature review as it applies specifically to the
organizing principle of balancing the pairs of opposites. This concept is found in the
theories presented in chapter 2 and applies to the experience of self and the loss of self.
Chapter 4 consists of a personal confessional statement and serves as a defense for the
practical application of this theory. This study ends with the discussion in chapter 5,
which includes conclusions, implications of the findings, therapist’s role, and further
research.
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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This literature review consists of an examination of the concept of self found in
select Western and Eastern literature. This review also examines the similarities and
differences of Western and Eastern perspectives of the self and outlines the integration of
the two as seen in the literature of Psychosynthesis. Psychosynthesis serves as a bridge
between the first, second, third, and fourth forces of psychology and Eastern spiritual
traditions, all of which are assumable in a family systems orientation.
Concept of Self
The origins of the concept of self can be traced back to Eastern literature with the
Upanishads in India in as early as 600 B.C.E, the Tao to Ching in China (circa 500
B.C.E.), and the writings of Buddha (circa 563-483 B.C.E.). Much of what has been
written about in these Eastern writings on the self, referred to as Higher Self or soul,
including ideas on identity, consciousness, and reflection, is very alive in the modern
debate on the self. It is surprising that it was only until relatively recently that
psychology began to introduce and discuss such ideas that have been around for
thousands of years (Leary & Tangney, 2003, p. 4). The concept of self has been explored
from a Western psychological perspective as well as an Eastern spiritual perspective
(Mahoney, 1991). Among these two perspectives are differences and similarities. Both
concepts of self are necessary, and it is the integration of the two that will provide the
ultimate understanding of the self.
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Western Psychological Concept of Self
“The nature and meaning of selfhood have been recurring questions, implicitly or
explicitly, in practically every known human time and place. Nowhere has the debate
been more full-blown or more intense than in the modern West” (Seigel, 2005, p. 3).
The Western concept of self, referenced in general terms as the lower self, has evolved
over time. Tracing the psychological concept of self through history shows that it is an
evolving construct, which continues to have many definitions, depending on who is
defining it. As a result, “anyone approaching a psychology of ‘the self’ with some
seriousness immediately encounters a perplexing multitude of issues” (Mahoney, 1991).
Although the complexities resulting from the diversity of definitions surrounding the self
are undeniable, this study proposes that the self is shaped by intrapersonal, interpersonal,
and transpersonal dynamics.
Webster’s Dictionary (2003) defines self as “a person's essential being that
distinguishes them from others, especially considered as the object of introspection or
reflexive action; a person's particular nature or personality; the qualities that make a
person individual or unique; and one's own interests or pleasure.” This mainstream
definition of the self as the essence of one’s being found primarily through introspection
complements the Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy’s definition of the self as “the elusive
‘I’ that shows alarming tendency to disappear when we try to introspect it” (Blackman,
1996, p. 344). Both the mainstream and the philosophical definitions view the self from
the perspective of the individual/intrapersonal experience with less acknowledgment of
the influences of others or the interpersonal influences in the formation of the self.
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Much of psychology in particular “focuses largely on the individual, intrapsychic
developmental processes, the role of the individual in the creation of the self through
decision-making, and specific behaviors, particularly those that involve success, mastery,
and achievement” (Mruk, 2006, p. 32). According to this view, the self has been defined
as a construct of the ego (Freud, 1923); I or me (Freud, A., 1936; James, 1910; Winnicott,
1958); a composite of one’s subjective experiences and the feelings generated by them
(Hartman, 1944); and according to Jung, “the unifying principle within the human
psyche” (Samuels, Shorter, & Plaut, 1986, p. 135) or an archetype which is an inborn
form of the intuition (Jung, 1976). Although much of psychology has been criticized for
its seemingly myopic concentration on intrapersonal influences, most of the theories do
acknowledge interpersonal influences as well. Interpersonal influences in the creation of
the self are specifically focused on in the systemic and relational theories found in MFT
(Bowen, 1985).
Contrary to psychology, sociology places strong emphasis on interpersonal factors
in the creation of the self (Cooley, 1909; Meade, 1934). The self is viewed as the product
of “how others react to us, how we react to their reactions, and how those processes lead
to the development of self and one’s worth or value in a social context” (Mruk, 2006, p.
33). This notion of the self maintains that “the self is a product of imitation,
internalization, and inferences prompted by (what we believe are) other people’s
perceptions and evaluations of us” (Mahoney, 1991, p. 217). Sociology’s view has
encountered criticism as well for the belief that the self is the product of mainly
interpersonal dynamics and does not adequately account for the I (or intrapersonal
elements) in personal experience (Broughton, 1986).
35
Mruk (2006) argued that both the psychological emphasis on intrapersonal factors
and the sociological emphasis on interpersonal factors are correct and are needed in the
search for a definition of the self. Many psychological theories have integrated
interpersonal influences into their definitions of the self. Kohut believed that the self is a
psychological configuration, resulting from both intrapersonal and interpersonal
influences around which the personality is formed (Patton, Conner, & Scott, 1982).
Similarly, according to Rogers (1959), the self is an “organized, consistent conceptual
gestalt composed of perceptions of the characteristics of the ‘I’ or ‘me’ and the
perceptions of the relationship of the ‘I’ or ‘me’ to others and to various aspects of life”
(p. 200). Mruk later added that in addition to intrapersonal and interpersonal influences,
he believed that the creation of the self is also influenced by transpersonal influences.
Although transpersonal influences in the creation of self are mainly stressed in Eastern
thought, transpersonal psychology, especially Psychosynthesis, strongly emphasizes them
(Assagioli, 1973; Firman & Russell, 1992; Russell, 1981).
In Western psychology there are many definitions of the self, all of which are
composed of intrapersonal, interpersonal, and/or transpersonal dynamics. Multiple
definitions result mainly from the diversity of theories within the field. This review of
the Western literature on the self focuses on select theories, which view the self as a
product of intrapersonal, interpersonal, and/or transpersonal dynamics, including family
systems theory, psychoanalysis, self-psychology, humanistic psychology, and
Psychosynthesis. This includes but is not limited to the works of Murray Bowen (1985),
Virginia Satir (1982), William James (1890), Sigmund Freud (1934),
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Donald Winnicott (1958), Heinz Hartman (1944), Heinz Kohut (1978, 1984), Carl Jung
(1953), Carl Rogers (1942, 1957, 1961) and Roberto Assagioli (1964, 1973).
This study is based on systemic principles, which state that in order to observe
and understand the self, one must look past the individual to include the system of which
one is a part. This literature review begins with the systemic theory of Murray Bowen.
Following his theory are theories and theorists who follow a theoretical progression of
the self through the field of psychology. Finally, the theory of Psychosynthesis is
presented, serving as a bridge to the Eastern concept of self.
Murray Bowen
According to Bowen, the self is not a concept, rather the self is a “dynamic reality
capable of maturation” (Friedman, E., 1985, p. 144). Bowen stated:
The “self” is composed of constitutional, physical, physiological, biological, genetic and cellular reactivity factors, as they move in unison with psychological factors. On a simple level, it is composed of the confluence of more fixed personality factors as they move in unison with rapidly moving psychological states. Each factor influences the other and is influenced by the others. The psychological is the easiest to be influenced by the individual. (Kerr & Bowen, 1988, p. 342)
Bowen (1985) believed that the individual’s self is influenced by the emotional system,
formally referred to as the undifferentiated ego mass in which the individual is located.
The emotional system refers to the nuclear family, which includes “processes shaped by
evolution that form an innate or instinctive guidance system for an organism” (Papero,
1990, p. 11). The idea of the emotional system suggests that “the way constituent
particles function is not necessarily according to their own nature alone, but often is due
to their position within force fields that encompass them” (Friedman, E., 1985, p. 146).
37
Functioning as a system, members of a family are encouraged to give up self and to fuse
with the family unit (Bowen, 1985; Kerr & Bowen, 1988; Gilbert, 2004).
Bowen believed that there are two parts of the self: (a) the basic or solid self, and
(b) the pseudo-self or functioning self. Although the basic self may be changed from
within on the basis of experience or new knowledge, the basic self is not negotiable in the
relationship system. The basic self is “not changed by coercion or pressure, or to gain
approval, or enhance one’s stand with others” (Bowen, 1985, p. 473). In contrast to the
stability of the basic or solid self, the pseudo-self is “made up of a mass of heterogeneous
facts, beliefs, and principles acquired through the relationship system in the prevailing
emotion . . . and is negotiable in the relationship system” (Bowen, 1985, p. 473). It is the
pseudo-self that is susceptible to fusing with the emotional family system.
Bowen referred to the self in terms of levels of differentiation from the emotional
system. Differentiation refers to the individual’s ability to distinguish between his or her
feeling and intellectual processes, rather than having his or her behavior driven by
automatic emotions (Papero, 1990; Goldenberg, I. & Goldenberg, H., 2000). In addition
to the emotional system, Bowen believed that there exists a feelings system and an
intellectual system. He thought that the feelings system acts as a bridge from the
emotional system, which is not usually felt by the intellectual system. Differentiation
refers to a process rather than an ultimate destination and requires that one learn how to
lower anxiety when confronted with the anxiety of others. For example, to say “I” when
others are requiring “we;” to take responsibility for one’s own emotional well-being; to
exist as both an individual and as part of a group; and to avoid becoming polarized.
38
Differentiation does not refer to the process of individuation and is not concerned with an
individual’s behavior, as is the latter, but rather with an individual’s emotional being.
Bowen’s differentiation of self-scale positions people on a scale of 1 to100,
depending on their level of differentiation or undifferentiation. People low on the scale
live in a feeling-controlled world where they are continually flooded by emotion in which
there is little or no objective reasoning. Low-scale people have little sense of themselves,
are highly susceptible to fusion with others, and are more susceptible to developing
symptoms. The primary goals of undifferentiated individuals are “oriented around love,
happiness, comfort, and security; these goals come closest to fulfillment when
relationships with others are in equilibrium” (Bowen, 1985, p. 474). Low-scale people
“either have to avoid relationships lest they slip automatically into an uncomfortable
fusion, or have no choice but continued pursuit of a close relationship for gratification of
emotional ‘needs’” (Bowen, 1985, p. 475).
In contrast to low-scale people, high-scale people are able to distinguish between
their emotional and intellectual functioning. They give less energy to relationships and
thus have more energy for self-directed activities. These individuals are able to tolerate
both closeness and distance in relationships, and thus their relationships are characterized
by a high degree of flexibility. They are responsible for themselves and are able to remain
an I in stressful situations which demand a we focus. In order to differentiate from the
field, one must first make himself or herself aware of the field and the effect that the field
has. Not only does the field affect the individual, but the individual also affects the field.
An individual’s sense of self is influenced by layers of multi-generational
transmissions in which past thoughts, feelings, emotions, and associations of family
39
members press down upon him or her. Individuals are consistently faced with the
opposing forces of individuality or self and togetherness or group/family.
Anxiety, which Bowen believed is present in all individual’s and is passed down from
generation to generation, plays a part in the individual’s sense of self. When there is little
anxiety present, individuals are able differentiate themselves from others, but as their
anxiety rises, individuals are more susceptible to lose their sense of self and become
reactive to the world around them (Gilbert, 1992).
William James
Around the turn of the century, William James (1890, 1910), who is considered
by many to have pioneered certain concepts on the self from the Western psychological
perspective, began examining the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal nature of
the self. James specifically distinguished between two different aspects of the self: the
I-self (subject) and the me-self (object) (Burns, 1979; Redfearn, 1983; Leary & Tangney,
2003). James observed the unique capacity of the self to be reflexive; the self has the
“ability to somehow turn around and take itself as the object of its own view. Thus the
self has both a ‘process’ aspect--the self as the knower of things--and a ‘content’ aspect--
the self as that which is known” (Leary & Tangney, 2003, p. 179).
The self as I is the knower, the “active subject engaged in human experience” and
is thought to have four components as outlined by Leary and Tangney (2003): (1) self-
awareness of one’s inner states, feelings, and emotions; (2) self-agency experienced as a
sense of being the creator of one’s thoughts and actions; (3) self-continuity experienced
as a feeling of security that “one remains the same person over time” (p. 612); and (4)
self-coherence evidenced by a feeling of stability with in the self. The self as subject or I
40
brings to awareness that one is a unique individual, existing distinctly from others (Ross,
1992). This I is thought to remain constant and unchanging over time and is the center
from which one perceives the world (Leary & Tangney, 2003). The I “encompasses
personal identity, cohesiveness and stability” (Lovlie, 1982).
James found the self as I to be very illusive and thus focused most of his attention
on the self as me (Leary & Tangney, 2003). James considered the me-self to be an
empirical aggregate of all things, which are objectively known (Meade, 1934). The self
as object or me is the object of one’s own experience and is influenced by the I-self.
When individuals are operating from the self as object, they are aware of themselves as
they appear to be. This knowledge is gained over time through interactions with others
(interpersonal dynamics) (Ross, 1992). James believed that there are three parts to the
me-self (Burns, 1979; Lovlie, 1982; Redfearn, 1983; Mahoney, 1991). (a) The material
self, includes the body, family, and personal property; (b) The social self consists of
interpersonal interactions. The social self is the me that is reflected back to the individual
by others. A person has many social selves, some of which may be in conflict with one
another. (c) The spiritual self consists of one’s psychic faculties, one’s inner subjective
experiences, and one’s sense of being. The spiritual self encompasses all thoughts and
feelings and is the “centre around which all other aspects of the empirical self cluster; it is
the source of interest, effort, attention, will and choice, a composite of all one’s
intellectual, religious, and moral aspirations” (Burns, 1979, p. 7). The I-self must
precede the me-self, as one must know that they exist before they can know who they are
(Ross, 1992).
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James defined the self in terms of intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal
dynamics. The four components of the I-self (self-awareness, self-agency, self-
continuity, and self-coherence) are all intrapersonal dynamics. The construct of the me-
self is defined by interpersonal dynamics on the material and social levels, and
transpersonal dynamics on the spiritual level (Burns, 1979; Mahoney, 1991).
Psychoanalysis
Whereas James’ view of the self was focused in the conscious, Freud brought to
light the unconscious aspect of the self, which is primarily the product of intrapersonal
dynamics (Levin, 1992).
Freud’s great contribution to the understanding of the self lies in his unparalleled depiction of the self as a house divided, torn by conflict, the sources of which are largely unconscious--or outside of our awareness. Bringing them into consciousness is beyond our ordinary ability. For Freud, that which we experience as self, or better, as ourself, is but the tip of the iceberg, the vast bulk of which lies out of sight and beneath the waterline. (p. 85)
There is little mention of the self in Freud’s work, as he “did not think that an
independent construct of the self was necessary” (Gammelgaard, 2003, p. 96). The self is
seen as a structure existing in the mind and is thought to be “a by-product of ego
development” and not an agency in and of itself (Schmidt, 2005, p. 596). Freud used the
terms ego and self interchangeably as his term for ego, das Ich, translates to self or I,
although this is debatable among psychoanalytic theorists (Mahoney, 1991).
In his work, Freud focused primarily on intrapersonal dynamics, mainly the ego,
and paid less attention to the interpersonal dynamics between individuals (Friedman,
1985). Freud’s concept of the ego, the closest concept to the self, progressed through
time and still remains somewhat ambiguous (Gammelgaard, 2003). Freud placed the
42
ego, which consists of all that is rational and sane, in the center of the system and
believed the ego to be “the core of the personality that controls impulses and drives from
the id and superego in conformity with the requirements of reality” (Burns, 1979, p. 18).
Freud (1923) introduced his three-part model of the mind, which he believed is composed
of the id, the ego, and the superego. Freud saw the id as the unconscious part of the
mind, which he believed to be the impulsive and irrational part that houses instinctual
energy. Above the id, he placed the ego at the center as the conductor of the conflicting
impulses of the id (Levin, 1992; Burns, 1979). At the top, he placed the super-ego or ego
ideal, which he believed is the “witnessing and evaluating component comprised of the
conscious and ‘ego ideal’” (Mahoney, 1991, p. 220).
Many believe that Freud put too much emphasis on the id at the expense of the
ego, which led to the self-concept never being fully explained (Burns, 1979). Although
there is much debate among theorists about what Freud meant by his term ego as it
applies to the concept of self, many theorists use the terms ego and self interchangeably
with the ego/self being “a set of processes such as perceiving, and thinking; it determines
the content of the consciousness, and distinguishes between reality and imagination . . .
the totality of psychological processes which control the speed and direction of the flow
of consciousness” (Burns, 1979, p. 18).
Following Freud’s development of the concept of the ego, others that have
continued to adapt its definition and apply the concept of ego to the concept of self
include Hartman (1944). The concept of self on a theoretical level was introduced to
psychoanalysis in 1950 by Hartman. Moving away from Freud’s model of the self with
its emphasis on the ego and continuing with the intrapersonal focus of the self, Hartman
43
distinguished the self from the ego, believing that the self is a composite of one’s
subjective experiences and the feelings generated by them, which in turn makes the self
the “object of one’s self-esteem, self-awareness, self-value, etc.” (Gammelgaard, 2003).
The self is distinguished from the ego, which he believed is “a system of adaptive and
integrative functions hierarchically arranged” with no experience of I or subjective
references (Redfearn, 1983, p. 97).
Carl Jung
Jung departed from Freud on his ideas of the inner world of an individual.
Whereas Freud was concerned with the contents of the mind as they were derived from
experiences, Jung believed that the mind is endowed with archetypes, which transcend
experience (Urban, 1992). According to Jung, archetypes, which are inborn forms of the
intuition are the essence of the psyche and form the self (Jung, 1976). Jung believed the
self to be the primary structure from which the ego develops, which is the reverse of
Freud’s belief. Jung also believed that the self is a process of the psyche and is thought
of as an agency rather than a thing (Coleman, 2000). Jung referred to the self as “the
totality of the psyche altogether, i.e., conscious and unconscious,” (Jung, 1955, p. 389)
which “embraces the bodily sphere as well as the psyche” (Jung 1963, p. 503).
Jung referred to two parts of the self: the familiar self or ego personality and the
self or Greater Personality. The latter he believed is ultimately unknowable and can be
compared to cosmic consciousness or God. Jung emphasized the importance of keeping
the union between the two parts of the self, the ego and the self (Schmidt, 2005).
According to Edinger (1972) we are born in a state of union between the self and the ego.
However, as time goes by, the ego becomes inflated and separates from the self. To
44
maintain the personality’s integrity, the ego and the self must come together, with the ego
eventually surrendering to the self. Although the inflated ego must at some point
surrender to the self, it does not disappear and is still integrated in the overall structure.
The merging and separating of the ego and the self is an ongoing, life-long process of
blending and fusing the pairs of opposites (Schmidt, 2005). These two parts of the self
are similar to the two levels of self found in Psychosynthesis, which is described later.
Jung’s concept of the self embodies the idea of individuation, “a process of self
realization, the discovery and experience of meaning and purpose in life; the means by
which one finds oneself and becomes who one really is” (Schmidt, 2005, p. 596). This
process can be seen as “the drive of the Self to consciousness” (Schmidt, 2005, p. 604).
Individuation, Jung believed, depends on blending the tensions of the opposite poles,
such as the conscious and unconscious; divine and human; personal and collective; and
self and ego. Jung paid particular attention to the interplay between the personal and
collective in the formation of self. “The aim of individuation is nothing less than to
divest the self of the false wrappings of the persona on the one hand, and the suggestive
power of primordial images on the other” (Jung 1976, para. 269).
A balance must be struck between the individual (introversion), and the collective
(extroversion) so that one maintains the self while remaining relational, which is the
essence of the self. Jung stated, “The self is relatedness . . . The self only exists inasmuch
as you appear. Not that you are, but that you do the self. The self appears in your deeds
and deeds always mean relationship” (Jung, 1976, p. 73). From this process of
individuation comes what Jung termed the “ultimate.” Jung’s idea of the ultimate is
defined as “that a class of images, expressing totality, symbolizes the self, defined as the
45
total personality, conscious and unconscious” (Fordham, 1976, p. 11) and “the
individuated self experienced as a unity that transcends the multiplicity of object
relationships” (Urban, 2005, p. 582).
Jung’s belief that the self has two parts, the familiar self and the Self, continues
the Western psychological definition of the lower self and to it adds his concept Self,
analogous to the Eastern concept of Higher Self. These two parts of the self are similar to
the two levels of the self found in Psychosynthesis.
Self Psychology
Similar to Jung, Kohut believed that the self is separate from the ego. According
to Kohut, “the self is separate from the ego and should not be conceived of as an agency
of the mind like the ego, id, or super ego. Instead, the self is a structure in the mind,
similar to an object representation, containing differing and even contradictory qualities”
(Siegel, 1996, p. 65). Kohut (1978) believed that the self is a psychological
configuration, which is influenced by intrapersonal and interpersonal dynamics around
which the personality is formed (Patton & Robbins, 1982; Patton, Conner, & Scott,
1982). Kohut’s primary goal in therapy was to strengthen the structure of the self by
bringing the constituents of the self to maturity through a process of transmuting
internalization. Kohut proposed that the self has three constituents, which when brought
to maturity, constitute healthy development. These constituents or sectors are (a) the
grandiose exhibitionistic sector; (b) the idealizing sector; and (c) the twinship or alter-
ego sector. These constituents are brought to maturity through the process of transmuting
internalization, which is a growth-producing interpersonal process whereby individuals
are able to reinternalize the missing parts of themselves from other self-objects
46
(Kohut, 1971, 1978, 1984). Kohut considered self-objects to be empathetic others who
mirror and validate the individual’s self. According to Kohut, a self-object is another
person who is able to shore up the individual’s sense of self and hold it for them until
they are ready to reinternalize it (Kahn, 1985; Kohut, 1977, 1984).
Similar to early development when the other is indistinguishable from the self, in
adulthood, a self-object holds similar control over the mind of another (Kohut, 1971).
These feelings for the self-object are reawakened feelings toward the parents in infancy
when there is no differentiation between the parents and the child (Kahn, 1985). Kohut
thought that “when the adult experiences the self-sustaining effects of a maturely chosen
self-object, the self-object experiences of all the preceding stages of his life reverberate
unconsciously” (Kohut, 1984, pp. 49-50). Self-objects exist from childhood into
adulthood and are a necessary ingredient for the development of a secure self. Each
encounter with an empathetic self-object produces “gradual increments of self-
structuralization” (Kahn, 1985, p. 897) as they mirror and validate, through the process of
transmuting internalization, whichever constituent of the individual’s self needs support
in order for it to become more mature.
In this process of transmuting internalization, the self-object is incorporated into
the self’s internal structure (Susske, n.d., p. 3) through a two-step process (Kohut, 1984).
(a) Empathy is developed between the individual and the self-object. (b) Non-traumatic
empathetic failures occur between the individual and the self-object whereby the
individual is frustrated. These “phase-appropriate frustrations of the needs for mirroring
and idealization promote for the growing child a manageable breakup of the infantile self
and it’s self-objects, and a gradual build-up of new conceptions that include increasingly
47
realistic representations of self and other” (Patton, Conner, & Scott, 1982, p. 270). These
empathetic failures require that the self internalize and take over the functions that had
been relegated to the self-object.
The process of transmuting internalization seeks to bring to maturity the three self
constituents or sectors. Kohut believed that at the age of two, the self is unified around
the nucleus of the bipolar self, which is composed of the constituents of the infantile
grandiose self and the idealized parental image. Kohut proposed that the constituent of
the grandiose self, which “functions to maintain the child’s sense of cohesion in space
and time and its grandiose form of self-esteem,” is the first stage of development (Kohut,
1978; Patton & Wampold, 1982, p. 269). At this stage, the child’s self has age-
appropriate exhibitionistic tendencies and seeks merger with its parents. Parental
empathy, admiration, and mirroring encourage the cohesion of the self. As the grandiose
self is validated by the self-objects, the child’s parents, the child begins to internalize this
praise and validation, which causes an increase in self-esteem, self-assertion, and
ambition. As time passes, if there is accurate and sufficient empathy on the part of the
parents, the constituent of the grandiose exhibitionist will be brought to maturity. The
narcissism of the child will transform into the ambitions of the adult, who is no longer
dependent on the need for the constant mirroring from others and is the independent
center of initiative (Kohut, 1984; Patton & Robbins, 1982).
The second constituent forming the nuclear self and subsequent parallel line of
development is the idealized parental imago. During this stage of development the
individual will admire, idealize, and seek comfort from the self-object, the parents, as the
individual seeks to become one with them. As parents empathize and validate this
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idealization and desire for merger, the child begins to internalize this sense of comfort
and provide it for himself or herself, which leads to the development of admiration and
acceptance for his or her parents. According to Kohut, the development of admiration
and acceptance leads to the formation of ideals, values, and goals (Siegel, 1996; Patton &
Wampold, 1982). Kohut (1984) added the third constituent in his last book, which
involved the alter-ego. Although less has been written about this constituent, he
classified the twinship or alter-ego sector as the part of the self that needs to be like
everyone else. Kohut believed that when the child is able to gain this human closeness
with self-objects, he or she will develop talents and skills (see Figure 2.1).
Maturation Maturation of the self of the self
Figure 2.1. A Diagrammatical Representation of Healthy Development (Kahn, 1985, p. 898).
Cohesive Self
Alter-ego or twinship needs
Grandiose and exhibitionistic needs
Talents and skills optimally utilized
Healthy self-esteem, ambitions, and assertiveness
Healthy ideals, values and principles, self-soothing capacity
Human closeness
Mirroring, Empathetic self-object
“gleam in the mothers eye”
Strong, soothing self-object who allows
idealization
Idealizing needs
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If these three constituents are met by an empathetic self-object, the projections of
each of the constituents will be reinternalized over time and the structure of the self
strengthened. When these three constituents are brought to maturity, through the process
of transmuting internalization whereby the individual reinternalizes parts of himself or
herself, healthy development of the self will result. This newly formed self will then be
the center around which the personality is formed (Kohut, 1978, 1984; Siegel, 1996).
Humanistic Psychology
Humanistic psychology is built on a foundation that supports the concept that
individuals have within themselves all that is necessary for growth and change. Humans
are born with an innate self-enhancing, self-actualizing quality that emerges when the
environment has certain conditions. Rogers believed that the conditions necessary to
provide this optimum environment are empathy, genuineness, and unconditional positive
regard for the client (Rogers, 1942, 1951, 1989). When these conditions are present, a
“safe space” can be created for clients, where they can work to identify their inner
resources and regain their sense of self (Rogers, 1961, 1980).
The basis of Rogers’ theory of the self is founded on a phenomenological
approach based on intrapersonal and interpersonal dynamics, which are centered on the
idea that “man lives essentially in his own personal subjective world” (Rogers, 1959, p.
194). Rogers’ concept of self, which progressed through the years, began by
conceptualizing the self as “a basic factor in the formation of personality and in the
determination of behavior” (Burns, 1979, p. 37). This definition evolved into Rogers’
most detailed formulation of the self, where he stated that the self is an “organized,
consistent conceptual gestalt composed of perceptions of the characteristics of the ‘I’ or
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‘me’ and the perceptions of the relationship of the ‘I’ or ‘me’ to others and to various
aspects of life, together with the value attached to these perceptions” (Rogers, 1959, p.
200). This definition of the self as a conceptual gestalt suggests that the self is “a pattern
of related perceptions, rather than an aggregate of unrelated parts. Despite its fluid and
changing character it retains its coherent, integrated, and organized qualities” (Burns,
1979, p. 39). The self is thus created from the individual’s inner perceptions
(intrapersonal factors) and the outer reactions of others (interpersonal factors). To this
definition Rogers added the ideal self, which is “the self-concept which the individual
would most like to possess, upon which he places the highest value for himself” (Rogers,
1959, p. 200).
Rogers’ goal in therapy was to integrate the different parts of the self that had
become fragmented over the years in order to create greater congruence within the
individual. Similar to the psychoanalytic approach, Rogers believed that part of the
process of reintegration includes making the individual aware of parts of himself or
herself that he or she is unaware of by creating a supportive environment where the
individual feels safe to explore all parts of himself or herself (Rogers, 1963, 1980, 1986,
1992).
Psychosynthesis
Psychosynthesis is a growth-oriented model, which is spiritual in nature.
Drawing heavily from psychoanalytic, behavioral, and humanistic psychologies,
transpersonal psychology blends these three theories, with the emphasis on intrapersonal
and interpersonal dynamics, and adds the additional element of transpersonalism, the
transcending of consciousness beyond the self, to include the Higher Self and an
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interconnection with all living things (Strohl, n.d.; Russell, 1981). According to
Psychosynthesis, the self is recognized on two levels: the personal self, centered self, or I,
which corresponds to the lower self (these terms are used interchangeably); and the
Transpersonal Self, which corresponds to the Higher Self (these terms are used
interchangeably) (Assagioli, 1965; Crampton, 1977; Russell, 1981). In order to
understand Assagioli’s concept of the self, it is helpful to examine his model of the
human consciousness, which includes the lower self and Higher Self (Assagioli, 1964,
Taylor, 1967).
Assagioli divided the unconscious into four levels: the lower, middle, higher, and
collective (Clinebell, 1981; Assagioli, 1965; Firman & Russell, 1992). He believed that
the lower unconscious is comprised of material that is actively held out of awareness. He
also believed, similar to Freud, that this information is held out of awareness by a
repression barrier, which serves to protect individuals from painful or overwhelming
experiences or feelings in which they experience themselves “not as intrinsically valuable
human persons, but instead as non-persons or objects” (Firman & Russell, 1992). The
middle unconscious, similar to Freud’s preconscious, contains contents the individual is
currently unaware of but can be made easily aware of. Assagioli believed that
subpersonalities, the roles an individual plays, for example, mother, victim, comic,
martyr, etc., exist in the middle unconscious (Russell, 1982). These subpersonalities, or
contents of the middle unconscious, are “simple discrete patterns of feeling, thought, and
behavior which often operate out of awareness--in the middle unconscious--and break
into awareness when triggered by different life situations” (Firman & Russell, 1992, p.
9). According to Assagioli, the higher unconscious or Superconscious is also hidden
52
from awareness. The higher unconscious region holds the moments of peak experiences
and is the region from which “we receive our higher intuitions and inspirations”
(Assagioli, 1965, pp. 17-18). Moments of peak experiences refer to Maslow’s term for
“the best moments of the human being, for the happiest moments of life, for the
experiences of ecstasy, rapture, bliss, and greatest joy” (Maslow, 1971, p. 105).
In addition to the three levels of consciousness, Assagioli included the field of
consciousness, the conscious self, the Transpersonal Self, and the collective unconscious
in his diagram of the personality (see Figure 2.2). The field of consciousness is the part of
the personality that one is consciously aware of, including “the incessant flow of
sensations, images, thoughts, feelings, desires, and, impulses which we observe, analyze,
and judge” (Assagioli, 1965, p. 18). The field of consciousness includes the conscious
self, personal self, or I, which is analogous to the lower self. According to
Psychosynthesis, “the self is an entity independent of and sovereign to the various aspects
of the personality, such as body, feelings, and mind” (Firman & Russell, 1992, p. 8). The
Transpersonal Self, also called the Self or Higher Self, resides in the higher unconscious
and is thought to be one’s “creative center and essence” (Clinebell, 1981, p. 3). The
collective unconscious refers to the space that holds the consciousness of all beings and
the psychic environment in which the process of psychological osmosis occurs. Assagioli
(1967) takes Jung’s (1955) concept of the collective conscious a step further and divides
the collective unconscious into the levels of lower and higher (Firman & Russell, 1992).
53
Figure 2.2. Assagioli’s Egg Diagram
The goal of Psychosynthesis, which is similar to Jung’s goal, is to shift the
unifying center from the personal self to the Higher Self, so that the lower self and
personality can work as a vehicle of expression for the Higher Self. Shifting the center of
awareness from the lower self to the Higher Self is accomplished through a two-step
process that includes (a) personal synthesis, where the individual becomes centered in the
personal self; and (b) transpersonal synthesis, where the individual becomes centered in
the Higher Self (Assagioli, 1965; Russell, 1982; Firman and Russell, 1992).
54
The potential goal (which may not be achieved in many individuals but at least is a potential) is not only a personal Psychosynthesis, which is an effective integration of a personality, but also a spiritual Psychosynthesis; i.e., an integration of the personality with a spiritual center, of which the integrated personality then becomes an instrument of expression in this world. (Gerard, 1961, p. 2)
This two-step process does not proceed in a direct manner, but rather is more of a back
and forth parallel process (Assagioli, 1965; Gerard, 1961; Clinebell, 1981; Russell,
1982).
Personal synthesis. The lower self, referred to as the personal self in
Psychosynthesis, emerges through a process of personal or intrapersonal synthesis
brought about through a conscious act of mental centering (Assagioli, 1968; Russell,
1982). During the stage of personal synthesis, the personality, including the physical,
emotional, and mental levels, as well as all subpersonalities, is integrated “around the
conscious self or ego” (Clinebell, 1981, p. 4). Integration of the personality around the
self is “achieved by learning centering, gaining the ability to disidentify from ego
patterns, roles or personality contents, and to identify with the centered self within--the
integrating force in the personality” (Russell, 1981, p. 9). Thus integration of the
personality is characterized by stabilizing the physical level; overcoming the emotions
and desires through disidentifying with and integrating all the subpersonalities; and
centering in the mind (Assagioli, 1965, 1973; Keen, 1974; Russell, 1982). As the
personality becomes integrated, the lower self or I emerges as the subjective center of
identity around which the personality is built. This subjective center or lower self is not
the personality, for it transcends the personality (Russell, 1982). The lower self is the
center of self-awareness, which is stable, immutable, permanent and is a living center of
awareness (Assagioli, n.d.)
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The personal self has two major functions that are in constant change--awareness
or consciousness and the will (Russell, 1982; Clinebell, 1981). Consciousness is the
ability to be aware of oneself and one’s surroundings with the goal of being able to
detach and consciously, objectively observe what is seen. The field of consciousness is
the part of the personality that individuals are consciously aware of, including “the
incessant flow of sensations, images, thoughts, feelings, desires, and, impulses which we
observe, analyze, and judge” (Assagioli, 1965, p. 18). The lower self is “distinct,
although not separate, from all these contents of consciousness” (Firman & Russell,
1992, p. 20). This newly formed center or I is aware and acts as the observer of the
contents of consciousness. As the observer, the I is both dynamic as well as receptive. “I
has the ability to affect the contents of awareness itself, by choosing to focus on
awareness, expand it, or contract it” (Firman & Russell, 1992, p. 18).
The second function of the lower self is the will, which aids the self in achieving
more awareness. The will allows the I to disidentify from parts of itself in order to be
more objective and aids the individual in expanding his or her awareness to include the
Transpersonal or Higher Self. The will is the “gentle inner freedom to act from a place
which is not completely conditioned by any part of oneself. Will allows “‘I’ to
disidentify from any single perspective, and thereby to be open to all the varied aspects of
the personality” (Firman & Russell, 1992, p. 19). Assagioli placed great emphasis on the
aspect of will, which he believed is the closest psychological function to the self. The
will is the most direct expression of the self because once it is developed, it is used by the
self to regulate all other functions of the personality: the emotions, imagination, thoughts,
and intuition (Assagioli, 1973). “Thru realizing the will of the Self, we gain freedom of
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choice, personal responsibility, the power of decision over our actions, and the ability to
actively regulate and direct the many personality functions. In this way we are freed
from helpless reaction to unwanted inner impulses” (p. 63).
The I or lower self is not one’s true identity. The lower self is merely the
reflection of one’s true Higher Self. Transferring the unifying center from the lower
conscious self to the Higher Self is the goal of Psychosynthesis (Clinebell, 1981). Once
the personality is integrated, one must consciously seek to identify with the lower self
and use its different functions, especially the will, in order to keep the inner integration so
that one can then merge with the Higher Self.
The personal self is an evolving self. It is always at the center of the personality; and since the personality is growing into ever-more inclusive wholes, the center shifts accordingly. At the center of an expanded personality is a self with broader awareness and a greater range of choices that those of the previous self. There is always a next higher level of the centered self within the personality as evolution proceeds. (Russell, 1982, p. 15) Transpersonal Psychosynthesis. The Higher Self, also known as the
Transpersonal Self or Spiritual Self emerges through a process of spiritual transpersonal
synthesis, which shifts the point of integration from the lower self to the Higher Self by a
process of fusing the two through concentration and meditation (Russell, 1981). As the
lower self fuses with the Higher Self through the conscious use of the will, “the
personality functions as a vehicle for expression of higher consciousness” (Russell, 1982,
p. 11). The integration around the Higher Self, which results in the ability to contact the
higher spiritual realms, serves as a platform for the individual to become a wiser, more
inclusive, more creative, and loving force in aiding the growth of humanity (Firman &
Russell, 1992). Transpersonal synthesis aims at getting the individual in touch with others
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and the world as a whole as the individual now “expresses a natural spirit of cooperation,
participating in group activities to create a better world for all” (Russell, 1982, p. 16).
This process of transpersonal synthesis, which merges the lower self and the Higher Self,
serves as a bridge from the Western concept of the lower self to the Eastern concept of
the Higher Self, as the Higher Self represented in Psychosynthesis is analogous to the
Higher Self represented in Eastern literature.
Eastern Spiritual Concept of Self
Originating from the Upanishads (600 B.C.E.) in Hindu thought, the Eastern
concept of self as Higher Self or soul is almost universal with very little variation
compared to the Western psychological perspective. Eastern teachings, found in the
Bhagavad Gita and the writings of Alice Bailey, recognize the lower self, also referred to
as personality or lower nature, and to it add the Higher Self, also referred to as soul or
ego, which must discipline the lower self so that the lower self comes under the control or
service of the soul. The Higher Self as soul, seen as transcending the individual, has
emerged as one of the main tenets of Eastern thought and has been written about
extensively for thousands of years (Leary & Tangney, 2003). The writings of Buddha
and the Hindu text the Bhagavad Gita, written by Sri Krishna, are considered by many to
be the premier Eastern spiritual teachings on the concept of the Higher Self (Coukoulis,
1976). This study focuses primarily on the teachings found in the Bhagavad Gita.
This examination of the self from the Eastern perspective begins with an
examination of the Eastern concept of the Higher Self from the perspective of the
Western theory of Psychosynthesis. Psychosynthesis, with its integration of the Western
concept of the lower self and the Eastern concept of Higher Self, serves as a bridge
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between the Western concept of self and the Eastern concept of self. The review of the
Eastern concept of self focuses on selected literature as found in the Bhagavad Gita and
the writings of Alice Bailey, who mergers the teachings of Buddha, Krishna, and Christ
to form a comprehensive Eastern theory of the self (Bailey, 1944, 1950, 1951).
Psychosynthesis
The Higher Self is a permanent center existing above or beyond the lower self and
is unaffected by the flow of consciousness in the mind, the emotions, or the sensations of
the body (Assagioli, 1965). The Higher Self is “stable, firm, permanent--to use the
philosophical word ‘ontological.’ It is Pure Being” (Assagioli, n.d. p. 3). Although one
is not always aware of it, the Higher Self is always present and pervades all areas of
consciousness. The Self is a “living, conscious, willing, Being…not something, but
someone. Self is a ‘Thou’ to whom one may meaningfully relate” (Firman & Russell,
1992, p. 24). It is believed that the Higher Self is realized by the individual through
maintaining a connection to his or her own soul. This is done through balancing and
integrating the personality and fusing it with the Higher Self through a five-step
mediation process (see chapter 3) (Bailey, 1944, 1950, 1951; Bahm, 1958; Besant, 1947).
The Higher Self is considered to be the all-knowing spark of divine reflection,
which exists in every individual (Abraham, 1993). When one is connected to his or her
Higher Self, he or she is open to intuitive impressions, creativity, wisdom, love, and
compassion (Crampton, 1977; Firman & Russell, 1992). The Higher Self is associated
with purpose and direction in life; has an all-knowing awareness of the individual, which
includes the past, present, and future; and gives the individual a deep sense of connection
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and feelings of unconditional love for all of humanity (Russell, 1982; Firman & Russell,
1992). When one is connected to his or her Higher Self, the individual has the sense that
he or she is much more than just the individual and is in fact part of a much larger whole.
In Psychosythesis the concept of the Higher Self is identical to the Eastern concept of
Higher Self, as found in the writings of Alice Bailey.
Alice Bailey
Alice Bailey, who mergers the teachings of Buddha and Krishna with the
teachings of Christ, has written extensively about the concept of the Higher Self or soul.
Specifically, her writings merge the love taught by Christ, the wisdom taught by Buddha,
and the detachment taught by both Buddha and Krishna, which together provide an
integrative theory of the self. Although some of her writings may be considered esoteric
in some circles, many of her concepts are helpful to shed light on the self and loss of self.
The Higher Self Bailey referred to is identical to the Higher Self referred to in
Psychosynthesis. The Higher Self or soul is “the quality which every form manifests. It
is that subtle something which distinguishes one element from another . . . . The soul is
the form-building aspect, and is that attractive factor in every form . . . . which drives all
God’s creatures forward along the path of evolution . . . . towards an eventual goal and a
glorious consummation” (Bailey, 1951, p. 33-35). Bailey believed that the goal of
existence is to integrate the personality so that one can fuse with the Higher Self through
meditation. When aligned with the Higher Self, the individual is no longer identified
with personal pursuits, selfishness, or I consciousness and is able to instead identify with
humanity as a whole. Personal ambition is replaced with the desire to be of service to
one’s fellow man as one sees the interconnectedness of all beings.
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Bhagavad Gita
The Hindu scripture, the Bhagavad Gita, which is a chapter out of the Hindu
poem the Mahabharata, is a synthesis of the ancient teachings on the self found in the
earlier Hindu text, the Upanishads. The Bhagavad Gita, which depicts the epic struggle
of the self on the battlefield of Kurukshetra, is composed of 18 discourses between Lord
Krishna, the Christ-like spiritual teacher, and the warrior Arjuna relating to obtaining
union with the Higher Self. The story begins as Arjuna, the warrior prince, is standing
with Krishna, on the battlefield looking out at the opposing army, which includes many
of his friends and family. As Arjuna looks upon the battlefield he is struck with sadness
and wrestles with whether or not to fight. This inner dilemma represents the inherent
duality of the pairs of opposites that exists in all creation that must be balanced. This
dilemma is the subject for the discourses between Arjuna and Krishna (Abraham, 1993;
Rajagopalachari, 1999; Hawley, 2001).
In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna refers to the two selves of the individual, the lower
self, lower nature, or personality, and the Higher Self or soul. These two selves represent
the two sides of the battle that the individual must confront, with the Higher Self or soul
ultimately triumphing over the lower self. “The higher self, the soul, is already in a state
of peace, that is, of equilibrium, of right relationship, of whole consciousness. Outer
events--the battle--can be more directly affected by the Self once the drama of personality
is offset through, as one technique, the balancing process” (Abraham, 1993, p. 21). To
offset the effects of the personality, the individual must bring his or her desires and
thoughts under control and realize that he or she is ultimately the Higher Self.
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Summary
This literature review has examined select Western and Eastern texts in order to
provide a comprehensive definition of the self. From the Western perspective the
examination began with the systems perspective and then followed the progression of the
self through the psychology of William James, psychoanalysis, Jung, self psychology,
humanistic psychology, and finally ending with transpersonal psychology, as seen in
Psychosynthesis. From the Eastern perspective the examination began with
Psychosynthesis’ perspective on the Higher Self and then followed the progression of the
self through the teachings Alice Bailey and the Bhagavad Gita. The next chapter is a
continuance of the literature review as it applies to the organizing principle of balancing
the pairs of opposites, as this concept manifests in the experience of self and the loss of
self. Selected concepts are taken from theories in this chapter to support and bring
substance to this organizing principle of balancing the pairs of opposites.
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CHAPTER 3
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
In the previous chapter on the concept of self, specific Western and Eastern
theories were outlined, which defined the self as being a product of intrapersonal,
interpersonal, and transpersonal dynamics. This chapter on the experience of self and
loss of self builds upon specific concepts and ideas from theories outlined in the previous
chapter. These concepts support the organizing principle of balancing the pairs of
opposites as this principle applies to the experience and loss of self.
Experience of Self
The theory presented in this dissertation is based on the idea that the self is
experienced on two levels, the lower self and the Higher Self. For the most part, the
lower self has been written about from a Western Psychological perspective, whereas the
Higher Self has been described from an Eastern Spiritual perspective. Western
psychology has focused primarily on the concept of self, which serves to define the self
rather than to shed light on the actual experience of the self. The self is often described
as an entity rather than as an experience (Mahoney, 1991). When the experience of the
self is mentioned, it is associated with concepts and characteristics such as consciousness
(Freud, 1934), the experience of meaning or cosmic consciousness (Jung, 1933), and the
ability to validate and sooth oneself (Kohut, 1971). These psychodynamic descriptions
do little to provide an understanding of the actual experience of self. Within Eastern
theory there is much written on the experience of self. Contacting and maintaining a
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connection with the Higher Self is considered to be the goal of existence in the Hindu
scripture the Bhagavad Gita (Besant, 1947). This examination of the experience of self
focuses on select Western and Eastern literature, which attempts to shed light on the
experience of both the lower self and the Higher Self through the concepts of mirroring,
mindfulness, the conscious observer, balancing the pairs of opposites, and meditation.
The experience of self cannot be defined nor can the experience of self be fully
understood unless one has in fact experienced the self. The experience of self is
experiential in nature and therefore is unique to each individual. Although techniques
that can facilitate the experience of self are outlined in this study, ultimately the
experience of self cannot be described through techniques or even personal accounts;
rather the experience of self must come from the individual having a unique, tangible
experience of his or her own essence.
The lower self is experienced as the physical, emotional, and mental levels are
balanced and merged into one integrated center through balancing the pairs of opposites
on the physical, emotional, mental (intrapersonal polarities), and interpersonal levels
(interpersonal polarities). Pairs of opposites are balanced by shifting the point of
awareness away from each of the poles to the conscious observer through the process of
mindful disidentification. This study is based on the belief that experiencing the self
through balancing the pairs of opposites is aided by receiving accurate empathy and
mirroring from another, which facilitates the individual in being able to identify, accept,
and balance the polarities which exist on all levels (Assagioli, 1965; Rogers, 1980, 1992;
Schwartz-Salant, 2007). When the lower self is experienced and maintained, the Higher
Self can then be contacted through a five-step meditation process of concentration,
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meditation, contemplation, illumination, and inspiration (Hodgson, 2004; Hoehne,
personal communication, April, 20, 2006). Once the Higher Self is contacted, this contact
is maintained through balancing transpersonal polarities between the Higher Self and the
lower self or personality. Although realization of and integration with the Higher Self is
the goal, this integration is not appropriate for everyone. Individuals are at different
stages in their emotional and spiritual growth, which needs to be recognized without
judgment of one stage being better than another. Some individual, in fact, may work only
on the plane of the lower self (Assagioli, 1965; Crampton, 1977).
Mirroring and the Role of the Therapist
According to Kohut (1977, 1978), Rogers (1980, 1992), Assagioli (1965),
Satir (1982), and Schwartz-Salant (2007) the experience of self is contingent on positive
interactions with others where the individual is listened to, empathized with, and
provided with accurate mirroring. Although these interactions can be with any other
individual, this study examines the impact of the interaction between the individual and
his or her therapist in terms of the individual’s experience of self. Kohut (1977) referred
to the need to have empathetic self-objects who will hold pieces of the individual’s self
until he or she is ready to reinternalize these pieces. Similarly, according to Rogers:
As persons are accepted and prized, they tend to develop a more caring attitude toward themselves. As persons are empathetically heard, it becomes possible for them to listen more accurately to the flow of inner experiences. But as a person understands and prizes the self, the self becomes more congruent with experiences. The person thus becomes more real, more genuine. These tendencies, the reciprocal of the therapist’s attitudes, enable the person to be a more effective growth-enhancer for himself or herself. (pp. 116-117)
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Rogers believed that the most powerful intervention used by therapists is their ability to
listen in an active, accurate, non-judgmental manner, and then provide accurate empathy
and mirroring (Rogers, 1980).
According to Schwartz-Salant, in interactions with a client, “what helps most is a
witness who feels his or her own limits of understanding, and who can be compassionate
in the face of the person’s suffering, but who also has faith in a process through which the
self is trying to incarnate” (p. 13). As individuals are listened to and provided with
accurate mirroring, the pairs of opposites existing between their conscious and
unconscious, and between them and others begin to emerge into consciousness, and they
can begin to work on balancing and disidentifying from these polarities. Through having
a container, the relationship or field/space between the individual and another (in this
case the therapist), in which to explore all parts of himself or herself and receive
feedback, the individual is able to recognize, acknowledge, and accept all the different
parts himself or herself as these parts manifest as polarities on various levels. As the
therapist is present and attentive to the client’s process, the client becomes able to be
present and mindful with himself or herself and is able to begin to hold the tension
between the pairs of opposites, leading to an experience of the lower self.
Mindfulness
When you stop ruminating on the past and planning for the future, when you let go of preconceived notions and simply notice what is happening from moment to moment, you’re exercising mindfulness. It’s easier said than done, of course, because the human ego relentlessly tries to defend its self-serving theories . . . The alternative involves a willingness to see the world as it is, while imagining fresh ways of relating to an ever emerging, more richly nuanced vision of reality. Of course, you will at times, remember the past (as opposed to obsessing on it) and plan for the future (without becoming overly attached to one particular scheme). (Kohanov, personal communication, August, 31, 2007)
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In order to experience both the lower self and the Higher Self, one must remain
mindful. Experiencing the self through mindfulness is a “matter of the moment-to-
moment, here and now relationship to one’s deepest sense of truth” (Firman & Russell,
1992, p. 33). Mindfulness allows one to disidentify with thoughts and feelings and focus
on going inside and contacting the self (Shapiro, Carlson, Astin, & Freeman, 2006).
Mindfulness has been defined as a state of consciousness where one is “consciously
attending to one’s moment-to-moment experience” (Shapiro, Carlson, Astin, & Freeman,
2006, p. 374). Shapiro et al. (2006) suggested that mindfulness has three axioms: (a) one
pays attention on purpose, suggesting intention; (b) one in fact pays attention; and (c) one
pays attention in a certain way or with a certain attitude. Intention sets the stage for one’s
being mindful. One sets the intention to become mindful and “develop with deepening
practice, awareness and insight” (p. 376). By paying attention, one observes both internal
and external experiences moment-to-moment by “suspending all the ways of interpreting
experience and attending to experience itself, as it presents itself in the here and now” (p.
376). When paying attention, it is important to do so with a certain attitude of openness
and non-judgment.
Mindfulness, resulting from intentionality and attention with an open, non-
judgmental attitude, leads to a significant shift in perspective, which has been termed
reperceiving. Through the process of reperceiving, “one is able to disidentify from the
contents of consciousness (i.e., one’s thoughts) and view his or her moment-to-moment
experience with greater clarity and objectivity” (p. 377). The process of reperceiving is
similar to becoming the conscious observer or the observing self (Deikman, 1982). As
this happens, identity begins to shift from the contents of awareness to awareness itself,
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or from the non-self to the self. Shifting the point of awareness away from the non-self
(the polarities) is a necessary step in balancing the pairs of opposites.
Balancing the Pairs of Opposites
The concept of balancing the pairs of opposites, which pertains to the nature of
duality, can be traced back to the Chinese concept of Tao and the idea of “the union of
opposites through the middle path” (Abraham, 1993, p. 3).
Background
Eastern literature abounds with information about “the interplay of the
opposites . . . . is the underlying theme of the entire creative and evolutionary process”
(Bailey, 1951, p. 391). Eastern literature reveals that the Higher Self or soul is
experienced as the pairs of opposites are balanced.
The object for which life takes form and the purpose of manifested being is the unfoldment of consciousness, or the revelation of the soul. This might be called the Theory of the Evolution of Light. When it is realized that even the modern scientist is saying that light and matter are synonymous terms, thus echoing the teaching of the East, it becomes apparent that through the interplay of the poles, and through the friction of the pairs of opposites light flashes forth. (Bailey, 1951, p. 9)
In this quote, light refers to soul, thus, soul is realized through holding the tension
between the opposites. From this Eastern premise that the Higher Self is experienced
through balancing the pairs of opposites, Western Psychology has been explored to find
similar references to experiencing the lower self through balancing the pairs of opposites.
There is less written about the importance of the polarities in Western
psychological writings. Jung realized this lack of awareness and stated (as quoted by
Abraham), “unfortunately our Western mind, lacking all culture in this respect, has never
yet devised a concept, nor even a name, for the union of opposites through the middle
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path, that most fundamental item of inward experience” (Abraham, 1993, p. 3). Jung
made multiple references to the pairs of opposites and the need to maintain the tension
between them. Jung believed that for every item present and accounted for in the
conscious mind, the opposite of this item exists in the unconscious mind or shadow. He
further proposed that growth is only possible through bringing the polarities in the
unconscious to consciousness so that the tension can be held between the opposites (Jung,
1955). Kurt Abraham (1993) thoroughly examined the concept of balancing the pairs of
opposites, which he believed is primarily a psychological process.
Quite possibly, one of the most practical and illuminating things we could do from a psychological perspective is to get a clear working knowledge of the particular set of polarities that are predominately influencing us at any given time, so that we may facilitate a growth through the polarities. (p. 4)
Horizontal and Vertical Polarities
According to Abraham (1993), polarities manifest horizontally and vertically.
Horizontal polarities refer to polarities that manifest on the physical, emotional, mental,
personality (a combination of the physical, emotional, and mental), and soul levels.
Whereas, vertical polarities refer to polarities that exist between the levels, especially
between the personality and soul levels.
Horizontal polarities exist on the physical level in the form of concrete
characteristics, including overweight/underweight, too much exercise/not enough
exercise, chemical balances/chemical imbalances, and the poles of positive/negative,
which manifest as male/female and attraction/repulsion (Abraham, 1993). On the
emotional level these polarities exist in the form of emotions, such as pleasure/pain,
like/dislike, happy/sad, and passive/aggressive. Both Western and Eastern literature
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point to the fact that polarities manifest in a large proportion on the emotional level.
These emotional polarities, which manifest in response to desire, attachment, or
judgment, cause many psychological problems and “a person, in a sense, becomes a
psychological prisoner of the pendulum swing between likes and dislikes on the
emotional plane” (Abraham, 1993, p. 5). On the mental level, the polarities exist in the
form of conflicting ideas, such as right/wrong and good/evil, and in the duality of the
concrete mind/abstract mind. On the personality level “the polarities have to do with
matters as they relate to the sum total of one’s personal identity, self-expression,
uniqueness as an individual, characteristics of the persona, etc.” (Abraham, 1993, p. 6).
On the soul level, horizontal polarities manifest in the nature of the soul’s three-pointed
consciousness: “it is God-conscious; it is group-conscious; it is self-conscious”
(Abraham, 1993, p. 137).
Abraham (1993) stated that although polarities generally reside on certain
horizontal levels (physical, emotional, mental, personality, or soul), there are usually
multidimensional or vertical influences involved. Vertical polarities exist between the
different levels. For example, between the physical and emotional as seen when an
individual becomes irritable (emotional level) when he or she has not exercised (physical
level). Vertical polarities are especially prevalent on the transpersonal level between the
personality and Higher Self, which manifest as characteristics of the two selves.
Examples of polarities between the personality and Higher Self include
I consciousness/group consciousness, personal benefit/group benefit, intellect/intuition,
and acquisition/sacrifice (Abraham, 1993; Assagioli, 1972).
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Assagioli (1972) distinguished between physical, emotional, mental, spiritual, and
interindividual polarities. Although he did not distinguish between horizontal and
vertical polarities, his definitions of physical, emotional, and mental polarities are
analogous to Abraham’s horizontal polarities manifesting on the physical, emotional, and
mental levels. In addition, Assagioli’s spiritual polarity, which he believed to be the
ultimate duality between the personality and the Higher Self, is identical to Abraham’s
definition of the vertical polarity between the personality and soul. Assagioli added an
additional interindividual polarity referred to as an interpersonal polarity, which he
believed exists between individuals, such as between the individual and his or her spouse,
family, or larger groups, such as society as a whole (Assagioli, 1972). Assagioli did not
give specific examples of this polarity, which leaves some confusion as to the difference
between an intrapersonal polarity and an interpersonal polarity.
Most polarities existing on the emotional and mental levels manifest in response
to interpersonal polarities. For example, when an individual comes into contact with
another individual (interpersonal level) and has an inner reaction (intrapersonal polarity)
of dislike brought about by this other individual (outer stimuli), would this be considered
an intrapersonal or interpersonal polarity? There is no definite answer in the literature;
therefore, in this study interpersonal polarities are considered to be polarities in which the
individual identifies with one pole and consciously or consciously assigns the other pole
to another individual. Examples include victim/victimizer, submission/domination, and
underfunctioning/overfunctioning. Interpersonal polarities differ from intrapersonal
polarities, which are the polarities that manifest on the physical, emotional, and mental
levels in response to outside circumstances, even though both of the poles remain
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internalized. Examples include happy/sad, like/dislike, pleasure/pain. It is from the ideas
of Abraham, Assagioli, and Schwartz-Salant regarding polarities that this study states that
polarities manifest on the intrapersonal (physical, emotional, and mental), interpersonal
(between individuals), and transpersonal levels (between the personality and the soul).
Although the words intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal are not words
Abraham and Assagioli used, they have been chosen to represent and integrate the ideas
of these theorists in this study.
Assagioli did not elaborate on or give examples of interindividual polarities other
than to say that these polarities exist between individuals. Jungian psychologist
Schwartz-Salant (2007) discussed the impossibility of opposites, which exists between
individuals in the form of distance and fusion. He believed that opposites form a level of
incompatible, true contradictions in which the presence of one annihilates the other, thus
creating a maddening effect in the individual similar to the interpersonal dynamic of the
double bind. According to Schwartz-Salant, these conflicting opposites exist either
between individuals or between the individual’s conscious mind and his or her
unconscious mind. Although he specifically focused on the opposites of fusion and
distance, which he termed the fusional complex, he indicated that the fusional complex
can be activated by any impossibility of opposites and not just fusion and distance. His
focus on the polarities of fusion and distance is similar to Bowen’s ideas of fusion and
cutoff (Bowen, 1985). For this study the impossibility of opposites refers to any pair of
opposites.
Schwartz-Salant particularly focused on the impossibility of opposites as they
arise within the field between the individual and another person (interpersonal level).
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The field is considered to be the space between people, which is “alive with meaning and
contains its own process” (Rubin, 2000, p. 341). It is either in this field or in the space
between one’s consciousness and unconsciousness that the opposites can be felt.
According to Schwartz-Salant, it is only through consciously experiencing the opposites,
for example, fusion/distance and chaos/order, or the disorganizing energy that one is able
to turn it into its positive form “awe, mystery, love, beauty, and compassion. . . . Meeting
the chaos, rather than dissociating, can effect change” (Schwartz-Salant, 2007, p. 11).
Experiencing the pairs of opposites through “the fusional complex is the doorway
through which any new form of consciousness and associated self--that structure that
bestows a sense of identity and order within the human life--must pass if this change is to
be stable in time and space, and, most significantly, exist as an embodied experience” (p.
10). It is Schwartz-Salant’s opinion that through experiencing the pairs of opposites
simultaneously one is able to fully experience the self.
Assagioli (1972) stated that “life can be regarded as a continual polarization and
tension. . . . and as a continual effort, conscious or not, to establish equilibrium” (p. 4).
According to Assagioli, the majority of polarities exist on the emotional level, causing
people many problems as they are “always actively seeking pleasure and fearfully fleeing
from pain” (p. 4). Assagioli (1972, 1973) illustrated the dynamic of the pairs of opposites
with the use of a triangle (see Figures 3.1 & 3.2).
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Serenity
Excitement Calm Depression
Figure 3.1. Triangle representation of the pairs of opposites (Assagioli, 1972).
Benevolent Understanding
Sympathy Indifference Antipathy
Figure 3.2. Triangle representation of the pairs of opposites (Assagioli, 1972).
The two lower points of the triangle represent the opposite poles in conflict, and
the apex represents the true solution or synthesis. The middle point between the
opposites is seen as a compromise and not the true solution. The true solution is only
reached through transcending the polarities into a higher synthesis, which “absorbs the
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two elements into a higher unity endowed with qualities differing from those of either of
them” (Assagioli, 1972, p. 4).
Four-Step Process of Balancing the Pairs of Opposites
Assagioli stated that the lower self is experienced through the integration of the
physical, emotional, and mental levels. Balancing the pairs of opposites existing on and
between the different levels is one way to integrate the personality. Assagioli (1973)
briefly described a four-step process for balancing the pairs of opposites as follows: (a)
Fusion of the two poles is achieved through neutralizing their charges. Assagioli (1973)
outlined three methods for harmonizing or fusing opposite poles. Abraham (1993)
elaborated on this step by adding that fusion is brought about by recognizing the function
and contribution of each of the poles so that neither pole dominates the other. (b) Fusion
of the two poles through the recognition of each results in a creation of a new reality.
This new reality manifests as an increased cooperation and penetration between the two
poles. (c) As the two poles begin to cooperate with one another, an adjustment of the
opposite poles occurs through finding an intermediary center by lowering the oscillations
between the two poles. (d) Synthesis caused by a higher element transforms the two
poles. Assagioli repeatedly stated that “the essential requirement . . . . is to avoid
identifying oneself with either of the two opposite poles, and to control, transmute, and
direct their energies from a higher center of awareness and power” (Assagioli, 1973, p.
8). Assagioli (1968) thought that in order to disidentify from the polarities, the individual
must be able to shift from the emotional level to the mental level, thereby becoming the
conscious observer so that he or she can gain insight. He did not state at what stage
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disidentification takes place; therefore, it is inferred that disidentification from each of
the poles is a continuous process.
According to Assagioli, disidentification helps the individual to identify with all
of his or her different parts, for example, sensations, emotions, thoughts, possessions, and
other people, so that he or she can realize that he or she is not those parts (Besmer, 1973).
The first step of disidentification follows a simple pattern of repetition of phrases. For
example, I have a job but I am more than my job, or I have anger, but I am more than my
anger. The individual continues this process for all emotions they are identified with
(happiness, sadness, greed, envy, etc.). As one is able to objectively observe each of the
poles, he or she begins to see the function of each of the poles and the interplay and
cooperation existing between the two, and is thus able to accept and disidentify with them
(Abraham, 1993; Assagioli, 1965, 1973; Bailey, 1944).
Although Assagioli did not elaborate on this four-step process of balancing the
pairs of opposites nor is this process elaborated on in any Western psychological
literature, he continually referred to the importance of holding the tension between the
polarities on each of the levels, especially the emotional level. He believed that the
emotional level causes people the most problems, due to the existence of multiple
subpersonalities, which he believed manifest as pairs of opposites. James Vargiu (1973)
gave a five-step process for harmonizing the subpersonalities, which can be applied to
balancing the pairs of opposites.
Subpersonalities are harmonized through a five-step process of recognition,
acceptance, coordination, integration, and synthesis, whereby individuals learn to
disidentify from the subpersonalities by shifting their consciousness to the mental plane
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on “a higher level above them, in order to be able to observe and evaluate them, and
wisely regulate them as needed” (Assagioli, 1973, p. 4).
(1) Recognition of the subpersonality is the first step. Often individuals will
suppress one of the poles, for example, suppressing sadness in order to not have to
experience the emotion. Although negative emotions, which are attributed to the lower
unconscious are usually the emotions that get suppressed, positive emotions, which are
attributed to the higher superconscious, such as happiness and serenity, can be suppressed
as well (Haronian, 1972). Recognition implies that what was once unconscious must be
made conscious and specifically named so that one can observe and work with the
emotion. Naming the polarities is especially important in overcoming them as the “act of
naming, akin to the magical action of gaining power over a demon by learning its name”
(Schwartz-Salant, 2007, p. 29).
(2) Accepting each of the polarities through shifting one’s attention away from
each the polarities to the conscious observer, through a process of disidentification, is the
next step. Shifting to the conscious observer moves the energy and focus from the
feelings to the mind. The purpose of developing the mind is so that it may become an
accurate observer of what it perceives. Thus it may use this discrimination to navigate
the perils of sense and emotional identification. Bowen (1985) considered the ability to
shift the attention from the feelings to the mind to be a sign of differentiation, or
increased sense of self. When one disidentifies from the subpersonality and is able to
reflect, he or she will recognize the existence of the polarity of the subpersonality.
(3) Coordination requires the individual to penetrate to the core of the specific
subpersonality in order to find its urge or need. James Vargiu (1973) referred to the
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inherent goodness in these subpersonalities, “no matter how many layers of distortion
may surround it, the basic need, the basic motivation, is a good one--and if it became
twisted, it was because of not being able to express itself directly. The real core--not
what the subpersonality wants, but what it needs, is good” (p. 82). When the individual
makes the need of the subpersonality, which is often to be loved, conscious and seeks to
fulfill this need, the subpersonality will begin to work with the individual rather than
against him or her and will become coordinated around the personality.
(4) The stage of integration is concerned with the relationship between the
subpersonalities. As these subpersonalities manifest as pairs of opposites, they must be
integrated and balanced so that they no longer seek to destroy their opposites but rather to
work together in a mutual existence. According to Vargiu, integration can be
accomplished through time-sharing, cooperation, or absorption and fusion. With time-
sharing, a dialogue is started between opposing poles so that they can realize that their
fighting is causing harm to both and that by compromising each can have power. Thus
the two opposing poles compromise to share the time in which each is in control.
Through cooperation, opposing poles realize that they actually have similar goals and can
work together to achieve them. Finally, opposing poles can become absorbed and fused
with one another, thus creating a new reality or middle path (similar to Assagioli’s Step
3).
(5) The final stage of synthesis (the same as Assagioli’s Step 4) “facilitates the
integration of the personality through the refinement and harmonization of the personality
itself” (Vargiu, 1973, p. 89). The stage of synthesis is considered to be an interpersonal
and transpersonal occurrence as the outcome of synthesis leads the personality to a
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growing interplay with the Transpersonal Self and the world as a whole. Once this five-
step process is completed, the polarities gradually melt away into the self (Besmer, 1973).
If people manage to stay true to their own process of feeling the “impossible” opposites. Eventually their struggle proves to have been a passage to a new self. . . . the extreme chaos the person experiences can eventually calm down sufficiently to allow the incarnation process of a new self to become a living reality. (Schwartz-Salant, 2007, p. 12)
Eastern Concept of Balancing the Pairs of Opposites
Both Western and Eastern literature state that the goal is to find the balance
between the pairs of opposites and walk the middle path or tread the razor’s edge through
detachment or disidentification. The word disidentification is used in Western
psychology, whereas the word detachment is emphasized in the selected Eastern theories
used in this study. Both words, however, refer to the same concept. Abraham (1997)
stated:
Detachment has to do with a psychological vantage point that enables one to see, to observe, to be aware. Detachment implies being free or distanced from the form factor, and therefore, being in a better position to make right judgment. . . . Detachment in this sense is not separation from form, for separation implies moving from distorted consciousness (attachment) to no consciousness (isolation, separation). Detachment implies greater consciousness. (p. 19) In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna stresses to Arjuna the importance of balancing the
pairs of opposites on the personality level in order to obtain union with the Higher Self.
Krishna explains that the self is found through walking the middle path and by holding
the tension between the opposites. He advises against negating the pairs of opposites and
encourages Arjuna to endure them while learning to balance them. It is in the balancing
of them that one is able to align with the Higher Self and it is “from this higher vantage
point that one is able to walk the middle path” (Abraham, 1993, p. 18). According to
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Krishna, “these wise ones have transcended the pairs of opposites; they are the same in
success and failure, indifferent to loss or gain; they never bother to compete or compare,
are free of envy, and contentedly shoulder whatever comes to them” (Hawley, 2001, p.
44). Once the individual has balanced the pairs of opposites, they dwell only in the
Higher Self.
As the pairs of opposites are balanced, the lower self is experienced. The lower
self is experienced as a grounding center around which the personality is formed
(Assagioli, 1965; Gerard, 1961). According to Bowen (1985), as individuals experience
a deeper sense of self through differentiating themselves from the system, they have an
increased sense of I, are able to remain both an individual and part of a group, and are
less susceptible to becoming polarized. As a person becomes more in touch with his or
her self, he or she becomes more congruent and genuine, which usually leads to feelings
of aliveness, confidence, authenticity, clarity, love, and stability (Rogers, 1989; Satir et
al., 1991). As clients connect to their own inner yearnings, expectations, perceptions, and
feelings (self), they are then able to accept, value, and share themselves, resulting in
feelings of wholeness (Lum, 2000). Similarly, according to Psychosynthesis, the lower
self is experienced as a grounding center around which the personality is formed
(Assagioli, 1965; Gerard, 1961). When individuals are in touch with this center, feelings
of integration, harmony, and transcendence emerge, which help to attune them to the
present moment and the universal feeling of connectedness that is thought to exist among
people (Assagioli, 1973). Experiencing and maintaining the lower self sets the
foundation from which one is able to experience the Higher Self through a five-step
process of meditation.
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Meditation
The Higher Self is experienced as the individual consciously tries to fuse his or
her center of identity of the lower self with the Higher Self through meditation.
Meditation “is a conscious deliberate inner action to fulfill some specific purpose”
(Assagioli, n.d., p. 2). While there are thousands of meditation techniques available, the
focus of the present study is a five-step meditation process of concentration, meditation,
contemplation, illumination, and inspiration (Hodgson, 2004; U. Hoehne, personal
communication, June 1, 2007). This technique, which is the product of teachings found in
the Bhagavad Gita, the Yoga Sutras (Bailey, 1955), and the writings of Alice Bailey
(1970), serves to align the lower self with the Higher Self or soul.
(1) The first stage of concentration serves to draw the senses inward through first
focusing on the breath, which results in the individual becoming mindful and present, and
then by chanting the sacred word ohm to “open up and stabilize ourselves in different
states of consciousness” (U. Hoehne, personal communication, May 22, 2006). This
stage of concentration serves to quiet the personality by transcending sensations,
emotions, and thoughts, resulting in a new clarity, which frees the mind then to focus in
any given direction. During this stage, the focus is on using the mind to move the energy.
An energy ball is imagined in the belly and is moved through concentrated visualization
from the belly, up the spine, and into the head for the next stage of meditation.
(2) In this stage, the energy is focused through concentrated effort in the mind
near the pineal gland, which is located in the middle of the brain between the ears. The
importance of the pineal gland is recognized in both Eastern and Western literature. In
1640 Descartes wrote, “my view is that this gland is the principal seat of the soul, and the
place in which all our thoughts are formed.” In Eastern writings, the pineal gland is
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considered to be the place where the energies of the Higher Self or soul enter the body
(Hopking, 2005; Hodgson, 2004). These views are subject to some question;
nevertheless, the energy is moved and focused in the pineal gland during this stage of
meditation to help to transcend emotions (Bailey, 1944; Assagioli, 1964). Also during
this stage of meditation, seed thoughts are used to open the individual to higher states of
consciousness. Seed thoughts are words such as serenity, bliss, harmlessness, or beauty.
These words are meditated on through a process of intense mental activity as follows:
The subject is considered from all angles until gradually all opinions merge into one comprehensive experience of understanding. . . . You move from the subject, to a consideration of one of its qualities or relationships, back to the subject, then out again, etc. Your goal is intense mental activity, confined within the field of ideas opened up by the seed thought. (Hodgson, 2004, p. 159) (3) As one enters the next stage of contemplation, the attention is moved
from the pineal gland up and above the head, through concentrated use of the will,
where the attention is held as high as possible in one-pointed concentration. The
attention then shifts from the mind to the soul, and it is the soul that contemplates
the seed thought. During this stage, the mind is kept quiet through sustained
concentration, and “consciousness slips into the realm of spirit. . . . functioning in
its own realm, perceiving the things of the kingdom of God” (Hodgson, 2004, p.
154).
(4) Contemplation is followed by the stage of illumination, wherein
attention is brought back to the mind to interpret the soul’s impressions. “The
soul seeks to impress upon the brain as much of its Wisdom and Knowledge as it
is capable of receiving and reflecting. The mind records and registers the ideas,
impressions, and concepts, formulating them into phrases and sentences, building
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them into thought forms and constructing clear mental images” (Hodgson, 2004,
p. 159).
(5) This meditation process ends with the stage of inspiration where the
energies and impressions gathered are grounded and integrated, so that the
individual is left with a feeling of inspiration to carry into personal, daily life.
During this stage, the energy is moved from the head first into the heart,
consciously joining heart and head, and then back down into the belly, to “rest
and ground ourselves in the physical body” (Hoehne, personal communication,
May 22, 2006).
This meditation process is a technique that enables the individual to experience
his or her Higher Self or soul. That is,
A clear and full experience of the Self gives at first such a strong sense of self-identity that it is felt as something sure, permanent, unchangeable and indestructible. It is realized as such an essential reality that all other experiences and realities appear, when compared to it, as changing, impermanent and of less or value and significance. (Yoemans, n.d., p. 21)
Experiencing the Higher Self has been described as being in touch with one’s true
essence, which is accompanied by feelings of joy, expansion, serenity, and inner
connectedness and love for all (Assagioli, 1973). When one is connected with his or her
Higher Self, he or she gradually becomes “more compassionate, wise, and inclusive, and
less controlled by separative attitudes such as greed, rage, and envy” (Firman & Russell,
1992). Being connected to the Higher Self gives the individual a feeling of connection to
others and to the world as a whole. The individual becomes connected through a
systemic web of interconnectivity to all that is living. Through this connection, the
individual becomes more compassionate and is able to experience a greater sense of love
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for all mankind. Individuals are often led by a feeling of responsibility for others, which
can lead to their seeking a life of service.
Loss of Self
This section builds on the concept found in the previous chapter of balancing the
pairs of opposites. The loss of self results from an inability to balance intrapersonal,
interpersonal, and/or transpersonal polarities due to identification with or repression of
one of the poles. The experience of loss of self is a universal occurrence that affects
people of all cultures, genders, social standings, and levels of psychological development
(Rogers, 1961). This phenomenon, which is both baffling and traumatic, is little
understood, yet is at the root of many psychological disturbances (Jung, 1933; Assagioli,
1965). Often individuals experience a loss of self and are unaware that it is a loss of self
that has occurred. They might say that the experience was unpleasant or at times
extremely painful, which suggests that there are differing degrees of loss of self. Some
individuals have reported that they felt funny, numb, confused, or not like themselves.
Others described the experience as being traumatic. One client said, “It was like I was
fighting for survival. I did not know which way was up. I felt like I had been pulled
under by this unknown force and there was nothing I could do about it. I just had to wait
till it decided to let me go, and then I would feel normal again.” Many people can
describe the experience of loss of self in great detail but are totally confused and pained
by what happened and why.
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At times, the “I” seems to us the most immediate and sure reality. Again, it is vague, intangible, almost inexistent like a mathematical point. It seems like something distant, like the coinciding in the infinite of innumerable parallels. Sometimes we have a clear sense of our personal identity through all changes; then again we seem changed, different from our “I” of the day before, and we don’t “recognize ourselves.” (Assagioli, n.d., p. 8) There have been a multitude of descriptors to define the phenomenon of loss of
self. From those descriptors, three points can be deduced as follows: (a) at some point
preceding this loss, there was an experience of having this so-called “self”; (b) an event
occurred which threatened this sense of self; and (c) in reaction to this event, something
occurred internally which caused the earlier experience of self to be diminished or lost
completely. The majority of this study focuses on the third point for the purpose of
bringing awareness to this internal shift that results in loss of self.
Both Western and Eastern perspectives observe that the loss of self results from
identification with something that is non-self, which refers to anything that is not one’s
essence, including all negative and positive thoughts, sensations, and feelings
(intrapersonal); another person (interpersonal); or outside factors, such as a job or a car
(Crampton, 1977; Gerard, 1961; Jung, 1933). This concept of non-self refers to the
concept as found in the writings of Psychosynthesis. These elements of non-self manifest
as pairs of opposites that, according to Schwartz-Salant (2007), exist between the
individual’s intrapsychic conscious and unconscious or between the interpersonal
dynamics between individuals. Identification with the non-self, which results in a loss of
self, is not considered to be a pathological occurrence. Rather, identification with non-
self refers to a state of being “ . . . when we are completely identified with any one thing,
we think, feel, and act accordingly. We then believe that we are for example, ‘rational,’
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or we are a ‘victim’ or we are ‘strong,’ and we begin to feel that we are this to the
exclusion of all else” (Carter-Haar, 1975, p. 56). The key to identification is at the
exclusion of all else, which includes the lower self and Higher Self. In the East, the loss
of self is thought to result from a disconnection with the soul, a disconnection that is
caused by one’s identifying with the personality (an example of the transpersonal polarity
soul/personality). According to Bailey (1950), identification with the lower self
manifests on the emotional level as glamour and on the mental level as illusion.
As one identifies with one of the polar opposites on either the physical, emotional,
mental, or interpersonal levels, the lower self becomes disintegrated because one is no
longer holding the tension between the two polarities, such as, when one identifies with
being hungry on the physical level, being angry on the emotional level, or having a
thought of injustice on the mental level. Identification is especially prevalent on the
emotional level: “A person in a sense, becomes like a psychological prisoner of the
pendulum swing between likes and dislikes on the emotional plane” (Abraham, 1993, p.
5). When a person becomes identified with feelings, thoughts, or sensations, the person
becomes polarized; thus one loses self in the action of identifying with the non-self (Jung,
1933). This identification may last only a moment, as the person experiences only a
small, subtle loss of self. At times, the person may become so identified with the non-
self that all of the person’s attention is absorbed in the polarity, and that absorption
results in a significant loss of self.
Western Psychological Perspective
Loss of self resulting from a failure to balance the pairs of opposites can be seen
from the Western psychological perspective in the intrapersonal dynamics of
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identification, repression, and projection/projective identification; and in the interpersonal
dynamics of fusion with another through unconscious patterns of collusion (Freud, 1934;
Jung, 1933; Winnicott, 1958; Assagioli, 1965; Bowen, 1985). Individuals are made up of
pairs of opposites, both of which must be acknowledged in order to be balanced
(Assagioli, 1972; Jung, 1933). Often these pairs of opposites are divided into “good” and
“bad.” Individuals tend to identify with the good parts at the exclusion of the bad parts,
which are consciously or unconsciously covered up through repression into the
unconscious or shadow side or through outward projection (Zweig & Abrams, 1991).
Identification
Conscious identification can be beneficial to the individual, as it has a specialized
quality which “when we identify with any one part of ourselves, we are able to
experience it fully, without being distracted. We feel the way it feels, see the way it sees,
for it represents a particular, specialized state of consciousness” (Cater-Haar, 1975, p.
61). Conscious identification allows individuals to identify with whichever part of
themselves will aid them in the moment, such as being strong, being a leader, or being a
good communicator. However, problems occur when identification becomes an
unconscious process where the individual identifies with whatever exerts the greatest pull
on his or her consciousness.
Subpersonalities. According to Assagioli, individuals will identify with different
subpersonalities, which are “simple discrete patterns of feelings, thoughts, and behavior
which often operate out of awareness--in the middle unconscious--and break into
awareness when triggered by different life situations” (Firman & Russell, 1992).
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When we are strongly identified with something, such as a major subpersonality, most of our energy flows through it. And our energy is filtered by it as well. In other words, only energy of a quality compatible with the basic quality of that subpersonality will be allowed to flow. This means that whatever we are identified with controls the acceptance and rejection of our experiences. (Carter-Haar, 1975, p. 69)
For example, if an individual is identified with the inferior subpersonality, even when he
or she receives praise or stands out as being superior in some area, he or she will not be
able to accept the praise, for praise is contrary to the inferior subpersonality. When
individuals identify with select parts of themselves and are cut off from other parts of
themselves, they cannot hold the tension between the poles, and they become
incongruent, aligning themselves with their false selves.
Repression
The perceived need for individuals to repress parts of themselves begins early in
childhood and is caused by interpersonal dynamics within the family, which encourage
them to abandon the quest for self and seek the approval of others (Miller, 1997; Rogers,
1980, 1986; Whitfield, 1987). As individuals begin to split between their true selves and
the selves they feel compelled to show to the world, they become unable to experience
themselves as whole beings. When individuals are cut off from parts of themselves, they
become incongruent, and therefore may experience feelings of emptiness, isolation, and
hopelessness, which may ultimately lead to symptoms of depression (Rogers, 1984).
According to Satir, “many of us hear frequent and persistent messages that
something is wrong with us, we do not fit according to some authority, and therefore in
all likelihood, someone else fits better. Consequently, conformity, and obeying have a
major crippling effect on our sense of self” (Satir et al., 1991, p. 6). Unfortunately, the
majority of these negative messages of not being enough originate from parental
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influences. Satir stressed the potential damaging effects to children caused by the
interactions within the primary triad. Since their survival depends on their parents’ love,
children will hide or reject parts of themselves that do not conform to their parents’
projections of how they are expected to be. As children conform to the wishes of others,
they lose themselves, their voices, and end up gauging their self-worth by others’
reactions to them (Satir & Baldwin, 1983). Repression of parts of oneself leads to a loss
of self, as the individual can no longer recognize and balance both of the poles. As
individuals continue to repress parts of themselves, they will begin to develop defense
mechanisms to compensate for this loss of self (Satir at el., 1977).
Defense mechanisms and a false self. In adapting to others’ wishes, children learn
to adopt survival rules that dictate their behavior and communication. Satir referred to
four survival stances: placating, blaming, being super-reasonable, and being irrelevant.
Each survival stance serves to protect the child’s self-worth (Satir, 1982, 1976).
Behind every defensive posture and incongruent response, each of us has a self-worth that always makes the same request: “I just want to be loved”. . . . When an event raises the question of whether that love and trust really exist, we activate our survival responses. Underneath the question of survival are usually the beliefs that others are in charge of our lives, that we could not cope without them, and that they define us. (Satir et al., 1991, p. 23)
Similar to Satir, Rogers (1980) believed that individuals adopt defense mechanisms to
protect their self-worth. These defense mechanisms manifest as roles or masks, which
they portray to the outside world. Although these survival stances and roles may initially
protect the individual’s self-worth (similar to subpersonalities), eventually they prove to
be problematic over time, leading the individual to becoming rigid and reactive.
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According to Kohut (1978), as individuals are met with chronically or
traumatically frustrating experiences where they are confronted by an unempathetic self-
object, the self becomes damaged and is forced to develop either a defensive or
compensatory structure. If the self is met with persistent frustration, it will cause
fragmentation of the self and a possible permanent break-up. When the self is not
“qualified by the other, committed to the ‘objective’ element, and without being lived in a
dialectical relationship with others, the ‘self’ is not able to preserve what precarious
identity or aliveness it may already possess” (Laing, 1959, p.139). When an individual
does not receive mirroring and empathy, he or she will become blocked and will fixate on
that part of himself or herself which did not receive validation, developing either a
defensive or compensatory structure to cover up this weakness in the self (see Figure
3.3).
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Unhealthy Development—Unempathetic Self-objects
Fragmentation Fragmentation of the self of the self
Figure 3.3. A Diagrammatical Representation of Arrested Development (Kahn, 1985, p. 899).
When the grandiose self is frustrated, the child’s self-esteem is injured and thus as
an adult, he or she will cling to the self-object as a means of validation and will be
vulnerable to shame and embarrassment. When the idealized parent is frustrated, the
child becomes disappointed, and as an adult will seek out others to provide self-soothing
in addition to looking outside himself or herself for his or her sense of inner values
(Patton & Robbins, 1982). Although defense mechanisms may initially provide the
individual with a sense of relief, defense mechanisms ultimately lead to a loss of self, as
Cohesive Self
Alter-ego or twinship needs
Grandiose and exhibitionistic needs
Insufficient Human closeness
Insufficient mirroring Idealized self-object unavailable
Idealizing needs
Self vulnerable to narcissistic injury producing either withdraw or frequent
rage; sexual, aggressive or oral activities used by the fragmented self to soothe, stimulate or pull itself together; feelings of depression, boredom, and
emptiness in life.
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they result from either identification or repression, both of which lead to an inability to
balance the pairs of opposites.
Shadow. As individuals are met with unempathetic others in their childhood, they
begin to suppress parts of themselves into their subconscious (Miller, 1997). Repressed
parts do not disappear. Rather, the repressed parts go underground, existing in the
individual’s unconscious and forming the shadow. According to Jung (1955), the shadow
is the part that one is unconscious of; the part that one has disowned because it is too
painful to be integrated into personality. Jung (1955) stated:
Everyone carries a shadow, and the less it is embodied in the individual’s conscious life, the blacker and denser it is. At all counts, it forms an unconscious snag, thwarting our most well-meant intentions . . . . By shadow I mean the “negative” side of the personality, the sum of all those unpleasant qualities we like to hide, together with the insufficiently developed functions and the content of the personal unconscious. (p. 14) The more the parts of the self are rejected and pushed into the unconscious, the
more they try to escape, thus the more energy it takes to keep them unconscious. This
unconscious process causes a fragmentation in the self, as one is not acknowledging and
holding the tension between opposites parts. As the self begins to fragment, the repressed
parts of the self are considered to be non-self and are seen “out there.” These repressed
parts of the self are likely to be projected into others, as the person is likely to “project by
attributing this quality to the other person in an unconscious effort to banish it from
ourselves” (Zweig & Abrams, 1991, p. XVIII).
Projection/Projective Identification
Both processes of repression and projection serve to rid parts of the self that have
been disowned because they are too painful to be integrated into the personality. As one
of the poles is disavowed, it becomes impossible to hold the tension between the two; and
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the individual becomes automatically polarized. When individuals are unaware of parts of
themselves, they are more likely to unconsciously identify with these elements when they
are projected onto them through the process of projective identification. When a person
identifies with a projection, he or she is identifying with that certain pole within himself
or herself (Laing, 1961; Willi, 1982). As this occurs, he or she becomes temporarily
polarized in identifying with the non-self.
Willi (1982), a student of Freud, described the unconscious ways in which
couples collude through projection and projective identification in order to get from the
other what they cannot get from themselves. Willi considered collusion to be an
unconscious interplay between two people based on similar unresolved issues.
The behavior of one person exercises an overwhelming influence upon the behavior of another . . . . This process is reinforced by mutual unconscious patterns which, although repressed by both parties, merge together when a polarization of roles comes about. (p. 154)
Within relationships, “the common, unresolved central conflict is acted out through
different roles which give one the impression that each partner is the exact opposite of the
other, when in reality we are dealing with the polar variants of the same theme” (Willi,
1982, p. 56). Unconscious collusions ultimately lead to a loss of self, as the individual
seeks attributes in the other and projects attributes onto the other that they have repressed
within themselves. According to Dicks (1963), a person will a pick a partner who will be
a container for his or her projections. Partners will then try to manipulate the other into
acting in accordance with their projections. As one partner projects a part of himself or
herself into the other, “at that moment, past and present merge, as the self is able to repeat
an unresolved dynamic with a new but equally important other” (Siegel, 2005, p. 408).
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Loss of self due to unconscious collusions with another, involving either
projecting or identifying with projections, begins in childhood, as the child adopts certain
roles assigned to it by its parents. The child then becomes the substitute for the rejected
parts of the parents (Willi, 1982). Learning to adapt to another to get their needs met,
children then carry this form of coping style, whatever it may be, into their future
relationships. For example, if a mother projects onto her child that of being a victim, the
child then internalizes his or her part of being a victim along with the mother’s part of
being a victimizer. The child will then carry this dyad and will reenact it in future
situations. Depending on the situation, the individual may choose to identify with the
victim and project the victimizer or vice versa. As individuals project onto another, they
lose the ability to find that which they project in themselves. This creates a fragmented
self. Laing (1961) stated “the one person does not wish merely to have the other as a
hook on which to hang his projections. He strives to find in the other, or to induce the
other to become, the very embodiment of that other whose co-operation is required as a
‘complement’ of the particular identity he feels impelled to sustain” (p. 101).
The idea of unconscious collusion is similar to Bowen’s (1985) idea that some
spouses unconsciously seek to fuse two partial selves into a common self, which results
in the loss of self.
One spouse becomes the more dominant decision-maker for the common self, while the other adapts to the situation. This is one of the best examples of borrowing and trading of self in a close relationship. One may assume the dominant role and force the other to be adaptive. . . . The dominant one gains self at the expense of the more adaptive one, who loses self. (Bowen, p. 377)
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Fusional Complex
According to Bowen (1985) and Schwartz-Salant (2007) the polarity that causes
individuals the most problems is the polarity of distance/fusion or
individuality/togetherness.
One of the most fundamental features of the human condition is the struggle that arises out of the need to strike a balance between two basic urges: the drive towards being an individual--one alone, autonomous--and the drive towards being together with others in relationship. (Gilbert, 1992, p. 12)
Schwartz-Salant (2007) referred to this polarity as the fusion complex and pointed to the
maddening affect of this impossibility of opposites. According to Bowen (1985), in an
attempt to decrease anxiety and to increase closeness, individuals will fuse with each
other. However, the increase in togetherness leads to a decrease in the individual’s sense
of self. Schwartz-Salant (2007) stressed that it is the presence of the impossibility of the
opposites of fusion and distance that creates the anxiety. Individuals try to escape by
dissociating the awareness of the presence of the polarities of fusion and distance from
awareness by mind-body splitting and retreats into passive fantasies.
Both Bowen (1985) and Schwartz-Salant (2007) described a systemic relation
between individuals, wherein an individual’s behavior is influenced by the interactions
within the system. Bowen viewed families as emotional units in which family members
have less autonomy in their behaviors than one would think, as they are greatly
influenced by what is going on in the family. Bowen pointed to the tendency for
individuals to function in reciprocal relationships to one another (one person loses
strength to another person’s gain). Similarly, Schwartz-Salant emphasized the impact of
the field between individuals on the individual’s behavior. The field is considered to be
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the space between people, which is “alive with meaning and contains its own process”
(Rubin, 2000, p. 341). He stressed that “it was important that these states of mind were
ours--that it was not Naomi’s projective identification at work, and that this chaos was
also my chaos, which lived in the space between us. The chaos, the nothingness, and pull
into a void were our condition, not something we were doing to one another” (Schwartz-
Salant, 2007, p. 84).
Eastern Spiritual Perspective
Eastern spiritual teachings emphasize that identification or attachment (these
words are used interchangeably) with anything that is not the Higher Self (transpersonal
dynamic), whether it is on the physical, emotional, mental, or personality levels, is the
cause of all suffering or loss of self. Thousands of years ago Buddha illuminated this
concept as the basis for the Four Noble Truths: (a) Life is suffering. (b) The cause of
suffering is attachment. (c) Suffering can be eliminated. (d) Suffering is eliminated
through following the eight-fold path (Bahm, 1958).
Bhagavad Gita
In addition to Buddha’s Four Noble Truths, the Hindu scripture, the Bhagavad
Gita, stresses the importance of disidentification or detachment (these words are used
interchangeably), especially from desire. In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna stated that as
one becomes identified with desires or emotions, he or she loses sight of the Self, which
leads to “delusion, confused memory, destruction of discrimination,” and ultimately the
perishing of the self (Besant, 1947).
Abraham (1993) summarized Krishna’s description of how desires develop,
leading to attachment and ultimate loss of self. The pattern develops as follows: There is
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the initial contact with matter to which the senses perceive and react. As the senses react,
there is an initial sense of attraction or repulsion, which creates desires and attachment to
the fruits of action--“from attachments ariseth desire.” When one becomes attached to
the fruits of action, which leads to expectations, anger is soon to follow when these
expectations are not met--“from desire anger cometh forth.” The culmination of these
events is delusion--“destruction of discrimination”--and ultimate loss of oneself.
Krishna explains that it is the lower self that is thrown into the fluctuations of
likes and dislikes and the endless cycle enumerated above. Eventually, the lower self
must be disciplined by the Higher Self, which is unfazed by the tides of desire. The
battle between the lower self and the Higher Self is the ultimate polarity that the
individual or disciple must face. According to Krishna, this battle between the lower self
and the Higher Self is the purpose of existence, and it is only through the triumph over
the lower self that the soul is free. Thus, the ultimate goal is the reclaiming of the Higher
Self (Abraham, 1993).
Glamour/Illusion
According to Bailey (1950), the loss of self results from identifying with the
personality, which is caused by a failure to balance the pairs of opposites. This
identification manifests differently on the various levels of the personality. On the
mental level it manifests as illusion and is “the misunderstanding of ideas or
thoughtforms” (Bailey, 1950, p. 21). When desire is added to illusion, it then becomes
glamour, which manifests on the emotional level, and according to Bailey, is much more
prevalent today than illusion because of the emotional polarization of most people.
Glamour, which Bailey considered to be a major problem today, is anything with which
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one identifies on the emotional level that causes disconnection from the soul and results
in loss of self. Bailey stressed that the problem is not that these things exist, but rather
that we identify with them (Abraham, 1993; Bailey, 1942, 1944, 1950).
Glamours have been likened to a mist or fog in which the aspirant wanders and which distort all that he sees and contacts, preventing him from ever seeing life truly or clearly or the conditions surrounding him as they essentially are. . . . Glamour settles down upon him and he is rendered powerless to release himself or to do anything constructive. (Bailey, 1950, p. 31) According to Bailey (1950), glamour is the immediate problem that stands before
humanity. Glamours exist on the emotional plane and are considered to be actual forms
of energy, which are “smothering, vague and enveloping. In them, the person is
immersed as in the ocean or in a ‘sea of fog’” (p. 72). Glamour exists in many forms, all
of which distort the individual’s sense of reality, including the glamour of materiality,
sentiment, devotion, self-centeredness, personal ambition, isolation, victimhood, self-
pity, service, harmony, conflict, knowledge, idealism, and self-importance (Bailey, 1950;
Abraham, 1993). Abraham stated that “glamours are often virtues carried too far (such as
honesty to the point of distorting perception and failing to see people’s ‘humanity’) or a
virtue twisted in a personal way (the recognition of the importance of love, but trying to
turn it for one’s own personal good feeling)” (Abraham, 1993, p. 61). Describing
Bailey’s concept of glamour, Hawkins (2005) stated that glamour is “an energy that is
projected externally and imbues its object with exaggerated desirability that quickly fades
because it is not a quality of the admired object but an ego projection from the observer”
(p. 102).
According to Bailey, the only way to overcome glamour is through the use of the
illumined mind, which acts as a spotlight to reflect the soul’s light upon the emotional
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attachment. She stated, “glamour can only be dissipated by the inflow of clear, directed
light” (p. 241). Glamour, which is just a polarity and is similar to a subpersonality, is
overcome through shifting the energy and attention from the emotions to the mind where
the mind can then observe and shed light on the glamour. From the Eastern perspective,
until an individual has reached extremely high levels of consciousness, loss of self is an
inevitable part of the human process. However, as one progresses in balancing the pairs
of opposites, the occurrences of this phenomenon will steadily decrease.
Summary
This chapter has reviewed the literature on the organizing principle of this
dissertation, balancing the pairs of opposites, as this principle is found in the theories
presented in chapter 2 and as it applies to the concepts of the experience of self and the
loss of self. As they relate to the organizing principle of balancing the pairs of opposites,
the experience of self and loss of self sections are based on two principles: (a) The lower
self and the Higher Self are experienced and maintained by balancing or holding the
tension between pairs of opposites manifesting on the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and
transpersonal levels (Abraham, 1993; Bailey, 1951; Assagioli, 1972, 1973). (b) The loss
of self, which is considered to be a normal occurrence and not pathological, results as
polarities on the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal levels become unbalanced
either through identification with or repression of one of the poles.
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CHAPTER 4
CONFESSIONAL STATEMENT
This confessional statement serves as an apologia to provide an actual experience
of the theory. The intent of this statement is to reflect back on the theory so that it is
understood in life-as-lived terms. The statement is, therefore, contextualized in a first-
person voice. My own experience of self and loss of self has been the catalyst for writing
this dissertation. Looking to both Western psychology and Eastern spirituality to find the
answers to my painful experiences with loss of self and finding them both lacking, I
resolved to find my own experiential therapy/theory, with the guidance of my own
therapist. This, I believed, would integrate Western and Eastern theories and the concepts
I found helpful from both sides, including the concepts of mindfulness, the conscious
observer, and balancing the pairs of opposites.
Background
As far back as I can remember I have experienced very distinct periods of loss of
self, although at the time I did not realize that was the nature of the experience. Not until
I began to experience my “self” in therapy and began to feel connected to my self and the
world around me was I able to give words to my experience of loss of self--which I have
endured most of my life--and to identify those episodes as they continued to occur.
Although loss of self is usually painful, I believe that loss of self is especially painful and
noticeable as one begins to experience the self on a deeper level and realizes the contrast
between the two states. For me, a sense of self is evidenced by clear thinking, having a
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sense of my center, and feeling connected to my self and the world around me. Whereas
loss of self is evidenced by the onset of hazy, unclear thinking, the flooding of
undifferentiated emotions, and the feeling of disconnection from my self and the world
around me. Schwartz-Salant (2007) states that as the self enters time and space or begins
to be felt more strongly, there is a period of disorder, which is sometimes felt as “non-
containment, a ‘falling through,’ or even being pulled, into nothingness” (p. 43). He
points to the hero myth to validate the increase in the sensation of loss of self as the self
begins to gain strength, an experience wherein the hero goes to bring back order, but is
confronted with the forces of disorder. The increase in loss of self “clothes itself in many
forms of the shadow, notably an internal, powerful rage or violence, or envy. Suffering
the disorder is functional: it breaks down body armoring, so that the self can embody”
(Schwartz-Salant, 2007, p. 42). Over the years, these experiences of loss of self have
become more and more troubling to me, especially when these experiences occur when I
have been with clients. Therefore, dealing with this issue became my personal obsession
and the focus of my weekly therapy sessions for about three years.
Personal Origins of Loss of Self
As the theory states, in order to understand my sense of self and loss of self, I
have to look beyond myself to the dynamics in the system of which I am a part.
Systemic Interactions (Interpersonal Influences)
Many types of addictions and mental disorders run in my extended family,
including alcoholism, severe depression, and schizophrenia. Growing up I watched the
reactions of my family members to these individuals with mental illnesses. I sensed that
there was something wrong with these individuals, that they had to be taken care of, and
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that their illnesses were not to be talked about. I witnessed that certain emotions
associated with these mental illnesses, such as sadness, vulnerability, chaos, anger, and
fear, were not accepted and were somewhat shunned. As I witnessed this shunning of
certain emotions in others, I began to repress similar emotions, for fear that these feelings
would not be accepted, and for fear that these emotions would overtake me, as I had
witnessed with my family members.
Repression and Identification (Intrapersonal Influences)
Understanding the interpersonal/systemic influences on my sense of self and loss
of self has helped me to understand my intrapersonal reactions/polarities. As I repressed
my “dark side” for fear that these emotions would not be accepted by my family, I began
to identify with the persona or subpersonality of “I’m fine, nothing bothers me.” Thus
began the internal polarization of I’m fine/I’m not fine. As I continued to identify with
the polarity of I’m fine, which included acceptance of my “light side” (positive emotions)
and the repression of my dark side (negative emotions), I began to feel more and more
fragmented and alienated from my self (loss of self).
The internal pain of continual loss of self led me to self-medicate with alcohol
during my teenage years, which served to artificially balance the pairs of opposites within
me so that I could eek out a modicum of peace from the dark feelings that were
screaming to be heard. As the literature stated, those repressed parts did not disappear,
and the more these feelings are repressed, the more they fight to surface. My continual
insistence on repressing these feelings led to a problem with alcohol, which led to a
period of deep depression.
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This period of depression led me to check into rehab for alcohol addiction.
During my stay in rehab, all the feelings I had been repressing for years began to flood
forth, and I felt totally overwhelmed. Although I began to realize and acknowledge my
repressed feelings (step one of regaining a sense of self) while in rehab and with therapy
after I left rehab, I still could not accept these feelings and continued to deny my sadness
and depression as much as I could. For years after rehab, I stayed sober but still did not
feel whole. I felt that parts of myself were missing, and that I was not really experiencing
life. Although I had not experienced a depression like I did when I was nineteen, I lived
in a kind of low-grade depressive state. This colored my interactions with the world and
led me to periods of isolation where I felt an overwhelming sense of fear about both the
world and simple daily tasks. I now see that my depression resulted from not accepting
all the parts of myself. As the premise of this study states: in order to fully experience
the self, all parts of the self--all polarities--must be recognized and accepted and then
brought into integration/balance through holding the tension between the polarities.
Spiritual Bypass (Transpersonal Influences)
During this time, instead of dealing with the pain of my lower self, I tried to
bypass this pain through contacting my Higher Self through meditation techniques taught
in Eastern spiritual teachings. Immersing myself in these spiritual teachings, I began to
define things in black and white in terms of “spiritual” and “not spiritual.” I created and
identified with a spiritual persona and proceeded to think and act according to what I
perceived to be the spiritual way. This activity was at the expense of my real feelings. I
lived in a continuous state of incongruence, wherein my outsides rarely matched my
insides. This attempt to do a spiritual bypass of my emotions was very seductive, as I
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convinced myself that I was being spiritual. This led me not to my Higher Self but rather
further and further away from any sense of self. As the theory states, in order to contact
and maintain a connection with the Higher Self, the lower self must be integrated, so that
the tension can be held between the lower self and the Higher Self. I was living the
concept, attempting to contact the Higher Self (transpersonal influences) before
integrating the lower self, resulting in a loss of self.
Finding My Self in Therapy/Balancing the Pairs of Opposites
I believe the purpose of psychotherapy for me has been to reconnect with the parts
of myself that had become fragmented over the years. This process has been
accomplished by unraveling the layers within myself that I had suppressed. In the quest
to accept all parts of myself, feeling these feelings, and then holding the tension between
the opposite feelings, I have been able to feel more whole. Psychotherapy has been a
process for me. For years I was in therapy and made very little progress because I was
not willing to feel uncomfortable. I believe that lasting change only comes from learning
to accept and experience all parts of oneself and to be comfortable with the
uncomfortable states and actions that accompany growth and self-discovery.
It is only through getting in touch with my shadow or dark side and learning to
hold the tension between the dark and the light that I have been able to experience my
self. Getting in touch with my dark side meant confronting my family’s mental illness,
which included getting in touch with the “crazy” parts within myself that I had
suppressed over the years. I believe as Bowen (1985) observed, that we all have a bit of
schizophrenia in us. Bowen stated that the degree of the presence of such characteristics
within us, as well as environmental factors, are what determine if these crazy parts
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develop into disorders. I believe that I have many crazy parts within myself; however, I
do not believe they are abnormally crazy and warrant a diagnosis. That is not to say,
however, that these parts could not develop into severe problems if they were continually
repressed in concurrence with other negative environmental factors.
Coming to terms with the “dark” parts within myself and accepting these parts
gave me a great sense of relief, a freedom and a realization that I was not actually crazy.
As I was able to accept these dark and painful parts of myself, they no longer held power
over me, and I could begin to integrate them back into myself, through holding the
tension between the dark and the “light,” which gave me a sense of control over them.
Accepting these painful parts of myself did not make them go away, however. Rather,
through my accepting the painful parts, they became manageable, and I was and am able
to work and learn from them.
By no means has the purpose of my therapy been to alleviate my pain, but rather
to get in touch with it in order to move through it. I see pain, whether it is in the form of
depression, anxiety, guilt, etc., as a gift that when accepted as it is, not judged, and not
forced to change will transform itself into a deeper level of understanding. Through this
process I have noticed that I have become more tolerant with myself, which includes
being more comfortable with being uncomfortable. As I began to disidentify from certain
parts of myself and reintegrate other parts, I was able to reflect on all these parts and see
the cooperation between all of them. I was able to see how every part, defense,
subpersonality, or role had a place in me. As I began to integrate all these parts through
holding the tension between the polarities, I began to experience a deeper sense of self.
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Defining Loss of Self in Personal Terms
As I began to experience a sense of self, I also became acutely aware of the
periods when I lost this sense of self. Although I have frequently experienced very
distinct periods of loss of self, I was now able to identify these periods for what they were
and realize I did not have to exist that way. Thus I began to carefully examine these
periods so that I could describe exactly what was happening, figure out why it was
happening, and learn how to stop it from happening.
What Happens
When I experience periods of loss of self, it is as though I am invaded by some
unknown force that drags me under and leaves me feeling desperate. My loss of self is
evidenced a sudden onset of cloudy thinking, a feeling of disconnection from both myself
and the world around me, and a feeling of being overwhelmed by a flood of “hazy
preverbal undifferentiated feelings” (U. Hoehne, personal communication, July 15,
2007). When I experience periods of loss of self I become flooded with feelings so
overwhelming that I cannot distinguish what they are, and I become paralyzed by them.
The feeling of being paralyzed manifests as an inability to think or articulate myself
clearly, a feeling of total disconnection from myself and others, and a feeling of
helplessness and panic. Schwartz-Salant’s described this experience of loss of self as “a
mental blankness or fragmentation, a feeling of becoming overwhelmed and
disembodied, and sometimes severe body and psychic pains, leading to desperation” and
can be accompanied by “extreme and destabilizing anxiety, a compensatory rage, and
temporarily impaired capacity for reflection and clear thinking” (Schwartz-Salant, 2007,
p. 126). It is the sense that there is “a kind of spell in the room, and accompanying
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feelings of mental deadness and muteness” (Schwartz-Salant, 2007, p. 96). These periods
of loss of self vary from being very brief and only relatively uncomfortable to lasting
days and being extremely isolating and emotionally painful.
When these episodes occur, although I can still interact with others, I become
very withdrawn, and my attention is almost completely absorbed in an inward battle for
survival. While this may sound dramatic to refer to these episodes as a battle, that is
exactly how they feel. These episodes of loss of self can be extremely uncomfortable, as
though my entire being is threatened with annihilation, and I feel as though I must fight
for survival of my sense of self as witnessed by a sense of center, clear thinking, and a
feeling of connection to the world around me.
Although these descriptions may sound pathological and although they do have a
psychotic element to them, I do not believe my experiences of loss of self dictate a
pathological occurrence. Psychosis is evidenced by the existence of sensations,
emotions, and or thoughts, which are so overwhelming that the individual is overtaken
and is unable to exist in reality the majority of the time. I believe that psychosis, as
evidenced by any feeling or thought which engulfs us for any period of time, such as
chaos, madness, dread, rage, anxiety, etc., exists in all of us. I do not believe that sanity
means that one is free from these psychotic elements, but rather that one has discovered
these parts within himself or herself and is able to integrate them into personal being and
not repress them out of fear of becoming insane. I believe that the true evidence for
sanity is that one is able to touch the depths of insanity and the heights of sanity and
identify with neither by holding the tension between these two poles.
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Why Loss of Self Occurs
Loss of the lower self and the Higher Self results as polarities on the
intrapersonal, interpersonal, and/or transpersonal levels become unbalanced either
through identification with or repression of one of the poles (Assagioli, 1965, 1973;
Bailey, 1950, 1951, 1962). In observing my own periods of loss of self, I have noticed
that it results from identifying/repressing the same reoccurring polarities, and vacillating
between the poles of these specific dualities, depending on the situation. The main
polarities which manifest in my life on the intrapersonal level are happy/sad, like/dislike,
and pleasure/pain. Loss of self results when I vacillate between the poles, identifying
with one pole one minute, while in the next minute identifying with the other pole. On
the interpersonal level, the main polarities that manifest in my life are victim/victimizer,
inferior/superior, underfunctioning/overfunctioning, and fusion/distance. The
transpersonal polarities that exist between the personality and soul are I/we, personal
benefit/good of the group, and illusion/reality. My connection to my Higher Self is lost
as I identify with the lower self on either the physical, emotional, mental, or personality
levels or another individual on the interpersonal level.
Regaining a Sense of Self
As I searched for ways to regain self and looked to both Western and Eastern
literature, I could find no comprehensive theory that gave an adequate explanation or way
to restore a sense of self, a paucity that resulted in my attempt to integrate theories and
fill in the holes in theory with my findings from my own personal experience. Integrating
Western and Eastern literature with my own personal experience, I have integrated
Assagioli’s (1972) four-step process for balancing the polarities, Vargiu’s (1973)
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five-step process for harmonizing subpersonalities, and additional techniques that I
learned in therapy (U. Hoehne, personal communication, July 17, 2007). I condensed the
recovery of self to a three-step process: (a) recognizing and naming in the here and now
the feelings associated with the sensation of loss of self; (b) identifying with the feeling
and giving words to it in order to identify the need behind the feeling so that the polarity
being triggered can be identified; and (c) shifting to the conscious observer through the
process disidentification and reflecting on the situation, thus gaining insight and clarity.
Practical Example
The following example outlines the three-step process used in an actual, personal
experience of loss of self. The experience occurred right after getting off the phone with
a friend of mine who had just given me what I perceived as negative feedback on a
section of my dissertation (which I believed I had just finished).
I am sitting at my computer and I am starting to become more and more
confused. My brain seems to be in a fog; I start to feel more and more
disconnected from myself, as though I am sinking into a hole. I am unable
to think; everything seems heavy, and I feel desperate and panicked.
There is an overall feeling of massive anxiety and helplessness and no
matter what I do it will not go away. The more I try to get out of this
feeling, the more it seems to close in around me with a dooming presence.
Thoughts accompany this feeling. I can’t do this. I will never finish this
paper. I can’t, I can’t, I can’t. It will never be good enough. What is the
use? No one can help me.… The thoughts take over and drag me further
under. This is my reality. I am totally immersed in it.
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This experience of loss of self details one actual experience of what occurred internally
when I experienced a loss of self. Although the circumstances usually vary, the interior
feelings and symptoms are the same: hazy, unclear thinking; a flooding of
undifferentiated feelings with an overall feeling of panic; and an overwhelming sense of
disconnection from myself and the world around me. This theory proposes that when one
experiences a loss of self, there is a specific three-step process to follow to regain a sense
of self.
Step 1: Recognize a loss of self has occurred and name the feelings. After about
fifteen minutes into this panicked state, the thought came to me: This is an
example of loss of self. I knew this, because I had come to recognize the
symptoms. As soon as I had this realization, I knew I had to proceed to name
what I was feeling. I was feeling fear. As soon as I named what I was feeling, the
feeling lost some of its power over me, and I could begin to work with the fear.
Step 2: Identify with the feeling in order to identify the polarity that is being
triggered. Once I identified the feeling of fear, I sat with this feeling and tried to
give the feeling words. My fear of the paper not measuring up to the “all-
powerful authority” translated into my fear of not being enough. I then realized I
had identified with the interpersonal pole of inferiority in the
inferiority/superiority polarity. I have noticed that polarities seem to exist
simultaneously on the intrapersonal and interpersonal levels and continuously
influence each other. I am not usually aware of the interpersonal polarity until the
intrapersonal polarity manifests. In the above example, I became aware of my
own feeling of fear and identification with inferiority. Once I reflected on these
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feelings, I noticed that they were reactions to a subtle, at first unconscious,
polarity of victim (me)/victimizer (another) into which I had slipped with another
person (my friend from the phone call).
In my observations, polarities manifest in layers with one primary polarity
influencing many secondary polarities. The task, then, is to decipher which of
these is the primary polarity that, when balanced, will automatically bring the
other polarities into balance? In my experience I have come to recognize that a
few polarities continually arise in my interactions, including
inferiority/superiority, victim/victimizer, and distance/fusion. I also recognize the
polarity of victim/victimizer as being the primary polarity that influences all the
others.
Step 3: Shift to the conscious observer and hold the tension between the polarities.
By disidentifying from my fear and feelings of inferiority through consciously
shifting from the emotional level to the mental level, I was able to work to shift
out of the victim polarity by holding the tension between the poles of victim and
victimizer. As I have worked to balance these polarities, I have experimented
with two different ways to hold the tension between the two. One way to balance
the poles is to consciously to shift my identification to the other polarity until the
two balance out. This approach is not usually a quick fix, and I swing back and
forth until I am somewhere near the middle, and, of course, then it starts again!
Another way, which works better for me, is to consciously attempt to identify
with the middle compromise, and then to manifest this compromise in my daily
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life, so that there is less chance to identify with either polarity. For example, in
the polarity of victim/victimizer, trying to identify with harmlessness (see
Figure 4.1).
Benevolent Understanding
Victim Harmlessness Victimizer
Figure 4.1 Triangle representation of the pairs of opposites (Researcher generated).
Identifying with harmlessness meant not only practicing harmlessness with others
but also with myself. Trying to manifest harmlessness then brought me to another
polarity of inferiority/superiority, wherein I was identified with inferiority. I then worked
to balance this polarity by holding the tension between the two poles by trying to practice
humility, the middle compromise between inferiority and superiority.
Whenever I become identified with a polarity, I take time to regain my balance.
The sooner I become mindful of my identification, the easier I can regain a sense of self.
I have found that balancing the pairs of opposites is a moment-to-moment process. As
soon as I feel I have balanced one polarity, another will surface. Ultimately, I aspire to
be consistently mindful and not experience loss of self. I want to be able continuously to
hold the tension between the polarities and not become identified with or unconsciously
try and repress one of them. However, this accomplishment has not been my experience,
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and I continually have to attempt to regain my sense of self, which for me is an ongoing
process and not an ultimate destination.
Once I am able to establish my connection to my lower self, I can work to contact
my Higher Self through the five-step meditation process of concentration, meditation,
contemplation, illumination, and inspiration explained in chapter 3 (Hodgson, 2004; U.
Hoehne, personal communication, May 22, 2007). I have found this process to be one of
the simplest yet most effective meditation techniques I have used. As with all things, the
more I have used the technique, the more I have gotten comfortable with it. My
experience with mediation is that each day is different. Some days I start meditation and
my mind is sharp and focused, which leads to a clear and insightful meditation. Other
days, my mind is a whirlwind, which usually leads to a frustrating and unproductive
mediation.
When I am able to align myself with my Higher Self through meditation, I
experience effortless flow in my life. It is as though I am in alignment, and the
inspiration and intuition flows into me. I find during these times, I am most effective
with clients. Rogers (1980) stated that when he was most in touch with his inner self, he
was most effective with clients. I find this to be true. I feel that this connection to my
Higher Self from which I receive, intuition, inspiration, and guidance is my greatest asset
as a therapist.
If we can achieve that identification with soul, that at least momentarily there is that sense of seeing with the person, entering into “the heart” of the person, and “looking outward” with the person, instead of the other way around. Generally we look through the veil of our own personalities at the person, and we generally fail to see anything but our own projections, which carry us swiftly to false conclusions. The magic ingredient or the particular psychological “chemistry” that enables one to
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see something as it is in essence (rather that as it appears to be or as we think it is) is love, a quality of the heart. (Abraham, 1997, p. 98)
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CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION
Observation of both Western psychology and specific Eastern spiritual practices
in relation to the self has led me to the conclusion that neither approach is complete.
Personal experience with and close study of most Western psychological theories has
pointed to a deep emphasis on the lower self and personality with a lack of understanding
of the Higher Self and spiritual nature of individuals. Although this omission is not
always the case, it is apparent in the majority of psychological theories. On the other
hand, many Eastern spiritual theories focus on the Higher Self, but provide an inadequate
understanding of the lower self.
Many Western psychological theories view the discovery and evolution of the
personality as the ultimate goal of therapy. These theories delve into the unconscious (or
deeper levels of awareness), helping individuals to become conscious of their defense
mechanisms and releasing them so that they may move from their false selves into their
true selves (Winnicott, 1958). However, once the uncovering of the unconscious is
accomplished and the individual’s true self or I is strengthened, the paradigm of growth
stops, and the theory does not usually extend to the Higher Self found in Eastern thought
(Crampton, 1977; Firman & Russell, 1992). Often Western psychology reaches to the
depths of the unconscious, leaving the heights of the superconscious completely
unexplored. The reverse may be said of Eastern theories, which often emphasize and
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explore the heights of the superconscious and altered states of being at the expense of
examining the lower realms of the unconscious.
There are downsides to both of these approaches. Following Western
psychological theories only can lead to a sense of unfulfillment, boredom, and overall
depression, as individuals fail to connect with higher aspects of themselves. Whereas,
individuals following Eastern spiritual paths often tend to bypass the psychological
feelings aspect as they attempt to go directly into the higher states of consciousness. This
approach is often noted as doing a spiritual bypass, resulting in feelings being suppressed
in order to reach higher states, where the perception is that of no feelings or of bliss.
Welwood (2000), stated:
While struggling to find themselves, many people are introduced to spiritual teachings and practices that urge them to give themselves up . . . as a result, they wind up using spiritual practice to create a new ‘spiritual’ identity, which is actually an old dysfunctional identity--based on avoidance of unresolved psychological issues--repackaged in a new guise. In this way, involvement in spiritual teachings and practices can become a way to rationalize and reinforce old defenses . . . This is a major pitfall of the spiritual path, especially for modern Westerners. The attempt to avoid facing the unresolved issues of the conditioned personality only keeps us caught in their grip. (p. 27)
Trying to bypass feelings causes many problems and eventually can lead to, in severe
cases, states of insanity, or more often to an overall sense of isolation and disconnection
from oneself and the world.
This study represents an integrative theory of Western psychology and Eastern
spiritual teachings through the bridge of the theory of Psychosynthesis, which recognizes
psychology’s primary function of healing childhood traumas (intrapersonal element);
most of which occur within the context of the family relationship (interpersonal element);
to develop a healthy ego; and to it add Maslow’s idea of self-actualization and the
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Eastern dynamic of the Higher Self (transpersonal element) (Firman & Russell, 1992;
Maslow, 1968). Self-actualization or self-realization refers to the “moment-to-moment,
here-and-now relationship to one’s deepest sense of truth and meaning in life” (Firman &
Russell, 1992, p. 33). This concept seeks to bridge the gap between the lower, personal
self and the Higher, Transpersonal Self. Assagioli encouraged individuals to “realize first
that the realization of the Self has different levels or octaves. First, at the personality
level. We must realize that the appearance of the self does not begin at the top--it begins
on the plain. It is a purely psychological experience. But it puts the firm foundation for
all the rest” (Assagioli, 1962, p. 4).
The lower self is experienced as the polarities are balanced on the physical,
emotional, mental, and personality levels through shifting the attention from the polarities
to the conscious observer on the mental level through the process of mindful detachment.
As the polarities are balanced on each of the levels, the personality integrates around the
lower self or I. Once the lower self is integrated around a conscious center, the Higher
Self can be contacted using the five-step meditation process of concentration, meditation,
contemplation, illumination, and inspiration (Hodgson, 2004; U. Hoehne, personal
communication, April 24, 2007).
Keeping the personality integrated through balancing the pairs of opposites so that
one can stay connected to the Higher Self (if that is his or her goal), is a continuous
process.
Treading the razor-edge suggests being balanced not on something you can stand on but on a fine line that is more like a tension between forces. This point of tension is an ongoing process--no place to rest one’s head, as it were, no solid ground. Both metaphors suggest a keen mental alertness and a differentiating power. (Abraham, 1993, p. 13)
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Walking the middle path or holding the tension between the polarities is a moment-to-
moment process, which requires one to be mindful. As soon as one is not mindful of
holding the tension between the polarities, he or she is susceptible to identifying with or
unconsciously repressing one of the poles, thus resulting in a loss of self.
Conclusions
Since there is no qualitative or quantitative evidence on which to base my
conclusions, these conclusions are based on the integrative theory posed in this study,
which is the product of Western psychology, Eastern spiritual teachings, and my own
personal experience. In writing a theoretical dissertation, I have realized that theory
helped to explain the concept of self from the Western psychological perspective as seen
in systems theory, psychoanalysis, Jungian psychology, self-psychology, humanistic
psychology, and Psychosynthesis; and from the Eastern theory as seen in the Bhagavad
Gita and the works of Alice Bailey. Ultimately, theory has provided me with an
understanding of such concepts as mindfulness, balancing the pairs of opposites, the
conscious observer, repression, projection, projective identification, unconscious
collusion, and the fusional complex. As I brought Western and Eastern theories together,
an integrative theory began to emerge that provided me with a structure or framework for
thinking about the ideas presented in this dissertation. However, as this integrative
theory emerged, I began to realize it was still just a theory, which to me remained one-
dimensional and flat. This newly acquired theoretical view gave me a mental
understanding that left me with a feeling that the interpretation was unfulfilled.
Vision is never conveyed by an interpretation based upon a developmental theory, but rather by a statement of the existence of what we perceive, whether that be through our eyes, feelings, body, experiences, smell, or hearing. (Schwartz-Salant, 2007, p. 12)
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The understanding that I was looking for was a tangible experience of the self.
Since theory-based dissertations lack standard empirical methodology, I became the
subject on which my theory was tested. In order to bridge the gap between where theory
left off and finishing the dissertation, I had to have a period of living the theory in order
to make it experiential so that the dissertation would come to life. To embody and
experience these ideas, I had to incorporate them, and experiment with them in my day-
to-day life. Since there was no specific literature to confirm or deny my ideas, I used my
own intuitive sense of whether the ideas where “correct” or not. Sitting with these ideas
and letting them marinate within the container of my own self was the only way to let
these ideas season. Holding the container for these ideas by being the container, I found
that I was intuitively led to certain material or situations that helped me to facilitate the
discovery of the answers I was seeking. Intuition has been used in science for thousands
of years as a valid test method. Einstein said that his intuitive sense about his research
was the most valuable asset he had. “The intellect has little to do on the road to
discovery. There comes a leap in consciousness, call it intuition or what you will, the
solution comes to you and you don't know how or why. The truly valuable thing is the
intuition.” Therefore, the relationship between theory and experience for me became the
initial and final source for the theory as it was actualized.
I have heard it said that writing a dissertation is like giving birth. I agree with this
statement wholeheartedly. Writing a theoretical dissertation is a process of bringing to
life ideas and theory. With the birth of a child, there has to be adequate time and
nurturing for the ideas to form and develop. Ideas have a gestation time also, and to force
them into being before they are ready alters the quality and stability of the ideas and
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theory. While writing this dissertation, I began to sense that it had a rhythm and timing
of its own, and the integrity of the theory was based on me conforming to the rhythm of
the process of it and not my own.
Conforming to the rhythm of the process meant becoming a container or incubator
to hold, nurture, and guide the formation of the dissertation. This meant not only
guiding, but also being open to being led by this creation. Being led by the process
required a different kind of being/relating. Being led by the process required me to at
times shut down my concrete mind and be led by my abstract mind. Similar to how
Michelangelo asked his canvas to reveal to him what the canvas would like to become, I
sensed where to go with this dissertation by posing the question: Where should I go?
This way of being, which is so foreign to society’s way of doing things, brought
up the ultimate polarity for me of doing/being. My tendency with this dissertation was to
want to make it happen. I felt pressure to perform and to finish what seemed at times to
be an enormous undertaking. Often this feeling of pressure led me to want to just do. I
found that a lot of my doing was driven by a sense of anxiety and often was not very
efficient. I was in a sense doing for the sake of doing, which led to a feeling of spinning
my wheels. Although one cannot finish anything without a certain amount of doing, to
integrate an additional amount of being can reduce the amount of doing and improve the
quality of the final project. The creation of the theory required me to maintain the
polarities of being/doing so that articulating the theory became the task of doing the
principle of the theory itself, that is holding the tension.
In writing this dissertation when I consciously added an element of being to the
process, I had to do less, and the process seemed to flow much smoother. By being, I am
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referring to sitting with my anxiety over feeling totally overwhelmed by the process;
sitting with my discomfort with not being able to integrate ideas; and not having the
words to finish a section and resisting trying to fix it. Using intuition and my inner voice
for guidance on what sources to use, what concepts to integrate, or where to go when I
felt like I was at a dead end, became a valuable resource. At times, incorporating being
with doing was very challenging, for the anxiety was so intense to get something done
that to be seemed both impossible and foolish. Society has conditioned itself to do while
simply to be implies laziness, inefficiency, and foolishness. Obviously doing has its
place, because if we did nothing, nothing would be accomplished. I would argue,
however, that the often dismissed act of simply being has an equally important role in
maximizing one’s efficiency. I found that when I balanced the polarities of being and
doing, my anxiety lifted, I felt more efficient, and there was less to do.
Although I have had many insights into myself and loss of self throughout the
years, I still feel that I am a long way from truly understanding the nature of the self. I
feel my situation is analogous to Kierkegaard’s idea of living in the question mark. My
perplexities represent the pairs of opposites of doing/being, known/unknown,
theory/experience, and manifest/unmanifest. It is as though the theory I am working on is
a living, experiential theory, which changes and grows as I implement the theory. I feel
that this dissertation is a work in progress, one that will probably span a lifetime. The
only true conclusion that I have come away with is how much I do not know.
Implications of Findings
This theory, with its application of systems theory to understand the relationship
of the parts, which comprise the self, including the relationship between maintaining the
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tension between the opposite poles, provides a greater context for the systemic work done
with couples and families in the field of Marriage and Family therapy. As individuals
begin to see the feedback loop that is created between themselves and others, including
their spouses, family members, and friends, they become informed about theirs as well as
others’ sense of self, and patterns start to emerge. These patterns in turn can be examined
and then adjusted to eradicate dysfunctional behaviors, which result in the loss of self.
This study pertains more to therapists than to the general public. The theory
presented provides an understanding of the experience of self and loss of self and can
provide another way to look at the phenomenon of loss of self, not as a pathological
occurrence, but as an average day-to-day occurrence that affects all people. It can also
provide the tools to help people navigate their way back to the self. Inherent in the
conclusions of this theory is the assumption that in order to help clients
achieve a deeper understanding and experience of self, it is imperative that therapists
have navigated the waters of their own selves and have developed the ability to recognize
their own periods of loss of self as well as having developed techniques to regain the self.
In order to aid clients in finding their sense of self through discovering and
holding the tension between all the parts of themselves, therapists must be continuously
working to uncover and embrace all parts of themselves, including the chaos, madness,
and wounded child, which make up the false self; in addition to the order, sanity, and
soul, which make up the true self. In addition, therapists must become comfortable with
both their shadow and light, and be able to hold the tension between the two. It is only
when they can go to the depths and the heights within themselves and hold these two
states simultaneously on a moment-to-moment basis that therapists will be able to
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recognize and tolerate these similar states in their clients. They will also be able to
refrain from interacting in unconscious patterns of collusion with their clients and can act
as guides to help them navigate through the seemingly treacherous states of the self.
Therapist’s Role
The role of the therapist is to act as an agent of change by providing a safe space
where clients can reconnect with themselves. Therapists should be non-directive in their
roles as catalysts of change. This does not mean that they take a passive stance with
clients, rather that they actively hold the space for clients to find answers through their
interactions. Therapists do this by actively listening to and reflecting back their clients’
thoughts and feelings (Rogers, 1980). Also, therapists must continually model to their
clients functional behavior with the intent that the clients will eventually internalize this
behavior (Satir et al, 1991).
In addition to creating a safe place and modeling healthy behavior for clients,
therapists must pay close attention to their own internal voice and utilize their intuition.
Both Satir and Rogers felt that this was their most important tool in effecting change.
Rogers (1980) stated:
I find that when I am closest to my inner, intuitive self, when I am somehow in touch with the unknown in me, when I am perhaps in an altered state of consciousness, then whatever I do seems to be fully healing. Then simply my presence is releasing and helpful to the other . . . it seems that my inner spirit has reached out and touched the inner spirit of the other. Our relationship transcends itself and becomes a part of something larger. Profound growth and healing and energy are present (p. 129). When listening to his or her inner voice, the therapist becomes aware of any
thoughts, feelings, or sensations he or she is having in the present moment that are
associated with the client. Therapists must not be afraid to utilize this information for
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fear that it does not make sense or that it may appear to be unfounded. Listening to one’s
intuitive process is a skill the therapist must develop, and like any skill, it will improve as
more attention is placed on it (Satir et al., 1991). As it applies to the therapist’s role in
this theory, one of the functions of doing therapy is not only to have a therapy that is
theory driven, but also that the act of therapy generates theory and the therapist becomes
a container for the theory based upon the systemic interaction of the therapy itself.
Theory generates theory, which informs practice; therefore, it can be the occasion that the
theory-building can produce hypotheses that lend themselves to experimental work in an
experimental study.
Further Research
As it applies to this theory, further empirical research needs to be done that
incorporates the integrative theory presented in this dissertation along with experiential
testing. Qualitative interviews could be conducted to discern the effects on clients of
balancing the pairs of opposites when using the three-step process described in chapter 4.
This could be parlayed into a quantitative study using two groups, one that uses this
three-step process and one that engages in regular talk therapy.
In addition, there is relatively little research on the experience of self and the loss
of self. Since these experiences are so subjective, it would be beneficial to conduct
qualitative interviews, which could provide actual descriptions of the experience of self
and loss of self. These interviews could then be transcribed and coded for the presence of
polarities existing in the descriptions of self and loss of self.
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Abraham, K. (1993). Balancing the pairs of opposites; the seven rays and education; other essays in esoteric psychology. White City, OR: Lampus Press.
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