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WALLED UP TO HEAVEN

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HARVARD SEMITIC MUSEUM PUBLICATIONS

Lawrence E. Stager, General Editor

Michael D. Coogan, Director of Publications

STUDIES IN

THE ARCHAEOLOGY AND HISTORY OF THE LEVANT

edited by

Lawrence E. Stager

1. The Archaeology of Jordan and Beyond: Essays in Honor of James A. Sauer, edited by LawrenceE. Stager, Joseph A. Greene, and Michael D. Coogan

2. The House of the Father as Fact and Symbol: Patrimonialism in Ugarit and the Ancient Near East,by J. David Schloen

3. Canaanites, Chronology, and Connections: The Relationship of Middle Bronze IIA Canaan toMiddle Kingdom Egypt, by Susan L. Cohen

4. Walled Up to Heaven: The Evolution of Middle Bronze Age Fortification Strategies in theLevant, by Aaron A. Burke

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WALLED UP TO HEAVEN

The Evolution of Middle Bronze Age

Fortification Strategies in the Levant

By

AARON A.BURKE

EISENBRAUNSWinona Lake, Indiana

2008

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Walled Up to Heaven:

The Evolution of Middle Bronze Age Fortification Strategies in the Levant

by

Aaron Alexander Burke

Copyright 2008

President and Fellows of Harvard College

All rights reserved

Printed in the United States of America

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CONTENTS

Figures ixTables xi

Preface xiiiGeneral Abbreviations xvBibliographic Abbreviations xvii

PART ONEAN INTRODUCTION TO MIDDLE BRONZE AGE FORTIFICATIONS

1. RESEARCHING MIDDLE BRONZE AGE FORTIFICATIONS 3A. Previous Scholarship 3B. Levantine Fortifications in Their Regional Context 15C. Methodology 17D. Geography and Chronology 18E. Moving Forward 20

PARTTWOTHE EVOLUTION OF WARFARE AND DEFENSES IN THE LEVANT DURING THE BRONZE AGE (CA.25001500 B.C.)

2. WEAPONRY AND THE ART OF WAR(CA.25001500 B.C.) 25A. Levantine Textual Traditions on Warfare 25B. The Emergence of Siege Warfare in the Ancient Near East 27C. The Role of the Chariot in Bronze Age Warfare 29D. The Weapons and Tactics of Siege Warfare 31E. Mortuary Evidence for Siege Warfare 44F. The Military Context for Middle Bronze Age Fortification Strategies 45

3. MIDDLE BRONZE AGE FORTIFICATIONS 47A. Architectural Elements 48B. Building Materials 73

C. Fortifications and the Landscape 77D. Architectural Evolution 78

PARTTHREEMIDDLE BRONZE AGE FORTIFICATIONS &THEIRCULTURAL CONTEXT

4. AHISTORY OF WARFARE IN THE LEVANT (CA.25001460 B.C.) 87A. Early Bronze Age Warfare (ca. 25001900 B.C.) 88B. Middle Bronze Age Warfare (ca. 19001460 B.C.) 94C. Conclusions 101

5. DEFENSIVE STRATEGIES &POLITICAL ORGANIZATION 103A. Bronze Age Settlement Patterns 103B. Defensive Settlement Networks 122C. A Case Study in Bronze Age Polities: The Kingdom of Ashkelon 125

6. THE SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACT OF FORTIFICATION CONSTRUCTION 141A. The Organization of Labor in the Levant 141B. Construction Rates and Resource Requirements 143C. Estimating Labor Consumption 146D. Scenarios for the Construction of Fortifications 153E. Social Complexity and the Construction of Fortifications 155

7. CONCLUSIONS 159

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viii Contents

PART FOURACATALOG OF MIDDLE BRONZE AGE FORTIFIED SETTLEMENTS

IN THE LEVANT AND MESOPOTAMIA, AND THEIRFORERUNNERS

GENERALNOTES 1651. NORTHWESTERN MESOPOTAMIA (CA.30001500 B.C.) 1672. THE LEVANT (CA.24001500 B.C.) 185

A. The Northern Levant: Western Syria, Lebanon, and the Hatay 186B. The Southern Levant: Israel, Jordan, and the Palestinian Territories 228

3. EGYPT 320

Bibliography 321Index 351