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Water quality management

Water of adequate quality is crucial for maintaining a healthy environment as well as for providing drinking water for communities. It assists agricultural enterprises to be productive and profitable and is important for recreational activities.

Water has to be 'fit–for–purpose' — we cannot drink water, irrigate crops, raise livestock or use it for recreational purposes if it is not 'fit–for-purpose.' The quality of the Basin's water resources can be adversely affected by a number of physical, biological and chemical threats. Managing the Basin's water resources to lessen theses effects is required.

What we do

The MDBA has a lead role in developing and implementing programs to manage water quality for a range of objectives and outcomes. Working with our jurisdictional partners, we undertake programs to protect and maintain the quality of the Basin's water resources. Programs related to

water quality include the following:Water quality and salinity management plan

Blue Green Algae, Gum Swamp Sanctuary, Forbes. Photo by Arthur MosteadBlue Green Algae, Gum Swamp Sanctuary, Forbes. Photo by Arthur Mostead

The Murray–Darling Basin Plan includes a Water Quality and Salinity Management Plan. The plan:

Identifies the key causes of water quality degradation in the Murray–Darling Basin

Includes water quality and salinity objectives and targets for the Basin's water resources.

The objective of the Water Quality and Salinity Management Plan is to maintain appropriate water quality (including salinity levels), for environmental, social, cultural and economic activity in the Basin.

Basin Salinity Management Strategy

Salinity remains one of the key significant environmental challenges facing the Murray-Darling Basin. If left unmanaged, salinity has serious implications for water quality; plant growth; biodiversity; land productivity; infrastructure, and the supply of water for critical human needs.

The Basin Salinity Management Strategy guides communities and governments in working together to control salinity and protect key natural resource values across the Murray-Darling Basin. It builds on the success of the 1989 Salinity and Drainage Strategy in reducing salinity in the River Murray while addressing the challenge of dryland salinity in the Basin.

River Murray Water Quality

The River Murray Water Quality Monitoring

Program periodically assesses and reports on water quality, to understand its variability and to determine trends. This guides river management actions along the River Murray and its tributaries, including assessment of development proposals and coordination of river operations, such as releases from dams.

Information has been collected since 1978 at up to 36 sites along the River Murray and the lower reaches of its major tributaries. Physical and chemical characteristics are measured at weekly, monthly or quarterly intervals.

WATER CONSERVATION

Water conservation encompasses the policies, strategies and activities to manage fresh water as a sustainable resource, to protect the water environment, and to meet current and future human demand. Population, household size and growth and affluence all affect how much water is used. Factors such as climate change will increase pressures on natural water resources especially in manufacturing and agricultural irrigation.

Social solutions

Drip irrigation system in New Mexico

Water conservation programs involved in social solutions are typically initiated at the local level, by either municipal water utilities or regional governments. Common strategies

include public outreach campaigns,[4] tiered water rates (charging progressively higher prices as water use increases), or restrictions on outdoor water use such as lawn watering and car washing. Cities in dry climates often require or encourage the installation of xeriscaping or natural landscaping in new homes to reduce outdoor water usage.

One fundamental conservation goal is universal metering. The prevalence of residential water metering varies significantly worldwide. Recent studies have estimated that water supplies are metered in less than 30% of UK households, and about 61% of urban Canadian homes (as of 2001). Although individual water meters have often been considered impractical in homes with private wells or in multifamily buildings, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency estimates that metering alone can reduce consumption by 20 to 40 percent. In addition to raising consumer awareness of their water use,

metering is also an important way to identify and localize water leakage. Water metering would benefit society in the long run it is proven that water metering increases the efficiency of the entire water system, as well as help unnecessary expenses for individuals for years to come. One would be unable to waste water unless they are willing to pay the extra charges, this way the water department would be able to monitor water usage by public, domestic and manufacturing services.

Some researchers have suggested that water conservation efforts should be primarily directed at farmers, in light of the fact that crop irrigation accounts for 70% of the world's fresh water use. The agricultural sector of most countries is important both economically and politically, and water subsidies are common. Conservation advocates have urged removal of all subsidies to force farmers to grow more water-efficient crops and adopt less wasteful irrigation techniques.

New technology poses a few new options for consumers, features such and full flush and half flush when using a toilet are trying to make a difference in water consumption and waste. Also available in our modern world is shower heads that help reduce wasting water, old shower heads are said to use 5-10 gallons per minute. All new fixtures available are said to use 2.5 gallons per minute and offer equal water coverage.

Household applicationsThe Home Water Works website contains useful information on household water conservation. Contrary to popular view, experts suggest the most efficient way is replacing toilets and retrofitting washers.

Water-saving technology for the home includes:

Low-flow shower heads sometimes called energy-efficient shower heads as they also use less energy

Low-flush toilets and composting toilets. These have a dramatic impact in the developed world, as conventional Western toilets use large volumes of water

Dual flush toilets created by C aroma includes two buttons or handles to flush different levels

of water. Dual flush toilets use up to 67% less water than conventional toilets

Faucet aerators, which break water flow into fine droplets to maintain "wetting effectiveness" while using less water. An additional benefit is that they reduce splashing while washing hands and dishes

Raw water flushing where toilets use sea water or non-purified water

Waste water reuse or recycling systems, allowing:

Reuse of graywater for flushing toilets or watering gardens

Recycling of wastewater through purification at a water treatment plant. See also Wastewater - Reuse

Rainwater harvesting in house

High-efficiency clothes washers

Weather-based irrigation controllers

Garden hose nozzles that shut off water when it is not being used, instead of letting a hose run.

Low flow taps in wash basins

Swimming pool covers that reduce evaporation and can warm pool water to reduce water, energy and chemical costs.

Automatic faucet is a water conservation faucet that eliminates water waste at the

faucet. It automates the use of faucets without the use of hands.

Commercial applications

Many water-saving devices (such as low-flush toilets) that are useful in homes can also be useful for business water saving. Other water-saving technology for businesses includes:

Waterless urinals

Waterless car washes

Infrared or foot-operated taps, which can save water by using short bursts of water for rinsing in a kitchen or bathroom

Pressurized waterbrooms, which can be used instead of a hose to clean sidewalks

X-ray film processor re-circulation systems

Cooling tower conductivity controllers

Water-saving steam sterilizers, for use in hospitals and health care facilities

Rain water harvesting

Water to Water heat exchangers.

Agricultural applications

Overhead irrigation, center pivot design

For crop irrigation, optimal water efficiency means minimizing losses due to evaporation, runoff or subsurface drainage while maximizing production. An evaporation pan in combination with specific crop correction

factors can be used to determine how much water is needed to satisfy plant requirements. Flood irrigation, the oldest and most common type, is often very uneven in distribution, as parts of a field may receive excess water in order to deliver sufficient quantities to other parts. Overhead irrigation, using center-pivot or lateral-moving sprinklers, has the potential for a much more equal and controlled distribution pattern. Drip irrigation is the most expensive and least-used type, but offers the ability to deliver water to plant roots with minimal losses. However, drip irrigation is increasingly affordable, especially for the home gardener and in light of rising water rates. There are also cheap effective methods similar to drip irrigation such as the use of soaking hoses that can even be submerged in the growing medium to eliminate evaporation.

As changing irrigation systems can be a costly undertaking, conservation efforts often concentrate on maximizing the efficiency of

the existing system. This may include chiseling compacted soils, creating furrow dikes to prevent runoff, and using soil moisture and rainfall sensors to optimize irrigation schedules. Usually large gains in efficiency are possible through measurement and more effective management of the existing irrigation system. The 2011 UNEP Green Economy Report notes that "[i]mproved soil organic matter from the use of green manures, mulching, and recycling of crop residues and animal manure increases the water holding capacity of soils and their ability to absorb water during torrential rains",which is a way to optimize the use of rainfall and irrigation during dry periods in the season.

What is a Water Footprint?

Your water footprint G is the amount of water you use in and around your home, school or office throughout the day. It includes the water you use directly (e.g., from a tap). It also includes the water it took to produce the food you eat, the products you buy, the energy you consume and even the water you save when you recycle. You may not drink, feel or see this virtual water, G but it actually makes up the majority of your water footprint.

Water footprints can be calculated for individuals, households, businesses and countries. Take our Water Footprint Calculator to find out how your daily actions affect your water use.

Why Do Water Footprints Matter?Freshwater is vital to life, and as the world’s population grows, so does our use of it. Globally, the increase is due in part to more people drinking and bathing, but as developing countries like China and India grow more prosperous, more people are consuming more water-intensive food, electricity and consumer goods. This puts pressure on water resources, which is a concern in the arid parts of the US and the rest of the world where food is grown, goods are manufactured and water is already in short supply.

By the year 2030, experts predict that global demand for water will outstrip supply by 40 percent. Impacts from climate change may increase the likelihood of changes to the water cycle, leading to prolonged periods of drought (and, conversely, more extreme rainfall). Reduced water supplies could add to water insecurity both in the US and in other countries.

Water footprints help individuals, businesses and countries because they reveal water use patterns, from the individual level all the way to the national level. They shine a light on the water used in all the processes involved in manufacturing and producing our goods and services. A water footprint also accounts for the amount of water contaminated during manufacturing and production because that water is made unusable and is, essentially, taken out of the system.

The water footprint gives everyone – from individuals to business managers to public officials – a solid frame of reference that helps us all be more efficient and sustainable with our water use and appreciate the role of water in our lives.

What Makes a Blue, Green or Grey Water Footprint?A water footprint is measured in terms of the volume of water consumed, evaporated and polluted. The Water Footprint Network, whose research provides data that drive our calculator, splits water footprints into three corresponding categories:

Blue Water Footprint: The amount of surface water and groundwater required (evaporated or used directly) to make a product.

Green Water Footprint: The amount of rainwater required (evaporated or used

directly) to make a product.

Grey Water Footprint: The amount of freshwater required to mix and dilute pollutants enough to maintain water quality according to certain standards (like the ones established in the US Clean Water Act) as a result of making a product.

Examples of how each of these contributes to an item's total water footprint can be found in the Water Footprint Network’s Product Gallery.

Virtual water trade (also known as trade in embedded or embodied water) refers to the hidden flow of water if food or other commodities are traded from one place to another. For instance, it takes 1,600 cubic meters of water on average to produce one metric tonne of wheat. The precise volume can be more or less depending on climatic conditions and agricultural practice. Hoekstra and Chapagain have defined the virtual-water

content of a product (a commodity, good or service) as "the volume of freshwater used to produce the product, measured at the place where the product was actually produced".It refers to the sum of the water use in the various steps of the production chain.

Professor John Anthony Allan from King's College London and the School of Oriental and African Studies introduced the virtual water concept,to support his argument that countries in the Middle East can save their scarce water resources by relying more on import of food. For his contributions he was awarded the 2008 Stockholm Water Prize.Allan stated: "The water is said to be virtual because once the wheat is grown, the real water used to grow it is no longer actually contained in the wheat. The concept of virtual water helps us realize how much water is needed to produce different goods and services. In semi-arid and arid areas, knowing the virtual water value of a good or service

can be useful towards determining how best to use the scarce water available."

There are, however, significant deficiencies with the concept of virtual water that mean there is a significant risk in relying on these measures to guide policy conclusions. Accordingly, Australia's National Water Commission considers that the measurement of virtual water has little practical value in decision making regarding the best allocation of scarce water resources.

Virtual water trade

Virtual water trade refers to the idea that when goods and services are exchanged, so is virtual water. When a country imports one tonne of wheat instead of producing it domestically, it is saving about 1,300 cubic meters of real indigenous water. If this country is water-scarce, the water that is 'saved' can be used towards other ends. If the exporting country is water-scarce, however, it has exported 1,300 cubic meters of virtual water since the real water used to grow the wheat will no longer be available for other purposes. This has obvious strategic implications for countries that are water-constrained such as those found in the

Southern African Development Community (SADC) area

Water-scarce countries like Israel discourage the export of oranges (relatively heavy water guzzlers) precisely to prevent large quantities of water being exported to different parts of the world.

In recent years, the concept of virtual water trade has gained weight both in the scientific as well as in the political debate. The notion of the concept is ambiguous. It changes between an analytical, descriptive concept and a political induced strategy. As an analytical concept, virtual water trade represents an instrument which allows the identification and assessment of policy options not only in the scientific but also in the political discourse. As a politically induced strategy the question is, whether virtual water trade can be implemented in a sustainable way, whether

the implementation can be managed in a social, economical and ecological fashion, and for which countries the concept offers a meaningful option.

The data that underlie the concept of virtual water can readily be used to construct water satellite accounts, and brought into economic models of international trade such as the GTAP Computable General Equilibrium Model.Such a model can be used to study the economic implications of changes in water supply or water policy, as well as the water resource implications of economic development and trade liberalisation.

In sum, virtual water trade allows a new, amplified perspective on water problems: In the framework of recent developments from a supply-oriented to a demand-oriented management of water resources it opens up new fields of governance and facilitates a

differentiation and balancing of different perspectives, basic conditions and interests. Analytically the concept enables one to distinguish between global, regional and local levels and their linkages. This means, that water resource problems have to be solved in problemsheds if they cannot be successfully addressed in the local or regional watershed. Virtual water trade can thus overcome the hydro-centricity of a narrow watershed view. According to the proceedings of a 2006 conference in Frankfurt, Germany, it seems reasonable to link the new concept with the approach of Integrated Water Resources Management.

Limitations of the virtual water measureKey shortcomings of virtual water measures are that the concept:

Relies on an assumption that all sources of water, whether in the form of rainfall or provided through an irrigation system, are of equal value.

Implicitly assumes that water that would be released by reducing a high water use activity would necessarily be available for use in a less water-intensive activity. For example, the implicit assumption is that water used in rangeland beef production would be available to be used to produce an alternative, less water-intensive activity. As a practical matter this may not be the case, nor might the alternatives be economic.

Fails as an indicator of environmental harm nor does it provide any indication of whether water resources are being used within sustainable extraction limits. The use of virtual water estimates therefore offer no guidance for policy makers seeking to ensure that environmental objectives are being met.

The deficiencies with the concept of virtual water mean that there is a significant risk in

relying on these measures to guide policy conclusions. Accordingly, Australia's National Water Commission considers that the measurement of virtual water has little practical value in decision making regarding the best allocation of scarce water resources.

Other limitations more specific to the MENA (Middle East & North Africa) region include:

In MENA rural societies, farmers are by tradition politically influential and would prohibit new policies for water allocation. Reallocating the water resources adds a huge burden on the farmers especially when a large portion of those farmers use their land for their own food consumption which happens to be their only source of food supply.

Importing food could pose the risk of further political dependence. The notion of "Self Sufficiency" has always been the pride of the MENA region.

The use of virtual water lies in the religious regulations for charging for water. According to Al-Bukhari, Prophet Mohammad’s teachings, the Prophet said: “People are partners in three: Water, Herbs and Fire” (referring to basic energy resources). Therefore, and because farmers are generally poor and rain water, rivers and lakes are like a gift from God, the MENA countries might find it difficult to charge the farmers the full cost for water.