-
Water resources 1
Water resources
A natural wetland
Water resources are sources of waterthat are useful or
potentially useful tohumans. Uses of water includeagricultural,
industrial, household,recreational and environmentalactivities.
Virtually all of these human uses require fresh water.
97% of water on the Earth is salt water, leaving only 3% as
fresh water of which slightly over two thirds is frozen inglaciers
and polar ice caps.[1] The remaining unfrozen freshwater is mainly
found as groundwater, with only a smallfraction present above
ground or in the air.[2]
Fresh water is a renewable resource, yet the world's supply of
clean, fresh water is steadily decreasing. Waterdemand already
exceeds supply in many parts of the world and as the world
population continues to rise, so too doesthe water demand.
Awareness of the global importance of preserving water for
ecosystem services has only recentlyemerged as, during the 20th
century, more than half the world’s wetlands have been lost along
with their valuableenvironmental services. Biodiversity-rich
freshwater ecosystems are currently declining faster than marine or
landecosystems.[3] The framework for allocating water resources to
water users (where such a framework exists) isknown as water
rights.
A graphical distribution of the locations of water on Earth.
Sources of fresh water
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sinclair_Wetlands.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Humanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculturalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Industryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Householdhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Recreationalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Natural_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fresh_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glacierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polar_climatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ice_caphttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Renewable_resourcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Supply_and_demandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=World_populationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecosystem_serviceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wetlandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biodiversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Freshwaterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_%28ocean%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_rightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Earth's_water_distribution.svg
-
Water resources 2
Surface water
Lake Chungará and Parinacota volcano innorthern Chile
Surface water is water in a river, lake or fresh water wetland.
Surfacewater is naturally replenished by precipitation and
naturally lostthrough discharge to the oceans, evaporation, and
sub-surface seepage.
Although the only natural input to any surface water system
isprecipitation within its watershed, the total quantity of water
in thatsystem at any given time is also dependent on many other
factors.These factors include storage capacity in lakes, wetlands
and artificialreservoirs, the permeability of the soil beneath
these storage bodies, therunoff characteristics of the land in the
watershed, the timing of theprecipitation and local evaporation
rates. All of these factors also affectthe proportions of water
lost.
Human activities can have a large and sometimes devastating
impact on these factors. Humans often increase storagecapacity by
constructing reservoirs and decrease it by draining wetlands.
Humans often increase runoff quantitiesand velocities by paving
areas and channelizing stream flow.The total quantity of water
available at any given time is an important consideration. Some
human water users havean intermittent need for water. For example,
many farms require large quantities of water in the spring, and no
waterat all in the winter. To supply such a farm with water, a
surface water system may require a large storage capacity tocollect
water throughout the year and release it in a short period of time.
Other users have a continuous need forwater, such as a power plant
that requires water for cooling. To supply such a power plant with
water, a surfacewater system only needs enough storage capacity to
fill in when average stream flow is below the power
plant'sneed.Nevertheless, over the long term the average rate of
precipitation within a watershed is the upper bound for
averageconsumption of natural surface water from that
watershed.Natural surface water can be augmented by importing
surface water from another watershed through a canal orpipeline. It
can also be artificially augmented from any of the other sources
listed here, however in practice thequantities are negligible.
Humans can also cause surface water to be "lost" (i.e. become
unusable) through pollution.Brazil is the country estimated to have
the largest supply of fresh water in the world, followed by Russia
andCanada.[4]
Under river flowThroughout the course of the river, the total
volume of water transported downstream will often be a combination
ofthe visible free water flow together with a substantial
contribution flowing through sub-surface rocks and gravelsthat
underlie the river and its floodplain called the hyporheic zone.
For many rivers in large valleys, this unseencomponent of flow may
greatly exceed the visible flow. The hyporheic zone often forms a
dynamic interfacebetween surface water and true ground-water
receiving water from the ground water when aquifers are fully
chargedand contributing water to ground-water when ground waters
are depleted. This is especially significant in karst areaswhere
pot-holes and underground rivers are common.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lake_Chungar%C3%A1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parinacotahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Parinacota.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wetlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Precipitation_%28meteorology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oceanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Evaporationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drainage_basinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reservoir_%28water%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Soilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Surface_runoffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Farmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Power_planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Canalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pipeline_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brazilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hyporheic_zonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karst
-
Water resources 3
Ground water
Sub-Surface water travel time
Shipot, a common water source in Ukrainianvillages
Sub-surface water, or groundwater, is freshwater located in the
pore space of soil androcks. It is also water that is flowing
withinaquifers below the water table. Sometimes itis useful to make
a distinction betweensub-surface water that is closely
associatedwith surface water and deep sub-surfacewater in an
aquifer (sometimes called "fossilwater").
Sub-surface water can be thought of in thesame terms as surface
water: inputs, outputsand storage. The critical difference is
thatdue to its slow rate of turnover, sub-surfacewater storage is
generally much largercompared to inputs than it is for
surfacewater. This difference makes it easy forhumans to use
sub-surface waterunsustainably for a long time without
severeconsequences. Nevertheless, over the longterm the average
rate of seepage above asub-surface water source is the upper
boundfor average consumption of water from thatsource.The natural
input to sub-surface water isseepage from surface water. The
naturaloutputs from sub-surface water are springs and seepage to
the oceans.
If the surface water source is also subject to substantial
evaporation, a sub-surface water source may become saline.This
situation can occur naturally under endorheic bodies of water, or
artificially under irrigated farmland. In coastalareas, human use
of a sub-surface water source may cause the direction of seepage to
ocean to reverse which canalso cause soil salinization. Humans can
also cause sub-surface water to be "lost" (i.e. become unusable)
throughpollution. Humans can increase the input to a sub-surface
water source by building reservoirs or detention ponds.
DesalinationDesalination is an artificial process by which
saline water (generally sea water) is converted to fresh water. The
mostcommon desalination processes are distillation and reverse
osmosis. Desalination is currently expensive compared tomost
alternative sources of water, and only a very small fraction of
total human use is satisfied by desalination. It isonly
economically practical for high-valued uses (such as household and
industrial uses) in arid areas. The mostextensive use is in the
Persian Gulf.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Groundwater_flow_times_usgs_cir1139.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shipothttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ukrainehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shipot.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Porosityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rock_%28geology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aquiferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_tablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spring_%28hydrosphere%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Salinityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Endorheichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irrigationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Soil_salinizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saline_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sea_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reverse_osmosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aridhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Persian_Gulf
-
Water resources 4
Frozen water
An iceberg as seen from Newfoundland
Several schemes have been proposed to make use of icebergs as a
watersource, however to date this has only been done for novelty
purposes. Glacierrunoff is considered to be surface water.
The Himalayas, which are often called "The Roof of the World",
containsome of the most extensive and rough high altitude areas on
Earth as well asthe greatest area of glaciers and permafrost
outside of the poles. Ten of Asia’slargest rivers flow from there,
and more than a billion people’s livelihoodsdepend on them. To
complicate matters, temperatures are rising more rapidlyhere than
the global average. In Nepal the temperature has risen with 0.6
degree over the last decade, whereas the global warming has been
around 0.7 over the last hundred years.[5]
Uses of fresh waterUses of fresh water can be categorized as
consumptive and non-consumptive (sometimes called "renewable"). A
useof water is consumptive if that water is not immediately
available for another use. Losses to sub-surface seepage
andevaporation are considered consumptive, as is water incorporated
into a product (such as farm produce). Water thatcan be treated and
returned as surface water, such as sewage, is generally considered
non-consumptive if that watercan be put to additional use.
Agricultural
A farm in Ontario
It is estimated that 69% of worldwide water use is for
irrigation, with15-35% of irrigation withdrawals being
unsustainable.[6]
In some areas of the world irrigation is necessary to grow any
crop atall, in other areas it permits more profitable crops to be
grown orenhances crop yield. Various irrigation methods involve
differenttrade-offs between crop yield, water consumption and
capital cost ofequipment and structures. Irrigation methods such as
furrow andoverhead sprinkler irrigation are usually less expensive
but are alsotypically less efficient, because much of the water
evaporates, runs offor drains below the root zone. Other irrigation
methods considered tobe more efficient include drip or trickle
irrigation, surge irrigation, and some types of sprinkler systems
where thesprinklers are operated near ground level. These types of
systems, while more expensive, usually offer greaterpotential to
minimize runoff, drainage and evaporation. Any system that is
improperly managed can be wasteful, allmethods have the potential
for high efficiencies under suitable conditions, appropriate
irrigation timing andmanagement. One issue that is often
insufficiently considered is salinization of sub-surface water.
Aquaculture is a small but growing agricultural use of water.
Freshwater commercial fisheries may also beconsidered as
agricultural uses of water, but have generally been assigned a
lower priority than irrigation (see AralSea and Pyramid Lake).As
global populations grow, and as demand for food increases in a
world with a fixed water supply, there are effortsunderway to learn
how to produce more food with less water, through improvements in
irrigation[7] methods[8] andtechnologies, agricultural water
management, crop types, and water monitoring.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Newfoundland_and_Labradorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Carlb-newfoundland-iceberg-2002.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iceberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_treatmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ontariohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ontario_farm.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Furrow_irrigationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sprinklerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drip_irrigationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Surface_irrigation%23Surge_Irrigationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aquaculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aral_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aral_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pyramid_Lakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Technologieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_management
-
Water resources 5
Industrial
A power plant in Poland
It is estimated that 22% of worldwide water use is industrial[6]
. Majorindustrial users include power plants, which use water for
cooling or asa power source (i.e. hydroelectric plants), ore and
oil refineries, whichuse water in chemical processes, and
manufacturing plants, which usewater as a solvent.
The portion of industrial water usage that is consumptive
varieswidely, but as a whole is lower than agricultural use.Water
is used in power generation. Hydroelectricity is
electricityobtained from hydropower. Hydroelectric power comes from
water
driving a water turbine connected to a generator.
Hydroelectricity is a low-cost, non-polluting, renewable
energysource. The energy is supplied by the sun. Heat from the sun
evaporates water, which condenses as rain in higheraltitudes, from
where it flows down.Pressurized water is used in water blasting and
water jet cutters. Also, very high pressure water guns are used
forprecise cutting. It works very well, is relatively safe, and is
not harmful to the environment. It is also used in thecooling of
machinery to prevent over-heating, or prevent saw blades from
over-heating.Water is also used in many industrial processes and
machines, such as the steam turbine and heat exchanger, inaddition
to its use as a chemical solvent. Discharge of untreated water from
industrial uses is pollution. Pollutionincludes discharged solutes
(chemical pollution) and discharged coolant water (thermal
pollution). Industry requirespure water for many applications and
utilizes a variety of purification techniques both in water supply
and discharge.
Household
Drinking water
It is estimated that 8% of worldwide water use is for
householdpurposes[] . These include drinking water, bathing,
cooking, sanitation,and gardening. Basic household water
requirements have beenestimated by Peter Gleick at around 50 liters
per person per day,excluding water for gardens. Drinking water is
water that is ofsufficiently high quality so that it can be
consumed or used withoutrisk of immediate or long term harm. Such
water is commonly calledpotable water. In most developed countries,
the water supplied tohouseholds, commerce and industry is all of
drinking water standardeven though only a very small proportion is
actually consumed or usedin food preparation.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Poland_Solina_dam.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydroelectrichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Orehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Drinking_water.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drinking_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bathinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cookinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gardeninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter_Gleick
-
Water resources 6
Recreation
Whitewater rapids
Recreational water use is usually a very small but growing
percentageof total water use. Recreational water use is mostly tied
to reservoirs. Ifa reservoir is kept fuller than it would otherwise
be for recreation, thenthe water retained could be categorized as
recreational usage. Releaseof water from a few reservoirs is also
timed to enhance whitewaterboating, which also could be considered
a recreational usage. Otherexamples are anglers, water skiers,
nature enthusiasts and swimmers.
Recreational usage is usually non-consumptive. Golf courses are
oftentargeted as using excessive amounts of water, especially in
drierregions. It is, however, unclear whether recreational
irrigation (which
would include private gardens) has a noticeable effect on water
resources. This is largely due to the unavailability ofreliable
data. Additionally, many golf courses utilize either primarily or
exclusively treated effluent water, which haslittle impact on
potable water availability.
Some governments, including the Californian Government, have
labelled golf course usage as agricultural in order todeflect
environmentalists' charges of wasting water. However, using the
above figures as a basis, the actual statisticaleffect of this
reassignment is close to zero. In Arizona, an organized lobby has
been established in the form of theGolf Industry Association, a
group focused on educating the public on how golf impacts the
environment.Recreational usage may reduce the availability of water
for other users at specific times and places. For example,water
retained in a reservoir to allow boating in the late summer is not
available to farmers during the spring plantingseason. Water
released for whitewater rafting may not be available for
hydroelectric generation during the time ofpeak electrical
demand.
EnvironmentalExplicit environmental water use is also a very
small but growing percentage of total water use. Environmental
waterusage includes artificial wetlands, artificial lakes intended
to create wildlife habitat, fish ladders , and water releasesfrom
reservoirs timed to help fish spawn.Like recreational usage,
environmental usage is non-consumptive but may reduce the
availability of water for otherusers at specific times and places.
For example, water release from a reservoir to help fish spawn may
not beavailable to farms upstream.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Whitewater.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Recreationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Whitewaterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Golf_coursehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Environmentalisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fish_ladder
-
Water resources 7
Water stress
Best estimate of the share of people in developing countries
with access to drinkingwater 1970–2000.
The concept of water stress is relativelysimple: According to
the World BusinessCouncil for Sustainable Development, itapplies to
situations where there is notenough water for all uses,
whetheragricultural, industrial or domestic.Defining thresholds for
stress in terms ofavailable water per capita is morecomplex,
however, entailing assumptionsabout water use and its
efficiency.Nevertheless, it has been proposed thatwhen annual per
capita renewablefreshwater availability is less than 1,700cubic
meters, countries begin toexperience periodic or regular
waterstress. Below 1,000 cubic meters, waterscarcity begins to
hamper economicdevelopment and human health and well-being.
Population growthIn 2000, the world population was 6.2 billion.
The UN estimates that by 2050 there will be an additional 3.5
billionpeople with most of the growth in developing countries that
already suffer water stress.[9] Thus, water demand willincrease
unless there are corresponding increases in water conservation and
recycling of this vital resource.[10]
Expansion of business activityBusiness activity ranging from
industrialization to services such as tourism and entertainment
continues to expandrapidly. This expansion requires increased water
services including both supply and sanitation, which can lead
tomore pressure on water resources and natural ecosystems.
Rapid urbanizationThe trend towards urbanization is
accelerating. Small private wells and septic tanks that work well
in low-densitycommunities are not feasible within high-density
urban areas. Urbanization requires significant investment in
waterinfrastructure in order to deliver water to individuals and to
process the concentrations of wastewater – both fromindividuals and
from business. These polluted and contaminated waters must be
treated or they pose unacceptablepublic health risks.In 60% of
European cities with more than 100,000 people, groundwater is being
used at a faster rate than it can bereplenished.[11] Even if some
water remains available, it costs more and more to capture it.
Climate changeClimate change could have significant impacts on
water resources around the world because of the close connections
between the climate and hydrological cycle. Rising temperatures
will increase evaporation and lead to increases in precipitation,
though there will be regional variations in rainfall. Overall, the
global supply of freshwater will increase. Both droughts and floods
may become more frequent in different regions at different times,
and dramatic changes in snowfall and snowmelt are expected in
mountainous areas. Higher temperatures will also affect water
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Access_to_drinking_water_in_third_world.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=World_Business_Council_for_Sustainable_Developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=World_Business_Council_for_Sustainable_Developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Per_capitahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Developing_countrieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_conservationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Recyclinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supplyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Urbanizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_wellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Septic_tankhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Urban_areahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diminishing_returnshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Climate_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrological_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Evaporationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rainfallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Droughtshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Floodshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Snowfallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Snowmelt
-
Water resources 8
quality in ways that are not well understood. Possible impacts
include increased eutrophication. Climate changecould also mean an
increase in demand for farm irrigation, garden sprinklers, and
perhaps even swimming pools
Depletion of aquifersDue to the expanding human population,
competition for water is growing such that many of the worlds
majoraquifers are becoming depleted. This is due both for direct
human consumption as well as agricultural irrigation bygroundwater.
Millions of pumps of all sizes are currently extracting groundwater
throughout the world. Irrigation indry areas such as northern China
and India is supplied by groundwater, and is being extracted at an
unsustainablerate. Cities that have experienced aquifer drops
between 10 to 50 meters include Mexico City, Bangkok,
Manila,Beijing, Madras and Shanghai.[12]
Pollution and water protection
Polluted water
Water pollution is one of the main concerns of the world today.
Thegovernments of many countries have striven to find solutions to
reducethis problem. Many pollutants threaten water supplies, but
the mostwidespread, especially in underdeveloped countries, is the
discharge ofraw sewage into natural waters; this method of sewage
disposal is themost common method in underdeveloped countries, but
also isprevalent in quasi-developed countries such as China, India
and Iran.Sewage, sludge, garbage, and even toxic pollutants are all
dumped intothe water. Even if sewage is treated, problems still
arise. Treatedsewage forms sludge, which may be placed in
landfills, spread out onland, incinerated or dumped at sea.[13] In
addition to sewage, nonpointsource pollution such as agricultural
runoff is a significant source of
pollution in some parts of the world, along with urban
stormwater runoff and chemical wastes dumped by industriesand
governments.
Water and conflictThe only known example of an actual
inter-state conflict over water took place between 2500 and 2350 BC
betweenthe Sumerian states of Lagash and Umma.[14] Yet, despite the
lack of evidence of international wars being foughtover water
alone, water has been the source of various conflicts throughout
history. When water scarcity causespolitical tensions to arise,
this is referred to as water stress. Water stress has led most
often to conflicts at local andregional levels.[15] Using a purely
quantitative methodology, Thomas Homer-Dixon successfully
correlated waterscarcity and scarcity of available arable lands to
an increased chance of violent conflict.[16]
Water stress can also exacerbate conflicts and political
tensions which are not directly caused by water. Gradualreductions
over time in the quality and/or quantity of fresh water can add to
the instability of a region by depletingthe health of a population,
obstructing economic development, and exacerbating larger
conflicts.[17]
Conflicts and tensions over water are most likely to arise
within national borders, in the downstream areas ofdistressed river
basins. Areas such as the lower regions of China's Yellow River or
the Chao Phraya River inThailand, for example, have already been
experiencing water stress for several years. Additionally, certain
aridcountries which rely heavily on water for irrigation, such as
China, India, Iran, and Pakistan, are particularly at riskof
water-related conflicts.[17] Political tensions, civil protest, and
violence may also occur in reaction to waterprivatization. The
Bolivian Water Wars of 2000 are a case in point.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eutrophicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Overpopulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pumpshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mexico_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bangkokhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manilahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Beijinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Madrashttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shanghaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Water_pollution.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sewagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nonpoint_source_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nonpoint_source_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculturalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stormwaterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chemical_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sumeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lagashhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ummahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scarcityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Politicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Economic_developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=People%27s_Republic_of_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yellow_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chao_Phraya_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thailandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pakistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_privatizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_privatizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bolivian_Water_Wars_of_2000
-
Water resources 9
World water supply and distributionFood and water are two basic
human needs. However, global coverage figures from 2002 indicate
that, of every 10people:• roughly 5 have a connection to a piped
water supply at home (in their dwelling, plot or yard);• 3 make use
of some other sort of improved water supply, such as a protected
well or public standpipe;• 2 are unserved;• In addition, 4 out of
every 10 people live without improved sanitation.[6]
At Earth Summit 2002 governments approved a Plan of Action to:•
Halve by 2015 the proportion of people unable to reach or afford
safe drinking water. The Global Water Supply
and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report (GWSSAR) [18] defines
"Reasonable access" to water as at least 20 litersper person per
day from a source within one kilometer of the user’s home.
• Halve the proportion of people without access to basic
sanitation. The GWSSR defines "Basic sanitation" asprivate or
shared but not public disposal systems that separate waste from
human contact.
As the picture shows, in 2025, water shortages will be more
prevalent among poorer countries where resources arelimited and
population growth is rapid, such as the Middle East, Africa, and
parts of Asia. By 2025, large urban andperi-urban areas will
require new infrastructure to provide safe water and adequate
sanitation. This suggests growingconflicts with agricultural water
users, who currently consume the majority of the water used by
humans.Generally speaking the more developed countries of North
America, Europe and Russia will not see a serious threatto water
supply by the year 2025, not only because of their relative wealth,
but more importantly their populationswill be better aligned with
available water resources. North Africa, the Middle East, South
Africa and northern Chinawill face very severe water shortages due
to physical scarcity and a condition of overpopulation relative to
theircarrying capacity with respect to water supply. Most of South
America, Sub-Saharan Africa, Southern China andIndia will face
water supply shortages by 2025; for these latter regions the causes
of scarcity will be economicconstraints to developing safe drinking
water, as well as excessive population growth.1.6 billion people
have gained access to a safe water source since 1990. [19] The
proportion of people in developingcountries with access to safe
water is calculated to have improved from 30 percent in 1970[20] to
71 percent in 1990,79 percent in 2000 and 84 percent in 2004. This
trend is projected to continue.[21]
Economic considerationsWater supply and sanitation require a
huge amount of capital investment in infrastructure such as pipe
networks,pumping stations and water treatment works. It is
estimated that Organisation for Economic Co-operation
andDevelopment (OECD) nations need to invest at least USD 200
billion per year to replace aging water infrastructureto guarantee
supply, reduce leakage rates and protect water quality.[22]
International attention has focused upon the needs of the
developing countries. To meet the MillenniumDevelopment Goals
targets of halving the proportion of the population lacking access
to safe drinking water andbasic sanitation by 2015, current annual
investment on the order of USD 10 to USD 15 billion would need to
beroughly doubled. This does not include investments required for
the maintenance of existing infrastructure.[23]
Once infrastructure is in place, operating water supply and
sanitation systems entails significant ongoing costs tocover
personnel, energy, chemicals, maintenance and other expenses. The
sources of money to meet these capital andoperational costs are
essentially either user fees, public funds or some combination of
the two.But this is where the economics of water management start
to become extremely complex as they intersect withsocial and
broader economic policy. Such policy questions are beyond the scope
of this article, which hasconcentrated on basic information about
water availability and water use. They are, nevertheless, highly
relevant tounderstanding how critical water issues will affect
business and industry in terms of both risks and opportunities.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Earth_Summit_2002http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/monitoring/globalassess/en/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Middle_Easthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=North_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=South_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carrying_capacityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=South_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sub-Saharanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Population_growthhttp://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Resources/Static/Products/Progress2008/MDG_Report_2008_En.pdf#page=44http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Investmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Organisation_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Organisation_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millennium_Development_Goalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Millennium_Development_Goals
-
Water resources 10
Business responseThe World Business Council for Sustainable
Development in its H2OScenarios [24] engaged in a scenario
buildingprocess to:• Clarify and enhance understanding by business
of the key issues and drivers of change related to water.• Promote
mutual understanding between the business community and
non-business stakeholders on water
management issues.• Support effective business action as part of
the solution to sustainable water management.It concludes that:•
Business cannot survive in a society that thirsts.• One does not
have to be in the water business to have a water crisis.• Business
is part of the solution, and its potential is driven by its
engagement.• Growing water issues and complexity will drive up
costs.
See also• Ecological sanitation• Deficit irrigation• Optimum
water content for tillage• Peak water• Shared vision planning• Tap
water• Virtual water• Water cycle• Water distribution on Earth•
Water law• University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee School of Freshwater
Sciences
Further reading• Pearce, Fred When the Rivers Run Dry: Water—The
Defining Crisis of the Twenty-First Century Beacon Press,
2006, ISBN 0807085723 ISBN 978-0807085721
References• UN World Water Development Report [25]
• Water Resources of the United States [26]
• International Water Resources Association [27]
• Canadian Water Resources Association [28]
• American Water Resources Association [29]
• Institute for Water Resources - USACE [30]
• Water Resource Research Center [31]
• "Threats to water resources" [32] by the Environment Agency•
Ancient Irrigation [33] from the University of California, Geology
Department• Mining Water [34] from the University of California,
Geology Department• Selected World Water Data [35]
• Uses for Water... [36]
• Future Sources of Fresh Water [37]
• World Water Supply and Demand: 1995 to 2025 [38] from the
International Water Management Institute
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=World_Business_Council_for_Sustainable_Developmenthttp://www.wbcsd.org/includes/getTarget.asp?type=d&id=MTk5Nzchttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scenario_buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_crisishttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecological_sanitationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deficit_irrigationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Optimum_water_content_for_tillagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peak_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shared_vision_planninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tap_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virtual_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_distribution_on_Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Milwaukee_School_of_Freshwater_Scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fred_Pearcehttp://www.unesco.org/water/wwap/wwdrhttp://water.usgs.gov/http://www.iwra.siu.edu/http://www.cwra.org/http://www.awra.org/http://www.water-resources.us/http://ag.arizona.edu/AZWATER/http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/yourenv/639312/641094/642206/642375/642736/?lang=_ehttp://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~cowen/~GEL115/115CH17oldirrigation.htmlhttp://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~cowen/~GEL115/115CH18miningwater.htmlhttp://www.worldwater.org/data.htmlhttp://www.uleth.ca/vft/Oldman_River/WaterUses.htmlhttp://www.galileo.org/schools/crowther/science/blueplanet/future.htmlhttp://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/pubs/WWVisn/WWSDHtml.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Water_Management_Institute
-
Water resources 11
• Addressing Our Global Water Future [39]PDF (3.71 MB)
from the Center for Strategic and International Studies(CSIS) /
Sandia National Laboratories
• Porous cities [40], new directions in urban water usage.•
http:/ / www. techstart. org/ docs/ ogpc_payment. pdf• Water and
the Future of Life on Earth [41]
• Water and Cities: Acting on the Vision [42]
• FAO Water Portal [43] Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations
External links• United Nations Environment Program - Freshwater
[44]
• U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Healthy
Water [45] One-stop resource for waterinformation including
drinking water, global water, and water resources (agricultural,
industrial, medical).
• Renewable water resources in the world by country [46]
• A 'quick facts' brochure from the International Year of Water
(2003) [47]
• IGRAC International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre
[48]
• The Transboundary Freshwater Dispute Database [49]
• UN-Water [50]
• American Museum of Natural History - Water: H2O=Life [51]
• International Water Management Institute (IWMI) [52]
• eWater Cooperative Research Centre [53] - Australian
Government funded initiative supporting watermanagement decision
support tools
• Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law [54]
Peace Palace Library• US Army Geospatial Center [55] — For
information on OCONUS surface water and groundwater.• UNESCO-IHE
[56] — The UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education.• South Asia's
Troubled Waters [57] Journalistic project on Water in South Asia at
the Pulitzer Center on Crisis
Reporting
References[1] "Earth's water distribution" (http:/ / ga. water.
usgs. gov/ edu/ waterdistribution. html). United States Geological
Survey. . Retrieved
2009-05-13.[2] "Scientific Facts on Water: State of the
Resource" (http:/ / www. greenfacts. org/ en/ water-resources/
index. htm#2). GreenFacts Website. .
Retrieved 2008-01-31.[3] (http:/ / www. gwsp. org/ downloads/
govworkshop/ Hoekstra. pdf) Hoekstra, A.Y. 2006. The Global
Dimension of Water Governance: Nine
Reasons for Global Arrangements in Order to Cope with Local
Problems. Value of Water Research Report Series No. 20
UNESCO-IHEInstitute for Water Education.
[4] "The World's Water 2006-2007 Tables, Pacific Institute"
(http:/ / www. worldwater. org/ data. html). Worldwater.org. .
Retrieved2009-03-12.
[5] http:/ / pulitzercenter. org/ showproject. cfm?id=106[6]
"WBCSD Water Facts & Trends" (http:/ / www. wbcsd. org/
includes/ getTarget. asp?type=d& id=MTYyNTA). . Retrieved
2009-03-12.[7] "Water Development and Management Unit - Topics -
Irrigation" (http:/ / www. fao. org/ nr/ water/ topics_irrigation.
html). FAO. . Retrieved
2009-03-12.[8] "FAO Water Unit | Water News: water scarcity"
(http:/ / www. fao. org/ nr/ water/ news/ masscote. html). Fao.org.
. Retrieved 2009-03-12.[9] "World population to reach 9.1 billion
in 2050, UN projects" (http:/ / www. un. org/ apps/ news/ story.
asp?NewsID=13451&
Cr=population& Cr1). Un.org. 2005-02-24. . Retrieved
2009-03-12.[10] "Groundwater – the processes and global
significance of aquifer degradation" (http:/ / www. google. com/
url?sa=t& ct=res& cd=1&
url=http:/ / www. pubmedcentral. nih. gov/ articlerender.
fcgi?artid=1693287&
ei=q9vnRsOEJpmSwQHny8TfBQ&usg=AFQjCNHS5RKSHrKezWO_PBtqp06oMAZs8Q&
sig2=becO6aqfyo1izUxdiBcILg). Google.com.
2003-12-29.doi:10.1098/rstb.2003.1380. . Retrieved 2009-03-12.
[11] "Europe’s Environment: The Dobris Assessment" (http:/ /
reports. eea. europa. eu/ 92-826-5409-5/ en).
Reports.eea.europa.eu. 1995-05-20. .Retrieved 2009-03-12.
http://www.sandia.gov/water/docs/CSIS-SNL_OGWF_9-28-05.PDFhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Center_for_Strategic_and_International_Studieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sandia_National_Laboratorieshttp://www.corporateknights.ca/content/page.asp?name=water_innovationhttp://www.techstart.org/docs/ogpc_payment.pdfhttp://www.sfu.ca/cstudies/science/water.htmhttp://www.sfu.ca/cstudies/science/waterandcities.htmhttp://www.fao.org/nr/waterhttp://www.unep.org/themes/freshwater/http://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/aquastat/water_res/waterres_tab.htmhttp://www.un.org/events/water/brochure.htmhttp://www.igrac.nethttp://www.transboundarywaters.orst.edu/http://www.unwater.org/flashindex.htmlhttp://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/water/http://www.iwmi.org/http://www.ewatercrc.com.auhttp://www.ppl.nl/index.php?option=com_wrapper&view=wrapper&Itemid=82http://www.agc.army.mil/http://www.unesco-ihe.org/http://pulitzercenter.org/showproject.cfm?id=106http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/waterdistribution.htmlhttp://www.greenfacts.org/en/water-resources/index.htm#2http://www.gwsp.org/downloads/govworkshop/Hoekstra.pdfhttp://www.worldwater.org/data.htmlhttp://pulitzercenter.org/showproject.cfm?id=106http://www.wbcsd.org/includes/getTarget.asp?type=d&id=MTYyNTAhttp://www.fao.org/nr/water/topics_irrigation.htmlhttp://www.fao.org/nr/water/news/masscote.htmlhttp://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=13451&Cr=population&Cr1http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=13451&Cr=population&Cr1http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&ct=res&cd=1&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pubmedcentral.nih.gov%2Farticlerender.fcgi%3Fartid%3D1693287&ei=q9vnRsOEJpmSwQHny8TfBQ&usg=AFQjCNHS5RKSHrKezWO_PBtqp06oMAZs8Q&sig2=becO6aqfyo1izUxdiBcILghttp://www.google.com/url?sa=t&ct=res&cd=1&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pubmedcentral.nih.gov%2Farticlerender.fcgi%3Fartid%3D1693287&ei=q9vnRsOEJpmSwQHny8TfBQ&usg=AFQjCNHS5RKSHrKezWO_PBtqp06oMAZs8Q&sig2=becO6aqfyo1izUxdiBcILghttp://www.google.com/url?sa=t&ct=res&cd=1&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pubmedcentral.nih.gov%2Farticlerender.fcgi%3Fartid%3D1693287&ei=q9vnRsOEJpmSwQHny8TfBQ&usg=AFQjCNHS5RKSHrKezWO_PBtqp06oMAZs8Q&sig2=becO6aqfyo1izUxdiBcILghttp://reports.eea.europa.eu/92-826-5409-5/en
-
Water resources 12
[12] "Groundwater in Urban Development" (http:/ / www-wds.
worldbank. org/ external/ default/ main?pagePK=64193027&
piPK=64187937&theSitePK=523679& menuPK=64187510&
searchMenuPK=64187283& siteName=WDS&
entityID=000009265_3980429110739).Wds.worldbank.org. . Retrieved
2009-03-12.
[13] Ocean dumping of sewage sludge is prohibited in the United
States by the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act
(MPRSA).[14] Rasler, Karen A. and W. R. Thompson. "Contested
Territory, Strategic Rivalries, and Conflict Escalation."
International Studies Quarterly.
50. 1. (2006): 145-168.[15] Wolf, Aaron T. “Water and Human
Security.” Journal of Contemporary Water Research and Education.
118. (2001): 29[16] Homer-Dixon, Thomas. "Environment, Scarcity,
and Violence." Princeton University Press. (1999).[17] Postel, S.
L. and A. T. Wolf. “Dehydrating Conflict.” Foreign Policy. 126.
(2001): 60-67.[18] http:/ / www. who. int/ water_sanitation_health/
monitoring/ globalassess/ en/[19] http:/ / mdgs. un. org/ unsd/
mdg/ Resources/ Static/ Products/ Progress2008/ MDG_Report_2008_En.
pdf#page=44[20] Björn Lomborg (2001), The Skeptical
Environmentalist (Cambridge University Press), ISBN 0521010683, p.
22 (http:/ / www. lomborg.
com/ dyn/ files/ basic_items/ 69-file/ skeptenvironChap1.
pdf)[21] http:/ / mdgs. un. org/ unsd/ mdg/ Resources/ Static/
Products/ Progress2008/ MDG_Report_2008_En. pdf#page=44[22] "The
cost of meeting the Johannesburg targets for drinking water"
(http:/ / www. water-academy. org/ article.
php3?id_article=27).
Water-academy.org. 2004-06-22. . Retrieved 2009-03-12.[23]
Financing Water for All (http:/ / www. financingwaterforall. org/
fileadmin/ wwc/ Library/ Publications_and_reports/
CamdessusSummary.
pdf)[24] http:/ / www. wbcsd. org/ includes/ getTarget.
asp?type=d& id=MTk5Nzc[25] http:/ / www. unesco. org/ water/
wwap/ wwdr[26] http:/ / water. usgs. gov/[27] http:/ / www. iwra.
siu. edu/[28] http:/ / www. cwra. org/[29] http:/ / www. awra.
org/[30] http:/ / www. water-resources. us/[31] http:/ / ag.
arizona. edu/ AZWATER/[32] http:/ / www. environment-agency. gov.
uk/ yourenv/ 639312/ 641094/ 642206/ 642375/ 642736/ ?lang=_e[33]
http:/ / www. geology. ucdavis. edu/ ~cowen/ ~GEL115/
115CH17oldirrigation. html[34] http:/ / www. geology. ucdavis. edu/
~cowen/ ~GEL115/ 115CH18miningwater. html[35] http:/ / www.
worldwater. org/ data. html[36] http:/ / www. uleth. ca/ vft/
Oldman_River/ WaterUses. html[37] http:/ / www. galileo. org/
schools/ crowther/ science/ blueplanet/ future. html[38] http:/ /
www. iwmi. cgiar. org/ pubs/ WWVisn/ WWSDHtml. htm[39] http:/ /
www. sandia. gov/ water/ docs/ CSIS-SNL_OGWF_9-28-05. PDF[40]
http:/ / www. corporateknights. ca/ content/ page.
asp?name=water_innovation[41] http:/ / www. sfu. ca/ cstudies/
science/ water. htm[42] http:/ / www. sfu. ca/ cstudies/ science/
waterandcities. htm[43] http:/ / www. fao. org/ nr/ water[44]
http:/ / www. unep. org/ themes/ freshwater/[45] http:/ / www. cdc.
gov/ healthywater/[46] http:/ / www. fao. org/ ag/ agl/ aglw/
aquastat/ water_res/ waterres_tab. htm[47] http:/ / www. un. org/
events/ water/ brochure. htm[48] http:/ / www. igrac. net[49]
http:/ / www. transboundarywaters. orst. edu/[50] http:/ / www.
unwater. org/ flashindex. html[51] http:/ / www. amnh. org/
exhibitions/ water/[52] http:/ / www. iwmi. org/[53] http:/ / www.
ewatercrc. com. au[54] http:/ / www. ppl. nl/ index.
php?option=com_wrapper& view=wrapper& Itemid=82[55] http:/
/ www. agc. army. mil/[56] http:/ / www. unesco-ihe. org/[57]
http:/ / pulitzercenter. org/ showproject. cfm?id=106
http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/main?pagePK=64193027&piPK=64187937&theSitePK=523679&menuPK=64187510&searchMenuPK=64187283&siteName=WDS&entityID=000009265_3980429110739http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/main?pagePK=64193027&piPK=64187937&theSitePK=523679&menuPK=64187510&searchMenuPK=64187283&siteName=WDS&entityID=000009265_3980429110739http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_Protection%2C_Research%2C_and_Sanctuaries_Acthttp://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/monitoring/globalassess/en/http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Resources/Static/Products/Progress2008/MDG_Report_2008_En.pdf#page=44http://www.lomborg.com/dyn/files/basic_items/69-file/skeptenvironChap1.pdfhttp://www.lomborg.com/dyn/files/basic_items/69-file/skeptenvironChap1.pdfhttp://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Resources/Static/Products/Progress2008/MDG_Report_2008_En.pdf#page=44http://www.water-academy.org/article.php3?id_article=27http://www.financingwaterforall.org/fileadmin/wwc/Library/Publications_and_reports/CamdessusSummary.pdfhttp://www.financingwaterforall.org/fileadmin/wwc/Library/Publications_and_reports/CamdessusSummary.pdfhttp://www.wbcsd.org/includes/getTarget.asp?type=d&id=MTk5Nzchttp://www.unesco.org/water/wwap/wwdrhttp://water.usgs.gov/http://www.iwra.siu.edu/http://www.cwra.org/http://www.awra.org/http://www.water-resources.us/http://ag.arizona.edu/AZWATER/http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/yourenv/639312/641094/642206/642375/642736/?lang=_ehttp://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~cowen/~GEL115/115CH17oldirrigation.htmlhttp://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~cowen/~GEL115/115CH18miningwater.htmlhttp://www.worldwater.org/data.htmlhttp://www.uleth.ca/vft/Oldman_River/WaterUses.htmlhttp://www.galileo.org/schools/crowther/science/blueplanet/future.htmlhttp://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/pubs/WWVisn/WWSDHtml.htmhttp://www.sandia.gov/water/docs/CSIS-SNL_OGWF_9-28-05.PDFhttp://www.corporateknights.ca/content/page.asp?name=water_innovationhttp://www.sfu.ca/cstudies/science/water.htmhttp://www.sfu.ca/cstudies/science/waterandcities.htmhttp://www.fao.org/nr/waterhttp://www.unep.org/themes/freshwater/http://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/aquastat/water_res/waterres_tab.htmhttp://www.un.org/events/water/brochure.htmhttp://www.igrac.nethttp://www.transboundarywaters.orst.edu/http://www.unwater.org/flashindex.htmlhttp://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/water/http://www.iwmi.org/http://www.ewatercrc.com.auhttp://www.ppl.nl/index.php?option=com_wrapper&view=wrapper&Itemid=82http://www.agc.army.mil/http://www.unesco-ihe.org/http://pulitzercenter.org/showproject.cfm?id=106
-
Article Sources and Contributors 13
Article Sources and ContributorsWater resources Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=376251613
Contributors: A4, Abba12, Abeg92, AdjustShift, Aharlan,
Ahoerstemeier, Akgravgaard, Akshatme, AlanLiefting, Alansohn,
Alchemist Jack, Altenmann, Anakin101, Andrewa, Andywingate, Animum,
Anlace, Antandrus, Aoi, Avalerion, Avono, Awickert, Barticus88,
Begoon, Bender235, BenjiFranklyn, Betacommand, Blackangel25,
Blake-, Blaylockjam10, Blood sliver, Bobblehead, Bobo192, CALR,
Caltas, Camembert, Can't sleep, clown will eat me,
CanadianLinuxUser,CanisRufus, Causa sui, Chris the speller,
Chriswaterguy, Closedmouth, Colege, Common Man, Correogsk, Cut1664,
D. Recorder, DWije, DabMachine, Dalcanale, Daniel Collins,
Darkleafy,Daven200520, Dbachmann, Dbenbenn, Dbiel, Decagon,
Defender of torch, Devinlee, Dmmaus, Doczilla, Drbreznjev,
Edgar181, Edward321, El C, Elpix, Ephemeronium, Erik9, Espoo,
FayssalF,Fred Bauder, GILDog, GTZ-44-ecosan, Gaurav.bhumika,
Geoffrey, Geschichte, Glenlarson, Gnomestar, Gogo Dodo, Grafen,
Gralo, GreatWhiteNortherner, Ground Zero, Gscshoyru,Gwptoolbox,
H2O, HJ Mitchell, HealthywaterCDC, Hescajadillo, Hu12, Immunize,
J.delanoy, J3ff, JSpung, JTN, Ja 62, JaGa, Jacob Lundberg, Jeffq,
Jesusrocks2525, Jimjamjak, JoseEdo,Joseph Solis in Australia,
Jusdafax, KVDP, Kaarel, Karenjc, Ken Gallager, Kevin, Kgrr, Kimiko,
King of Hearts, Kondratyev, Kuak, La goutte de pluie, Lenoxus,
Luokehao, Lwnf360, MER-C,Magnus Manske, Mark T, MarkSutton,
Marshman, Masturnate, Maxlove, Maymana, Mclaud2000, Mehrunes Dagon,
Michael Marcus, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mkweise, Mohammedshameel,
Moreau1,Mschiffler, NawlinWiki, Nemesis of Reason, Netalarm,
NewEnglandYankee, Nick Levine, [email protected], Noq, NortyNort,
Nsaa, Nschaefer, Nunquam Dormio, OlEnglish, Oliver202,Onevalefan,
OwenX, PFHLai, PL290, Pedant, Penikett, PeterSymonds, Pinethicket,
Pinkadelica, Politepunk, Possum, Pparazorback, Ps07swt, Psinu,
R.J.Oosterbaan, R.steenhard, RG2, Rd232,Revws, RexNL, Rich
Farmbrough, Richard001, Rjwilmsi, Rob Lindsey, Robth, Ronz,
Ruslik0, SHARRIS27, Sarawickert, Satyask, Sceptre, Shanes,
Silverchemist, SimonP, Sjakkalle,Skipsievert, Smallverm, Spiffy
sperry, Squires500, StephanieM, Stephenchou0722, Strayan,
SuperTycoon, Synergy, T.J.V., TDS, TUF-KAT, Tanaats, Tannin, Tapir
Terrific, Tarndt, Tarret,Tazmaniacs, Tbo 157, Tcncv, Thbz, The
Thing That Should Not Be, The19trier, Thehelpfulone, Thessaysno,
Thumperward, Tide rolls, Toiyabe, Tony Sidaway, Travelbird, Triwbe,
Tslocum,Twoplus2, USchick, Ulim, Uncle Dick, Val22, Valentin
Zahrnt, Vegaswikian, Velela, VernoWhitney, Vikrammat, Vsmith,
Wavelength, Wayland, Wetman, Whollabilla, WikHead,
Wikieditor06,Wikipelli, Williamborg, Winchelsea, Wolfkeeper,
Woogee, Xeno, Ybact, YixilTesiphon, Zhenqinli, 593 anonymous
edits
Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsImage:Sinclair
Wetlands.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sinclair_Wetlands.jpg
License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors:
Donovan Govan.File:Earth's water distribution.svg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Earth's_water_distribution.svg
License: Public Domain Contributors:
USGSImage:Parinacota.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Parinacota.jpg
License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors:
User:Gerd BreitenbachImage:Groundwater flow times usgs cir1139.png
Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Groundwater_flow_times_usgs_cir1139.png
License: unknown
Contributors:User:BotMultichillTImage:Shipot.jpg
Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shipot.jpg
License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors:
User:USchickImage:Carlb-newfoundland-iceberg-2002.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Carlb-newfoundland-iceberg-2002.jpg
License: unknown Contributors: Conscious,Ixfd64,
Matt314Image:Ontario farm.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ontario_farm.jpg
License: unknown Contributors: User:Stan
ShebsImage:Poland Solina dam.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Poland_Solina_dam.jpg
License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors:
Bogumisia, Merlin,Meteor2017, Mircea, Shalom Alechem,
ŁukaszWuImage:Drinking water.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Drinking_water.jpg
License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors:
Agentscott00, Ies, Ranveig,Scott5114, 8 anonymous
editsImage:Whitewater.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Whitewater.jpg
License: Public Domain Contributors: Boris23, Harry
Wood, Prankster, 1 anonymous editsImage:Access to drinking water in
third world.svg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Access_to_drinking_water_in_third_world.svg
License: Public Domain Contributors:
User:EphemeroniumImage:Water pollution.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Water_pollution.jpg
License: Public Domain Contributors: Korrigan,
Saperaud
LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
Unportedhttp:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/
Water resourcesSources of fresh waterSurface waterUnder river
flowGround waterDesalinationFrozen water
Uses of fresh
waterAgriculturalIndustrialHouseholdRecreationEnvironmental
Water stressPopulation growthExpansion of business activityRapid
urbanizationClimate changeDepletion of aquifersPollution and water
protectionWater and conflict
World water supply and distributionEconomic
considerationsBusiness response
See alsoFurther readingReferencesExternal links
License
