watersum.recdocuments.rec.org/publications/GoodPracticesWeb.pdfwatersum.rec.org The regional project Sustainable Use of Transboundary Water Resources and Water Security Management

watersum.rec.org

The regional project Sustainable Use of Transboundary Water Resources and Water SecurityManagement (WATER SUM) addresses water-related challenges and promotes regional cooperation in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) through two project components: Water Resources Management Good Practices and Knowledge Transfer (WATER POrT); and Water Security (WaSe). The WATER POrT component focuses on building skills and transferringknowledge on integrated water resources management in order to promote sustainable development and climate adaptation. The WaSe component supports the introduction of local water security actionplans to help communities withstand asset scarcity and tackle environment-related conflicts.

The overall objective of the WATER SUM project is to promote and enhance the sustainability of managing water resources in beneficiary countries in the MENA region in order to halt the downward spiral of poverty and to reduce biodiversity loss and environmental degradation. The main expected impact is institutional and behavioural change in water governance and utilisationpatterns. This will be achieved through the successful transfer of knowledge and skills to all participating actors in the water management arena. Additional impacts related to improving water security are also significant in terms of overall environmental security. It is therefore vital to build partnerships in order to address environmental asset scarcity, environmental risks or adverse changes, and environment-related tensions or conflicts, as this is the most effective means for delivering development and conservation targets to local communities and beyond.

The WATER SUM project brings high added value, as it provides beneficiary countries with a structured opportunity to boost their development, share new methods for improved water management, improve planning at all levels of governance, and address unemployment and poverty.

Project duration: April 2014 – March 2018Total project budget: EUR 7.27 million

CONTACTS

Jovanka Ignjatovic • Project Manager • [email protected] Environmental Center for Central and Eastern Europe (REC)Ady Endre ut 9–11 • 2000 Szentendre • Hungary Tel: +36 26 504 000 • Fax: +36 26 311 294 The REC is an international organisation with a mission to assist in addressing environmental issues. The REC fulfils this missionby promoting cooperation among governments, non-governmental organisations, businesses and other environmentalstakeholders, and by supporting the free exchange of information and public participation in environmental decision making.

The WATER SUM project is financed by the Government of Sweden and implemented by the REC.

PHOTO CREDIT: COVER AND PAGE 50 Ahmadi Zouhaiyer

Water Demand ManagementA Good Practice Handbook

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1Water Demand Management A Good Practice Handbook

Contents

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1 – REUSE OF TREATED WASTEWATER AND WATERHARVESTING FOR IRRIGATION

1.1 Upgrading the Wastewater Treatment Plant to Provide TreatedWastewater Effluent for Agricultural Purposes in Cyprus 6

1.2 Review of the Tunisian Experience in Treated Wastewater Reuse from theBeginning of the 1960s, with a Focus on Results and the Legal andRegulatory Measures Taken to Encourage the Process 9

1.3 Wastewater Reuse for Agriculture at the Jordan University of Science andTechnology 12

1.4 Greywater Irrigation in Rural Areas of Jordan: Opportunities for SavingFreshwater and Poverty Reduction 14

1.5 The Use of Treated Wastewater for Irrigation at the Iaat WastewaterTreatment Plant in the Beqaa Valley, Lebanon 16

1.6 Wastewater Reuse for Reforestation in Luxor, Egypt 19

1.7 Water Runoff Harvesting for Olive Plantations in Syria, through AnnuallyReconstructed V-shaped Micro-catchments Enhanced by DownslopePloughing 21

1.8 Water Harvesting from Concentrated Runoff for Irrigation Purposes in Boqueras, Spain 23

CHAPTER 2 – REDUCTION OF NON-REVENUE WATER ANDWATER SAVING BY FINAL USERS

2.1 Reduction of Non-Revenue Water in Limassol, Cyprus 26

2.2 Segmentation of the Drinking Water Distribution Network Combined witha Meter Installation Programme as the Foundation to Reduce Non-Revenue Water in Tizi-Ouzou, Algeria 29

2.3 Leak Detection and Repair to Improve Network Performance in Fez,Morocco 31

2.4 Water Loss Control Programme in Sao Paulo, Brazil 34

2.5 Development of a Water Consumption Model for the Jordan University ofScience and Technology Campus Female Students Dormitory 37

2.6 Water Auditing and Retrofitting at the Ministry of Awqaf, Islamic Affairsand Holy Places, Jordan 40

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WATER SUMSustainable Use of Transboundary Water Resources and Water Security Management

WATER POrTWater Resources Management Good Practices and Knowledge Transfer

May 2017

AUTHORS

András Kis, Senior Water Economist, Regional Centre for Energy Policy Research, Water Economics Unit, Hungary

Fayez Abdulla, Professor of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering, Civil Engineering Department, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Jordan,

Moez Allaoui, Director of SONEDE, Tunisia

Hella Ben Brahim Neji, Associate Professor and Researcher, Laboratory of Finance and Applied Economics, University of Carthage, Tunisia

Hani Abu Qdais, Professor of Water and Environmental Engineering, Civil Engineering Department,Jordan University of Science and Technology

Gábor Ungvári, Senior Water Economist, Regional Centre for Energy Policy Research, Water Economics Unit, Hungary

The collection of good water demand management (WDM) practices presented in this handbook can also be accessed online inthe WATER POrT E-Practicum, a database of good practices on water scarcity and drought management that can offer valuablelessons and prospects for replicability.

http://watersum.rec.org/e-learning/

This handbook was prepared for the project“Sustainable Use of Transboundary Water Resources and Water Security Management” (WATER SUM), implemented by the Regional Environmental Center (REC) with funding from the Government of Sweden.

3Water Demand Management A Good Practice Handbook Water Demand Management A Good Practice Handbook

Contents

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IntroductionThe Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region faces severe water scarcity, and somecountries and areas are particularly badly affected. Several MENA countries are among themost water scarce locations in the world. While water shortages within the MENA region aresevere today, they are predicted to worsen in the future. Some of the currently utilised watersources will be exhausted (e.g. some of the deep fossil sources) or further restricted (e.g.precipitation), while non-conventional sources will continue to be expensive (e.g. the supplyingof inland areas with desalinated water). The impacts of climate change may result in morevolatile patterns of precipitation and higher temperatures, leading to less water afterevaporation. At the same time, a growing population and increased economic activities willrequire additional quantities of water. Some countries, particularly Jordan and Lebanon, arealso having to cope with additional water demand due to the influx of refugees.

Water scarcity can be addressed through both supply- and demand-side solutions. Thetraditional management of water scarcity has focused on the supply side, and includes thebuilding of reservoirs, the digging of wells, desalination, and the transportation of abstractedand stored water over large distances. However, not only are such solutions expensive, buttheir availability is limited — and the limits are clearly in sight.

In the absence of any additional affordable supply, the countries of the MENA region will haveto shift their focus to demand-side solutions. Water demand management (WDM) alreadyplays an important role in ensuring that limited supplies are not wasted, and the emphasis onWDM is expected to grow in the future. Demand-side adaptation is gaining ground in water-scarce societies, since it can offer flexibility, reduce costs, and contribute to the more efficientallocation of scarce water resources. Countries that are successful in addressing water scarcitytypically apply a mixture of demand-side and supply-side solutions.

During the implementation of the WATER POrT component of the WATER SUM project, thebeneficiary countries explicitly requested capacity building on WDM. Task 1.1 was thereforededicated to this topic and included training events, demonstration case studies, workshops,and the development of good practice case studies in order to share existing experience andpromote the exchange of information within the region. Thirty case studies were written by ateam of six experts from diverse backgrounds, each following the same assessment frameworkto ensure that the cases were based on the same methodology. Most of the collected goodpractices are from within the MENA region, although some experience gathered from othercontinents was also included.

Our intention was to select cases that offer valuable lessons and scope for replication. Not allcases are perfect — some had weaknesses in terms of design, and some had weaknesses interms of implementation. Nevertheless, if there was a strong conclusion to share, it wasdecided to include the case. Replicability was also a crucial selection criterion: an idealmeasure is one that does not require substantial investment or advanced technology, and thatcan be implemented under various institutional structures.

The WDM approach is more closely linked to economics than to other disciplines (such asengineering, natural sciences or law), thus basic economic principles were the focus of thecapacity-building activities of the project. This was a deliberate decision, since economics isthe decision support method for addressing the problem of scarce resources. Likewise, wherefeasible, the good practice cases were also assessed from the perspective of economics andfinancing. If the data did not lend themselves to quantitative economic conclusions, then atleast an attempt was made to formulate some qualitative observations about how economicconcepts manifest themselves in a given good practice case.

The case studies have been kept concise, generally between three and six pages long, althoughreferences are provided for those interested in further reading.

The 30 good practice cases are organised into thematic chapters, each of which includesexperience from multiple locations (see Map 1).

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CHAPTER 3 – ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS IN WATER POLICY

3.1 Adaptation to a Growing Population through the Decline of Per Capita Consumption Triggered by Increasing Block Tariffs 43

3.2 Effect of Pricing Policy on Water Conservation: Abu Dhabi, UAE 46

3.3 How a Public Drinking Water Utility Applied and Adapted a Progressive Tariff 48

3.4 The Main Axes of the Strategy Adopted by the Tunisian Authorities to Encourage Water Savings in Irrigated Perimeters 51

3.5 Providing Sustainable Drinking Water Services in Rural Africa with the Application of Modern Technologies 55

CHAPTER 4 – INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL MEASURES

4.1 Private Sector Participation in Water Management: Amman WaterManagement Contract 58

4.2 Reducing Non-Revenue Water by Improving Billing and Collection:Micro-Private Sector Participation in Madaba, Jordan 61

4.3 Rainwater Harvesting in the Water and Sanitation Plumbing Code forJordan 64

4.4 Water User Associations: Participative Irrigation Management in theJordan Valley 68

4.5 SONEDE, Tunisia: Tracking Illegal Consumption among Drinking WaterUtility Subscribers Based on an Existing Legal Framework 71

4.6 A Legal Framework for Auditing the Water Systems of Large-ScaleConsumers, Tunisia 73

CHAPTER 5 – INNOVATIVE SOLUTIONS TO ADDRESS WATERSCARCITY

5.1 Agreements on Groundwater Use to Mitigate the Devastating Effect ofResource Depletion and Droughts, Morocco 77

5.2 Drinking Water Provision from Fog Harvesting in the Anti-AtlasMountains in Morocco 79

5.3 Real-Time Agricultural Classification for Water Needs Estimation(COLT project) in Emilia-Romagna, Italy 82

5.4 Pairing Groundwater-Based Irrigation Well Registration with theContinuation of Electricity Subsidies for Water Pumping in Mexico 84

5.5 A Smart Mix of Mutually Supportive Measures to Ensure a High Level ofWater Service in Singapore Despite Scarce Water Resources 86

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5Water Demand Management A Good Practice HandbookWater Demand Management A Good Practice Handbook

Introduction

4

Chapter 1 covers different ways to satisfy the need for water in the agricultural sector, thebiggest consumer of water in the MENA region. Given the scarcity of freshwater resources, thecountries of the MENA region are pioneers in the use of treated wastewater for irrigation, whilewater harvesting occasionally supplements water needs for agriculture.

In Chapter 2, WDM opportunities in the drinking water sector are explored. A reduction innetwork losses is one of the most economical but underutilised WDM measures in the region.The selected good practices prove that it is possible to execute successful projects to reducenon-revenue water. Water saving by final consumers is another promising measure.

Chapter 3 includes case studies that describe how economic policy instruments were utilisedto cut water use. In three out of the five cases, a progressive water tariff was applied to providehouseholds and other water users with a strong incentive to reduce their water consumption.One case deals with financial support to improve the efficiency of water use for irrigation,while the case describing the introduction of prepaid drinking water services illustrates that itis possible to create a win-win situation through economic instruments.

The good-practice cases in Chapter 4 are based on institutional and legal measures, includingthe participation of private enterprises in improving services, the adoption of regulations, theestablishment of new types of cooperation, and the development of institutions for effectivemonitoring.

Finally, Chapter 5 includes case studies on the implementation of non-traditional, innovativeapproaches, some of which are technological (e.g. fog harvesting, smart meters and satellite-based monitoring), while others operate on the institutional/organisational level (e.g. linkingelectricity consumption and water abstraction). Although these cases are not easilytransferable to other locations, they have been included in order to illustrate the widespectrum of potential WDM measures, the challenges posed by their introduction, and some ofthe preconditions for their successful operation.

It should be emphasised that, while the cases have been classified according to variousthemes, the best WDM measures require the careful combination of different approaches andsolutions. Superior design, economic considerations, communication and reconciliation withaffected stakeholders, an appropriate institutional and legal background, the application ofsuitable technologies, and monitoring and enforcement are all essential elements of a well-functioning, effective WDM measure. This is not an easy task, but we hope that the collectionof good WDM practices provided in this handbook will contribute to developing suitable WDMpolicies throughout the MENA region.

The type and location of the 30 good practice case studiesMAP 1

Chapter 1 – Reuse of Treated Wastewaterand Water Harvesting for IrrigationThe agricultural sector has the highest water consumption in the MENA region. The use ofvaluable freshwater for irrigation reduces the volume of water available for other uses, notablyurban drinking water supply and industrial water consumption. Replacing some of the freshwaterused in agriculture with other sources has therefore been articulated as one of the priorities forwater policy in the countries of the region. The most appropriate alternative source of watersupply is treated wastewater. Treated wastewater has limited other uses (wetland restoration andgroundwater recharge are options, although they are not as highly prioritised as irrigation), whileit is available throughout the year, unlike seasonal precipitation. Over the last few decades,considerable efforts have therefore been made to turn wastewater into irrigation water by meansof appropriate treatment and subsequent transmission to agricultural land. In fact, the MENAregion has the highest share of reused treated wastewater in the world.

Some countries and localities within the region have greater experience with this measure,including the development of quality standards, technological solutions, the application ofproper monitoring of soil and crop quality etc. The good practice cases rely on suchaccumulated experience. Some of the cases describe national policies and their implementation(Cyprus, Tunisia), while others are more technology oriented and focus on specific wastewatertreatment plants (Iaat, Luxor, Jordan University of Science and Technology), or the directdischarge of household grey water (Karak and Tafila in Jordan).

The last two cases in this chapter deal with water harvesting for irrigation. In both cases, low-cost, easily adoptable techniques are utilised to retain rainwater in the field in order to increasesoil moisture for an extended period.

Water Demand Management A Good Practice Handbook 7Water Demand Management A Good Practice Handbook

Chapter 1 Reuse of Treated Wastewater and Water Harvesting for Irrigation

1.1 continued

6

local sewerage boards can sell the effluent to end usersat a discount compared to the price of freshwater.

The reuse of wastewater has changed the overallpicture, supplying 15 to 16 million m3 (primarily foragricultural purposes) and 2.5 million m3 forgroundwater recharge (Lazarova et al. 2013). This hassubstantially decreased the quantity of wastewaterdischarged into the sea, contributing towards theachievement of full compliance with the EU BathingWater Directive (2006/7/EC) in 2010.

CONFLICTS ARISING FROM THE BASELINE SITUATION

Shrinking volumes of surface water and groundwaterdue to decreased precipitation and increased use resultin shorter retention periods and the deterioration ofwater quality (Sofroniou and Bishop 2014).

The overexploitation of subsurface resources results insaline water intrusions. Desalination is a process thatinvolves high costs that are not fully recoverable (due todependency on oil price changes), emits CO2, and raisesdifficulties in terms of brine disposal if the quantity ofdesalinated water increases (Sofroniou and Bishop 2014).

In 2008, water rationing was introduced for farmersand domestic users, and the highly expensivetransportation of water from Greece also becamenecessary. Agriculture uses 64 percent of waterresources in Cyprus, but contributes just 3 percent ofGDP (2006) — a pattern seen in many MENA countries(Sofroniou and Bishop 2014).

DESCRIPTION OF THE APPLIED MEASURE

If EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) standards areto be achieved, WWTPs need to improve the quality ofeffluent. While this remains true (Lazarova et al. 2013),the process has already led to the increased use ofsewage, and in some cases the treated effluent is ofbetter quality than the WFD standards (Papaiacovou2001). The tertiary treatment phase is additional to thelegal obligation, but it makes the treated water useablefor both agriculture and aquifer recharge.

The Water Development Department of the Governmentof Cyprus is responsible for the collection anddistribution of treated water to users, as well as fordeveloping the necessary distribution infrastructure. Thegovernment is focusing on the advanced use of publicfacilities, which treat 90 percent of wastewater. Thereare many other small facilities run by tourist resorts,

army camps and hospitals, operating outside thewastewater reuse scheme (Lazarova et al. 2013).

The use of treated water for irrigation purposes islimited to seasonal and permanent tree crops. Novegetables or crops that are directly ingested areirrigated with reused water.

PHYSICAL AND ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS

• Domestic: The supply of freshwater is more reliable,as a smaller volume is used by the agricultural sector.

• Agricultural: Water resources are more reliable, as theyare no longer dependent on the weather. There are alsosavings on fertilisers and increased crop yields.

• Environmental: The discharge of effluents into theenvironment is reduced, groundwater recharge is im-proved, and seawater intrusion controlled.

FINANCIAL AND OTHER IMPACTS

The estimated cost of compliance with the EU’s UrbanWaste Water Directive is EUR 1.5 billion. The governmentsubsidises the construction and operation costs oftertiary treatment, as well as the cost of seweragesystems in rural areas. Operation and maintenance costsare covered by fees. These developments have increasedthe sewerage service fee from EUR 2.26 per m3 (2008)to EUR 4.32 per m3 (2012), which reflects an increase indepreciation and financing costs (Lazarova et al. 2013).However, only a small portion of this increase, less than10 percent, is associated with tertiary treatment methodsrequired for the use of wastewater for irrigation.

The distribution of treated wastewater is a governmentresponsibility. From a financial point of view, the cost oftertiary treatment is reimbursed to WWTPs (producersof the effluent) from the revenue generated by sellingthe treated wastewater (Lazarova et al. 2013). Thissolution also helps to keep down the cost of sewerageservices for households (Hadjigeorgiou 2014).

Users of treated water pay less than the price of fresh,unfiltered irrigation water. The cost recovery ratio forusers of treated water is around 88 percent, with a totalcost EUR 0.152 per m3 (Lazarova et al. 2013).

Water for agricultural activities is cheaper than water forsports, tourist and leisure activities (Table 1). An identicaldifferentiation exists in the case of freshwater resources(Hadjigeorgiou 2014). Reused water provides agriculturalproducers with a cheaper way to grow fodder crops thanimporting water (Papaiacovou et al. 2012).

PERIOD 1992 to present

LOCATION Cyprus

TARGET To make wastewater effluent usable inagriculture.

PARTICIPATING ORGANISATIONS

• Water Development Department

• Sewerage boards

RESULTS OBTAINED

• The secondary use of treated effluent steadily in-creased, from 1 million m3 in 1998 to between 13 and15 million m3 in 2012.

SUCCESS FACTORS

• Government-led educational efforts to prove the via-bility and safety of treated effluent. Recurring peri-ods of drought also proved the need for this reliablesource of water.

INDICATORS

• Use of treated effluent (14.5 million m3 in 2012)

• Share of agricultural irrigation (72 percent)

• Landscape irrigation (3 percent)

• Groundwater recharge (15 percent)

• Discharge to the sea (10 percent) out of annualquantity

REPLICABILITY AND APPLICABILITY

Key to replicability is the existence of secondarywastewater treatment. The cost of advanced tertiarytreatment (which enables reuse) is only a small part ofthe total sewage treatment costs, which also include thesewerage network and the first two stages of treatment.The extra cost of the advanced tertiary phase and thesubsequent distribution infrastructure can be mostlycovered by revenue from the sale of the treated effluentto farmers. The price of treated wastewater must also belower than the price of freshwater for irrigation.

TOTAL COSTS

The total cost of the complex water and wastewaterdevelopment in Cyprus was estimated at EUR 1.5 billion.With respect to the Limassol WWTP development, theunit cost for the whole operation is EUR 4.32 per m3,while the cost of tertiary treatment alone is relativelylow, at EUR 0.152 m3.

Case description and analysisBASELINE SITUATION

Cyprus suffers from severe water stress, exacerbated byrecurring periods of drought. The four-year drought thatbegan in 2008 highlighted the vulnerability of a strategythat relied heavily on increased dam capacities (from 6 million m3 in 1961 to 332 million m3). Recent weatherpatterns show a decline in precipitation (the annualaverage between 1971 and 2008 was 461 mm, comparedto 541 mm between 1901 and 1970). For domestic,agricultural and industrial purposes, an averagesustainable yield of 235 million m3 of surface water and110 million m3 of groundwater is available, although thelatter source, which is heavily used by agriculture, isoverexploited by 29 million m3, resulting in a continuousdecline in the water table (the total annual volume is2,670 million m3, 86 percent of which is evaporation).Desalination began in 1997, supplementing domesticconsumption based on dams (Sofrinou and Bishop 2014).

Water consumption is dominated by the agriculturalsector (64 percent), while domestic use accounts for 28 percent, tourism 5 percent, and industry 3 percent. In recent decades, water demand has risen in all sectors(from 132 million m3 in 1996 to 275 million m3 in 2012) dueto population growth (660,000 to 850,000), better livingstandards and tourism development. The frequency ofdroughts has also increased (Sofrinou and Bishop 2014).

As part of a complex programme to meet growingwater demand in Cyprus, the EU Urban Waste WaterDirective was implemented to make treated wastewatereffluent from public WWTPs usable for agriculturalpurposes. This required the installation of advancedtertiary treatment phases. The government providedsubsidies to cover the investment costs, after which

Upgrading the Wastewater Treatment Plant to Provide TreatedWastewater Effluent for Agricultural Purposes in Cyprus

Section heading

CASE STUDY 1.1


Water Demand Management A Good Practice Handbook


9Water Demand Management A Good Practice Handbook8

1.1 continued

SUSTAINABILITY OF RESULTS

During a confidence-building period, pilot sites wereoperated to prove to farmers and the public the viabilityand safety of wastewater. Sorghum, alfalfa and corn wereproduced for two years using treated effluent from theLimassol WWTP on a 30-hectare pilot site. The AgriculturalResearch Institute monitored the crops and verified thatthey were not contaminated (Hadjigeorgiou 2014).

Continuous quality monitoring and the review ofstandards are necessary in order to prevent theaccumulation of harmful substances in the soil.Remaining challenges include better integration with stormwater management, and the identification of additionaluses during overflow periods (Papaiacovou 2001).

REFERENCES

Hadjigeorgiou, Panayiota (2014). “Reuse of TreatedEffluent in Cyprus.” Presentation at WG PoM 2ndMeeting (March 25–26, 2014). Accessed on July 20, 2016www.moa.gov.cy/moa/wdd/wdd.nsf/All/267EB7787999

9BBBC2257DE70045AE31/$file/Water%20Reuse_Cyprus%20Case.pdf

Papaiacovou, Iacovos (2001). “Case study: Wastewaterreuse in Limassol as an alternative water source.”Desalination, 138 (2001): 55–59.

Papaiacovou, Iacovos, Constantia Achileos, IoannaIoannidou, Alexia Panayi, Christian Kazner and RitaHochstrat (2012). “Water Reuse in Cyprus”www.reclaimedwater.net/data/files/225.pdf (accessedJuly 18, 2016). In 2012 Guidelines for Water Reuse.Appendix E, “International Case Studies andInternational Regulations”. US EPA:http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPDF.cgi/P100FS7K.PDF?Dockey=P100FS7K.PDF

Lazarova, Valentina, Takashi Asano, Akica Bahri andJohn Anderson (2013). Milestones in Water Reuse: TheBest Success Stories. Chapter 5. IWA Publishing.

Sofroniou, Anastasia and Steven Bishop (2014). “WaterScarcity in Cyprus: A Review and Call for IntegratedPolicy.” Water 6: 2898–2928; doi: 10.3390/w6102898.

PERIOD Beginning of the 1960s to present

LOCATION Tunisia

TARGET To encourage treated wastewater reuse as partof the national water-saving strategy.


• Ministry of Agriculture, Water Resources and Fisheries

• National Office of Sanitation

RESULTS OBTAINED

• The volume of reused treated wastewater is esti-mated at 57 million m3, representing around 30 per-cent of the overall volume of treated wastewater.

SUCCESS FACTORS

• Existence of a public policy dedicated to wastewaterreuse.

• An adapted and updated legal framework.

• Availability of public resources for investment to de-velop and improve wastewater treatment and reuse.

• Providing treated wastewater to users at a low priceor for free.

INDICATORS USED

• Quantity of treated wastewater reused.

• Percentage of reused wastewater compared to theoverall volume of treated wastewater.


Replicability requires the existence of functionalwastewater treatment infrastructure, as well as a demandfor reclaimed water, and farmers’ willingness to use it.

Case description and analysisAt the beginning of the 1960s, discussion was initiated inTunisia on the feasibility of large-scale wastewater reusein agriculture, and the possible implementation withinthe same decade of a national reuse policy.

The use of treated wastewater in Tunisia is an importantcomponent of the national water-saving strategy forirrigation, and also helps to save good-quality water forother purposes. Using reclaimed water to irrigate specificcrops, including cereals, fodder crops and fruit trees, ispermitted by law under specific conditions. In addition,treated wastewater has been used for non-agriculturalpurposes, such as irrigating green areas and golf courses,since the beginning of the 1970s, with the developmentof tourism in Tunisia. The authorities also considergroundwater recharge as an additional option. For thepercentage of treated wastewater used, see Figure 1.

CURRENT SITUATION

Following the success of experiments carried out bythe Ministry of Agriculture using treated wastewater toprotect 600 hectares of citrus fruit trees in the LaSoukra area (Governorate of Ariana) at the beginningof the 1960s, and due to the increasing volumes ofavailable treated wastewater at a time when thecountry is facing water scarcity, the public authoritiesembarked on the implementation of large-scaleprojects to exploit treated wastewater by creating newirrigated perimeters and protecting other irrigatedareas suffering from water shortages.

The current volume of reused treated wastewater isestimated at 57 million m3 (see Table 1), of which 39 million m3 are reused in irrigation (22 million m3 foragriculture, 10 million m3 for watering golf courses, and 7 million m3 for green spaces), while 18 million m3 aredisposed of into wetlands and rivers.

The total area irrigated with treated wastewater isaround 8,100 hectares, spread over 27 irrigatedperimeters that receive water from 26 wastewatertreatment plants, including the areas of Cebala-BorjTouil (Governorate of Ariana, 3,200 hectares) andMornag (Governorate of Ben Arous, 1,087 hectares),representing nearly 57 percent of the total areaequipped for irrigation. It should be noted thatdilapidated equipment is being used in some of theseirrigated areas, which requires immediate rehabilitationand expansion due to the availability of additionalvolumes of water that can be reclaimed.

Provides for economic incentives that make treated effluent more competitive

Water selling rate

Use Tertiary treated effluent

Fresh, non-filtered waterfrom government

water works

EUR cent/m3 EUR cent/m3

1 For irrigation divisions for agricultural production 5 15

2 For persons for agricultural production 7 17

3 For sports 15 34

4 For irrigation of hotel green areas and gardens 15 34

5 For pumping from an aquifer recharged by thetreated effluent 8 –

6 For overconsumption related to items 1 through 5 50% surcharge 56% surcharge

WG PoM Meeting of March 25–26, 2014, Brussels

TABLE 1 Pricing System for Water in Cyprus

Section heading

CASE STUDY 1.2

Review of the Tunisian Experience in Treated Wastewater Reusefrom the Beginning of the 1960s, with a Focus on Results and theLegal and Regulatory Measures Taken to Encourage the Process






1.2 continued1.2 continued

10

The authorities are currently developing an innovative

project in the perimeter of Mornag, funded by the

German bank KfW, which includes a groundwater

recharge of about 5 million m3 through a tertiary

treatment process.

In terms of cost recovery, the tariffs for reclaimed water

paid by farmers do not cover the total operating and

maintenance costs of wastewater treatment plants, and

the state continues to subsidise the projects. On the

other hand, reclaimed water is provided free of charge

to golf courses in order to reduce the pressure on

conventional water resources.

LEGAL FRAMEWORK

The reuse of treated wastewater for irrigation has been

enabled by the existence of a comprehensive and

updated legal framework, comprising legal provisions,

regulations and standards to encourage the use of

reclaimed waters in agriculture.

In this context, it is worth mentioning Article 106 of the

Tunisian Water Code, passed in 1975: “The use of

wastewater for agricultural purposes is authorised only

after appropriate treatment of these waters in a

wastewater treatment plant and by a decision of the

Ministry of Agriculture, taken after approval by the

Ministry of Public Health.”

At the beginning of the 1990s, a whole legal arsenal wasestablished through a series of decrees and decisions.With this legislation, the government established theconditions for the use of treated wastewater foragricultural purposes; approved the Tunisian standardNT 106-003 on the use of treated wastewater foragricultural purposes; and established the list of cropsthat can be irrigated with treated wastewater. Accordingto Articles 86 and 87 of Law 2001-116 of November 26,2001, on Amending and Supplementing the Water Code,the reuse of treated wastewater for production andservice purposes is a type of water resourcedevelopment with the character of a public utility.

Tunisia’s standards comply with the relevant FAO andWHO recommendations and permit the irrigation of awide range of crops (e.g. industrial crops, cereal crops,fodder crops, fruit trees, fodder shrubs, forest trees, andfloral plants for drying or industrial purposes).

Various institutional stakeholders are involved in theprocess of reclaimed water reuse. The National Office ofSanitation is in charge of producing treated wastewaterand operating the treatment plants; different publicauthorities are in charge of sanitary control, especially

the Ministry of Health and the Environmental ProtectionAgency; and the regional agricultural developmentoffices provide reclaimed water to farmers by installingand maintaining the water system — from the plantsthemselves to the irrigated perimeters.

More than 30 years after the creation of the firstirrigated perimeters using reclaimed water, one of thechallenges encountered is the high salinity recorded insome treatment plants, due mainly to the combinedcollection of domestic and industrial wastewaters. Themajority of treatment plants in Tunisia are limited to aprimary or secondary treatment stage (only five plantsprovide tertiary treatment). Furthermore, some plantsare now showing limited performance due to overload,faulty operation and poor maintenance.

It is now clear that there is a need to rehabilitate andupgrade the infrastructure in order to increase thequality and efficiency of treated wastewater resources.Both the users and the authorities view tertiarytreatment as the best option in the future. Some studies

have shown that the majority of farmers are willing topay more for better-quality water.

REFERENCES

ACWUA (2010). “Wastewater Reuse in Arab Countries:Comparative Compilation of Information and ReferenceList.” Arab Countries Water Utility Association. March.

Bahri, Akissa (2003). “Water reuse in Tunisia: Stakes andprospects.” In Serge Marlet and Pierre Ruelle (eds.). Versune maîtrise des impacts environnementaux del'irrigation: actes de l'atelier du PCSI, May, 28–29, 2002,Montpellier, France.

Ben Brahim-Neji, Hella, Alberto Ruiz-Villaverde andFrancisco González-Gómez (2014). “Decision aidsupports for evaluating agricultural water reusepractices in Tunisia: The Cebala perimeter.” AgriculturalWater Management, Vol. 143, pp. 113–121.

General Directorate of Water Resources: Ministry ofAgriculture, Water Resources and Fisheries

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2929

18

19961992 19981997 20001999 20022001 20042003 20062005 20142010

Number of municipalities covered 170

Connection rate in municipal area 91%

Length of the network 15,828 km

Number of subscribers 1.75 million

Number of wastewater treatment plants 110 (658,672 m3/d)

Volume of wastewater collected 243 million m3

Volume of wastewater treated 240 million m3

Volume of reused wastewater 57 million m3

TABLE 1 Wastewater treatment and reuse data, 2014

Percentage of treated wastewater reusedFIGURE 1



1.3 continued

12


LOCATION Jordan University of Science andTechnology, Irbid, Jordan

TARGET To irrigate additional areas of the campus (72hectares) and to support the production of cash crops,field crops and forest trees using reclaimed wastewater.


• Ministry of Water and Irrigation

• U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID)

• Jordan University of Science and Technology

RESULTS OBTAINED

Irrigated areas were extended by 72 hectares tomaximise the utilisation of reclaimed water generatedby the campus WWTP and the allocation to theuniversity from the Wadi Hassan WWTP. Approximately2,400 trees of various types have been planted to dateon the university campus.

This was a demonstration activity to encourage similarschemes in Jordan, spark local community involvement,and train local farmers in the management and use ofreclaimed water — and in this respect the pilot wassuccessful. Less successful, because of marketdifficulties, was the attempt to achieve profitability.

SUCCESS FACTORS

Awareness of water reuse issues and related concernswas raised among all stakeholder groups — especiallystudents and the local community. Over 45 groups ofvisitors from off campus were accommodated. Publicand private schools, universities, national andinternational NGOs and agencies visited the project andtoured the reuse sites. Demonstrations of water reuse inagriculture were presented to farmers’ groups.

INDICATORS USED

The current flow through the plant is approximately 300 m3 per day, and only half the treatment units are in

service. All plant effluent, after mixing with surfacerunoff, is used for agricultural irrigation at thedemonstration site.


Pilot demonstration farms have been established atWadi Musa, Aqaba and Irbid, Jordan, using reclaimedand treated wastewater for limited and controlledirrigation. Technical guidance and oversight have beenprovided by USAID, while the Ministry of Water andIrrigation, through the Water Authority of Jordan (WAJ)and the newly established Water Reuse Unit, areproviding policy and technical support.

TOTAL COST USD 500,000

Case description and analysisDue to the scarcity of water resources in Jordan, the useof marginal water (in particular treated wastewater) inagriculture is very important. However, precautions needto be taken to avoid harming the valuable agriculturalsoil and to prevent health risks to consumers. TheJordan University of Science and Technology has a largecampus (11 km2), some of which is used for agriculturalactivities, and has reused water from the universityWWTP for almost 20 years.

The campus plant has a design capacity of 2,500 m3 perday, but is currently operating at about 600 m3 per day.Another source of effluent water is located off campusin the Wadi Hassan area about 4 km south of theuniversity campus. The design capacity of this plant is2,200 m3 per day and it has been in operation sinceSeptember 2001.

There are two storage lakes on campus: a 132,000 m3

lined pond, and a reservoir with a capacity of 110,000 m3.

These sources of effluent water and the existing

infrastructure have encouraged the university to irrigate

additional portions of the campus and to support the

production of cash crops, field crops and forest trees

using reclaimed wastewater. Approximately 2,400 trees of

various types have been planted to date on the campus.

The goal is to encourage local community involvementand to train local farmers in the management and use ofreclaimed water. The pilot involves researchers andstudents alike in water reuse activities. Local farmingcommunities and other stakeholders have also visitedand studied the reuse activities on the universitycampus.

Besides demonstration, training and research, anotherimportant goal is to evaluate the efficacy andeconomics of growing new types of crops in thenorthern area of Jordan, using the flow from the existingcampus WWTP as well as the Wadi Hassan WWTP. Thecrops for the pilot study were selected based on theirappropriateness to the climate and soils of the campus,and the possibility to be sold for profit. Cash crop trees(e.g. almonds, pistachio and pine) as well as field crops(e.g. barley, vetch and alfalfa) are being cultivated.Income from the sale of the harvested crops is used tosupport needy students through a university fund.

One barrier faced by the project is the low level of socialacceptance of products irrigated using wastewater, andthe requirement to inform consumers via product labellingthat the product has been grown using treatedwastewater. In general, there is a low level ofunderstanding that treated wastewater is safe for irrigationand that there are strict rules on how it can be applied. Inthis context, the crops produced on the university campusfetch a relatively low price on the market, meaning that theeconomic results are not yet positive.

Overall, the project contributes to a betterunderstanding of the safety, economics and technologyof using treated wastewater for irrigation. As such, it cancatalyse the wide-scale use of wastewater in agriculture,resulting in freshwater savings, independence fromweather, savings on fertilisers, increased crop yields, and— in some locations — the maintenance of current formsof agriculture. One of the conclusions of the research isthat the continuous monitoring of quality and the reviewof standards are necessary in order to prevent theaccumulation of harmful substances in the soil.

REFERENCES

Al-Ghazawi, Z., J. Amayreh, L. Rousan and A. Hijazi(2008). “Waste Water Reuse for Agriculture PilotProject at the Jordan University of Science andTechnology.” In I. A-Baz, R. Otterpol and C. Wendland(eds.), Efficient Management of Wastewater, Chapter24, pp. 283–97. Springer.

Section heading

CASE STUDY 1.3


Wastewater Reuse for Agriculture at the Jordan University ofScience and Technology

Properly managedwastewater can beused to grow cropsand help addresswater scarcity inagriculture.



1.4 continued

14

PERIOD 2002–2007

LOCATION Rural areas of Tafilah and KarakGovernorates, Jordan.

TARGET To reduce freshwater use by substituting it withgreywater to irrigate household gardens in the ruralareas of southern Jordan; and to generate income forpoor families.


• Inter-Islamic Network on Water Resources Develop-ment and Management (INWRDAM)

• International Development Research Center (IDRC)

RESULTS OBTAINED

• Units installed in 110 low-income households.

• Average annual revenue from greywater reuse ofUSD 187.86 per family.

• A platform created for cooperation between re-searchers from INWRDAM and key ministries con-cerned with wastewater, agriculture, environment,social development, public health and planning.

• Guidelines proposed for domestic greywater use inperi-urban areas of Jordan.

SUCCESS FACTORS

• Low cost of the technology.

• Short payback period.

• Local community acceptance.

INDICATORS USED

• Water savings for participating households.

• Reduction in the frequency of the need to emptyseptic tanks.

• Increase in annual revenue for participating households.


The socioeconomic impacts of the project encouragethe expansion of greywater reuse to other regions ofJordan with similar conditions.

Word of the success of the greywater recycling projecthas spread beyond Jordan to many of its equally thirstyneighbours, thanks in part to the Department ofStatistics, which published the results of the initialprojects on its website. Greywater reuse projects arenow under way in Lebanon, Syria, the West Bank andGaza, and several other countries have indicated interestin the technology.

TOTAL COSTS

• The total cost of an average confined trench (CT)system is USD 303.68, and USD 261.30 for an aver-age four-barrel system.

• The average annual operation and maintenance costis USD 39.55.

Case description and analysisInitially, communities in the project area utilisedfreshwater from the tap to irrigate their gardens. Asthere was no separation of greywater from sewagewater, the whole stream flowed into the householdseptic tank, which filled quickly and required frequentpumping. The cost of the extra freshwater and frequentpumping placed a real burden on families.

During 2000, the IDRC supported the INWRDAM tocarry out a comprehensive evaluation of the potentialfor greywater reuse in rural areas of Jordan. Thisevaluation resulted in the launch of phase I of thegreywater research project, which was implemented inEin Al-Baida, Tafilah Governorate, in southern Jordan,between May 2001 and May 2003. Phase I resulted inthe development and evaluation of five different typesof on-site greywater treatment units. Two of the fivewere selected for further improvement and scale-up.One module is referred to as the four-barrel unit, andthe other as the confined trench (CT) unit.

The four-barrel unit consists of four recycled plasticbarrels connected by 3-inch-diameter plastic pipes. Thefirst barrel, with a capacity of 50 litres, receivesgreywater coming from the house and removes grease,oil and settable solids. Two 200-litre barrels areconnected by pipes in such a way that the greywater

passes in an up-flow mode through a bed of crushedstones or gravel and receives physical and biologicaltreatment. A final barrel with a capacity of 160 litres isfitted with a small electric pump and float switch thatdelivers treated greywater to a trickle irrigation systemserving a small garden of trees.

Phase II further improved the design and operation ofboth the four-barrel and CT units to make routinecleaning easier. Problems with pump priming weresolved, and agricultural practices were improved,resulting in increased family incomes and the reducedimpact of greywater on soil, plants and the environment.Local community participation in Phase II wasemphasised, and modalities for beneficiarycontributions in the ownership of the greywatertreatment units were tested.

There was some initial resistance to the idea of usinggreywater, among both households and local officials.Some were sceptical and unconvinced that the systemwould work, or afraid that it would be too expensive anddifficult to maintain. Others worried about odours andmosquitoes. However, the community quickly becameenthusiastic once the system was demonstrated.

The greywater reuse system was introduced as a pilotproject involving 110 low-income families that used thetreated wastewater to irrigate their gardens.

According to the survey conducted by the project team(which covered 60 beneficiary households), thefollowing indicators were identified:

• The researchers installed water meters that showedthat initial water savings were at least 15 percent.

• An unexpected cost saving for users of the systemwas that septic tanks did not have to be emptied asfrequently as before.

• The distribution of additional annual revenue fromthe project for the surveyed households is shown inFigure 1.

Households enjoy a more reliable supply of freshwater,as less is used for agriculture. Greywater is a reliablewater resource, as it does not depend on the weather.Families also saved on the cost of fertilisers, obtainedincreased crop yields, and were able to preserve theirtraditional livelihoods. An additional benefit is thereduced discharge of effluents into the environment.

The Ministry of Water and Irrigation was impressed withthe results of the project, but remained cautious.

Officials monitored the quality of the greywater used forirrigation for one year, and the system passed the test.“Greywater from our treatment units met the WHOstandard for restricted irrigation,” said Dr. Murad Bino.“This means it is fit for irrigating trees and crops thatmust be cooked before they are eaten.”

The Ministry of Planning was so impressed with theresults that it supported the construction of a further700 systems in 90 communities across the country,based on the INWRDAM model. As a bonus, the newtechnology has created a local business enterpriseinvolving engineers, plumbers and contractors. A localcompany is now producing an environmentally friendlydetergent for use in the treatment units developed byDr. Bino and his INWRDAM team.

REFERENCES

Stanley, Bob (2006). “Dealing with the Water Deficit in

Jordan: Recycling household water to irrigate home

gardens makes good environmental and financial sense.”

Growing Better Cities Case Study. Urban Poverty andEnvironment Programme Initiative, IDRC:

www.idrc.ca/sites/default/files/sp/Documents%20EN/d

ealing-with-water-deficit-jordan.pdf

Studies on IDRC-Supported Research on Greywater in

Jordan conducted by INWRDAM: https://idl-

bnc.idrc.ca/dspace/bitstream/10625/36832/1/127769.pdf

Annual revenue below USD 71

Annual revenue of USD 72-141

Annual revenue above USD 283

Annual revenue of USD 142-283

Distribution of additional annual revenueFIGURE 1

Section heading

CASE STUDY 1.4


Greywater Irrigation in Rural Areas of Jordan: Opportunities forSaving Freshwater and Poverty Reduction



1.5 continued

16

PERIOD 2011–2015

LOCATION Beqaa Valley, Lebanon

TARGET To increase water demand managementcapacity in agriculture, contribute to enhanced waterproductivity, raise awareness, and promote educationand research on the use of treated wastewater.


• Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations (FAO)

• Ministry of Agriculture, Lebanon

• American University of Beirut

• Lebanese Agricultural Research Institute

• Government of Italy (donor)

RESULTS OBTAINED

• Based on the experience gained, guidelines were developed for future uses of treated wastewater forirrigation, contributing to the safe, large-scale utilisa-tion of sewage.

SUCCESS FACTORS

• Education of farmers on wastewater technologies, irrigation equipment and safety issues related to theuse of treated wastewater in agriculture.

• Thorough, impartial analysis.

INDICATORS USED

• Percentage increase in crop yield due to the use oftreated wastewater rather than freshwater.


The experience gained can contribute to the moreeffective and safer utilisation of treated wastewaterelsewhere in the MENA region.

TOTAL COSTS

USD 2,373,000, including research, capacity building,and irrigation technology provided to farmers.


The Beqaa Valley is Lebanon’s most important farmingregion. As in other agricultural regions in the arid MiddleEast, there is a shortage of water in the Beqaa Valley, andclimate change projections forecast that this region ofLebanon will be the most adversely affected by highertemperatures (leading to higher rates of evaporation)and reduced precipitation. At the same time, the regionis critical for the country’s food supply. In this context,the reuse of treated wastewater for irrigation purposes isa priority. The FAO implemented a pilot project between2011 and 2015 to investigate the use of treatedwastewater from the Iaat WWTP. The project concludedthat wastewater is an important source of irrigationwater in the area, and can even enhance yields, but thatfarmers need to take precautionary measures if treatedwastewater is used in fruit and vegetable production. Anupgrading of wastewater treatment capacity at the Iaatplant is also recommended.


Groundwater resources are scarce at the case study site.The groundwater level keeps falling, making it moreexpensive to abstract water. Some farmers claim thatother farmers are using too much groundwater. In theabsence of an established and accepted allocationalgorithm, and without proper monitoring andenforcement, future conflicts between farmers are likely.


The efficiency of water use in agriculture can beenhanced in a variety of ways, including crop choice, soiland irrigation management, the reduction of waterlosses, and the use of treated wastewater.

As part of the project, a capacity-building workshopwas organised to facilitate the dissemination ofinformation on good agricultural practices and the safeuse of treated wastewater. The workshop includedtraining on wastewater treatment technologies tofamiliarise the participating farmers with processes thatensure compliance with wastewater standards forirrigation. Farmers also learned how to apply treated

wastewater for irrigation, compared to freshwaterirrigation (e.g. different needs depending on fertilisertypes). Since the direct use of wastewater can posehealth risks to famers and to the consumers of treatedproduce, it is particularly important to educate farmersabout the management of such risks.

In the framework of another project, in 2011 the FAOhelped the Government of Lebanon to establishguidelines on wastewater reuse. The conclusions arepresented in Table 1.

The Iaat Wastewater Treatment Plant was selected fromamong 15 potential plants in the Beqaa Valley to serveas a pilot site. Selection criteria included capacity,location, and the number of farmers potentially served.The Iaat WWTP is a secondary treatment plant with a

design capacity of 12,000 m3 per day of sewage inflow,serving up to 88,000 people in line with the expansionof the sewerage network in five communities: Baalbeck,Iaat, Douris, Ain Bourdai and Haouch Tell Safiyé. Theplant was built in 2007 by the Council for Developmentand Reconstruction (CDR). The investment was financedby the World Bank. The plant is managed by the BeqaaWater Establishment, which hired a private contractor,the Farhat Group, to operate it.

There is a big seasonal variability in the volumes of

sewage. Inflow in the winter can exceed plant capacity,

while in the summer it can drop to below 1,000 m3 per

day due to the illegal tapping of the sewerage network

by farmers who would rather use untreated wastewater

for irrigation than no water at all.

Class I II IIII

RestrictionsProduce eaten cooked;irrigation of green areaswith public access

Fruit trees, irrigation ofgreen areas with limitedpublic access;impoundments with nopublic water

Cereals, oil plants, fibreand seed crops, industrialcrops, fruit trees (nosprinkler irrigation),nurseries, green areas andwooded areas withoutpublic access

Proposed treatment Secondary + filtration +desinfection

Secondary + storage ormaturation ponds orinfiltration percolation

Secondary +storage/oxidation ponds

BOD5 (mg/L) 25 100 100

COD (mg/L) 125 250 250

TSS (mg/L) 60 (200 WSP) 200 200

pH 6–9 6–9 6–9

Residual CI2 (mg/L) 0.5–2 0.5 0.5

NO3-N (mg/L) 30 30 30

FC(/100ml) <200 <1000 None required

Helminth eggs (/1L) <1 <1 <1

Note: Irrigation of vegetables eaten raw is not allowedSource: FAO 2016

TABLE 1 Guidelines for wastewater reuse (FAO)

Section heading

CASE STUDY 1.5


The Use of Treated Wastewater for Irrigation at the Iaat WastewaterTreatment Plant in the Beqaa Valley, Lebanon




1.5 continued

18

Project implementation was preceded by asocioeconomic survey of farmers and their householdsto gain a better understanding of their status andcurrent agricultural practices, and of the impact of theuse of treated wastewater. Around half the contactedhouseholds (22 out of 45) agreed to participate in thesurvey and answer the 148 questions. The surveyrevealed that average farm size is around 10 hectares,and farmers essentially cultivate all their land; farming isthe main occupation for most heads of household; thearea around Iaat is rather fertile, allowing a wide varietyof crops to be cultivated, although the availability ofwater is a limiting factor; only around one-third of theland is irrigated, and access to freshwater is expensiveas boreholes are quite deep; barley is an important crop,mainly because of its resistance to drought; about aquarter of the farmers already use treated wastewaterfor irrigation, and 90 percent of the remaining farmersare willing to use it, mainly as an alternative to expensivefreshwater sources, which are not always available;farmers have noticed a fall in groundwater levels and anincrease in abstraction costs; there are problems relatedto power supply, thus pumping is not always an option;access to groundwater is made difficult by its scarcity;and signs of water pollution are also apparent.

The goal of the project was to explore the feasibility ofirrigation with treated wastewater and to developguidelines for the future. Two groups of farmers werecreated, one using freshwater and the other using treatedwastewater for irrigation. Each group comprised threefarms, and the average farm size was about 0.6 hectares.

The research showed that the yield of aubergines irrigatedwith treated wastewater was 19 percent higher thanaubergines irrigated with freshwater, probably due to thepresence of nutrients in the wastewater. With respect tosoil quality and crop quality, no conclusions have yet beenpublished. However, several recommendations have beenput forward for aubergine producers:

• the water should be subject to gravel filtering;

• soil quality should be regularly analysed;

• over-irrigation can result in adverse impacts (a maximum of 20 mm of water every two to threedays is sufficient);

• protective clothes and gloves should be worn whenworking with low-quality water; and

• in order to eliminate bacteria, harvested fruits andvegetables should be retained for one or two daysbefore being sent to market.

Regular analysis of the effluent confirmed that the

treated wastewater belongs to Category III (see Table 1)

and is not therefore suitable for producing vegetables.

However, vegetables are a key source of income for

farmers in this region, and they are unlikely to stop

growing them. One important conclusion of the study is

therefore that wastewater should be treated to a higher

standard, which (based on the assessment of the project

experts) is not at all unrealistic. Since many farmers have

been using untreated wastewater, even for vegetable

irrigation, shifting from untreated to treated wastewater

use would already be a significant development.


Treated wastewater is a reliable form of water supply

that allows irrigation independent of the season, as long

as untreated sewage is not tapped illegally for irrigation.

Treated wastewater also contains nutrients that can

improve crop yields. Precious freshwater can be saved

by the enhanced use of treated wastewater.


By using treated wastewater for irrigation, farmers can

reduce pumping costs to the extent that they replace

groundwater pumped from deep boreholes.

The scarcity of freshwater and the limited choice of

additional water supply gives treated wastewater an

economic value.

Enhanced aubergine yields were registered during the

project in the case of irrigation with treated wastewater.

SUSTAINABILITY OF THE RESULTS

Sustaining the current project will be relatively easy, as

long as the irrigation equipment does not need to be

replaced. Upgrading wastewater treatment plants to

ensure that effluent complies with Category I

requirements for irrigation could necessitate additional

external resources.

REFERENCES

FAO (2016). Coping with water scarcity: The role of

agriculture, Phase III: Strengthening national capacities:

Lebanon. Food and Agriculture Organization of the

United Nations: Rome: www.fao.org/3/a-i5401e.pdf


LOCATION Luxor, Egypt

TARGET To expand the site in Luxor irrigated withtreated wastewater from 160,000 m2 to 6.8 million m2

within 10 years


• Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (MWRI)

• Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs (MSEA)

• United States Agency for International Development(USAID)

• Holding Company for Drinking Water and Waste-water (HCWW)

RESULTS OBTAINED

• The reforestation area was expanded from 160,000m2 to 6.8 million m2 within 10 years

SUCCESS FACTORS

• The non-conventional water resource was of suitablequality for greening the desert and for irrigating jatropha and mahogany trees

INDICATORS USED

• Size of reforested area (6.8 million m2)

• Yield of trees


This measure is replicable in most areas of the MENAregion where suitable wastewater treatment is available.Where effluent is not of appropriate quality for irrigatingfood crops and vegetables, reforestation is still an option.

TOTAL COSTS

An internal return rate of 15.6 percent was calculated bythe project, but no specific calculations are provided.The cost of the wastewater treatment technology, aswell as operation and maintenance requirements, areclaimed to be low, although no detailed values havebeen provided.

Case description and analysisWhile the Egyptian population is growing and theeconomy expanding, renewable water supplies cannotbe expanded. In the context of integrated waterresources management, treated wastewater can beapplied indirectly by draining the effluent into drainageareas, as happens in Delta governorates. A secondapproach involves the transfer of treated wastewater forirrigating and cultivating the desert background areas ofurban centres, such as the border governorates andUpper Egypt. The reuse of wastewater in irrigation inEgypt is a recent and highly restricted practice.

In the desert, the sun shines with an intensity of about2,200 kw-hours per m2. Without regular watering, treesquickly dry out and die. Virtually no rain falls in theEgyptian desert. Piped treated wastewater was thereforethe only available option for the reforestation of Luxor.

Treated wastewater (category B) from the Luxorwastewater treatment plant was utilised for the purposesof reforestation. The practice has helped to green desertsand produce jatropha and mahogany trees.

The ground around the trees is covered with a layer ofdry, fallen leaves that capture the sunshine, whichpowers tree growth. Additional fertiliser is notnecessary: the effluent water delivers all the nutrientsthat the plants need.

Before implementing the project, groundwater samplescollected from a well 20 metres deep, located 1 km westof the demonstration site, and from near the forestedarea, indicated no faecal contamination. After two years,coliform bacteria were present in some of the samplestaken at the on-site well. The count ranged from absentto 800 CFU/ml.

Before the expansion of the reforested area, the demosite pumped 127,000 m3 of treated wastewater from apond in a single year. This is equivalent to 3.17 m3 per m2

per year, assuming a total irrigated area of 40,000 m2.

The jatropha plantation in Luxor has high growth and productivity rates. Shrubs produce seeds after 18 months, compared with three years in othercountries. The average yield of one tree is 3 to 4 kg aftertwo years, and the older the tree grows, the more the

Section heading

CASE STUDY 1.6

Wastewater Reuse for Reforestation in Luxor, Egypt





1.6 continued

20

yield increases until it reaches 12 to 18 kg per tree. Theforest grows four times faster than European forests.Over a period of 15 years, the trees have already almostreached their maximum size, compared to a period of60 years in France.

The biodiesel oil produced and extracted from Luxor-grown jatropha seeds is refined in UK laboratories andachieves a higher productivity level than its counterpartsin other countries.

To ensure the applicability of the practice in other areas,a nursery for producing mahogany tree seedlings wasconstructed in Luxor, which produces around 1 millionseedlings per year.

REFERENCES

AHT Group AG (2009). Identification and Removal ofBottlenecks for Extended Use of Wastewater for

Irrigation or for other Purposes: Egypt Country Report.Facility for Euro-Mediterranean Investment andPartnership, European Investment Bank.

CH2M HILL (2008). Abu Rawash Wastewater TreatmentPlant: Prefeasibility Study for PPP projects for EffluentDisposal.

International Resources Group (2007). EconomicFeasibility Study of Using Treated Wastewater inIrrigation. LIFE Project, Report No. 33 (March).

Kamizoulis, G., A. Bahri, F. Brissaud and A.N. Angelakis(n.d.). Wastewater Recycling and Reuse Practices in theMediterranean Region: Recommended Guidelines.www.a-angelakis.gr/files/pubrep/recycling_med.pdf

LIFE (2008). Environmental Evaluation of Using TreatedWastewater in Agriculture: Luxor Demonstration Site.LIFE Integrated Water Resources Management. TaskOrder No. 802.EPIQ II: Contract No. EPP-T-802-03-00013-00.

Misheloff, R. (2010). Integrated Water ResourceManagement II: Feasibility of Wastewater Reuse,International Resources Group, Report No. 14. UnitedStates Agency for International Development (USAID),Washington, D.C.

National Water Resources Plan for Egypt, “Demand forMunicipal and Industrial Water,” Technical Report No. 18,Cairo (2001).

Sustainable Water Integrated Management SupportMechanism (2013). Documentation of Best Practices inWastewater Reuse in Egypt, Israel, Jordan and Morocco:www.swim-sm.eu/files/Best_Practices_in_WW_Reuse.pdf

Veolia (n.d.). “Egypt has grown a forest withwastewater.” #LivingCircular:https://livingcircular.veolia.com/en/innovations/egypt-has-grown-forest-wastewater

World Health Organization (2006). “Guidelines for theSafe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater.”Wastewater Use in Agriculture, Vol. 2, Chapter 5.

Zalesny Jr., Ronald S., John A. Stanturf, Steven R. Evett,Nabil F. Kandil and Chris Soriano (2011). “Opportunitiesfor Woody Crop Production Using Treated Wastewaterin Egypt: Afforestation Strategies.” International Journalof Phytoremediation, 13(S1): 102–121.


LOCATION Harbakiyeh and Habs, Khanasser Valley,Syria

TARGET To retain water on olive tree plantations whileenhancing soil moisture storage and reducing erosion.

PARTICIPATING ORGANISATION

• International Center for Agricultural Research in DryAreas (ICARDA)

RESULTS OBTAINED

• Lower need for irrigation water.

• More efficient utilisation of rainwater.

• Reduced soil loss due to erosion.

• Increased yield of olives.

SUCCESS FACTORS

• Training of farmers (based on knowledge of agricultural advisors).

• Low cost of implementation.

INDICATORS USED

• Adoption of the practice by 100 percent of farmers in Harbakiyeh and Habs, Khanasser Valley.


The technology has been implemented voluntarily by100 percent of land-user families. Based mainly onworkforce availability, the practice can easily be appliedin other areas where water is in short supply.

TOTAL COSTS

Around USD 88 per hectare. Only runoff harvestingtechnology is considered in the total cost per hectare(annual ploughing, and the establishment andmaintenance of the water harvesting structure). Theplanting of olive trees and their maintenance are notincluded in the cost.

Case description and analysisThe Khanasser Valley is situated in north-western Syria,where annual average rainfall is around 220 mm. Due tothe low productivity of the soil, the foot slopes ofdegraded hills are traditionally used for extensivegrazing or barley cultivation. These areas are generallyconsidered too dry for olive cultivation, althoughfarmers have nevertheless attempted to achieve self-sufficiency through olive oil production, and havedeveloped olive orchards in the area.

Faced with the twin problems of topsoil loss and climateimpacts (drought and wind erosion), traditional methodsof tilling orchards are inappropriate. Traditionally, farmersprefer to till their orchards by tractor in order to keepthem free of weeds. As tilling is usually done up anddown the slope, the resulting furrows stimulate runoffand erosion. Since 2002, agricultural advisors have beenrecommending V-shaped micro-catchments as a waterharvesting measure.

Farmers create furrows around their olive trees, thenusing hoes and stones manually construct V-shaped orfishbone-shaped earthen bunds (small dykes) aroundeach tree. The furrows divert the runoff to these micro-catchments, where it is concentrated around the trees.This operation is repeated each year, and if the structureis damaged after a heavy storm, it can easily be repairedby the farmers, making it a low-cost way to retainrainwater for olive production.

This water harvesting technique is mainly applied byagriculturalists, a term used to refer to a type of farmerwhere the livelihood of the whole household dependsmainly on agriculture. Farmers with more interest in off-farm labour or sheep rearing are less interested, althoughthey are also gradually starting to apply this practice.

Two supporting technologies are used to optimiseresults:

• mulching the area around each tree with locally avail-able stones (limestone and/or basalt); and

• sometimes planting the catchment areas betweenthe trees with winter crops (lentils, vetch, barley etc.)

Section heading

CASE STUDY 1.7


Water Runoff Harvesting for Olive Plantations in Syria throughAnnually Reconstructed V-shaped Micro-catchments, Enhanced byDownslope Ploughing

Wastewater can provide a valuablerenewable sourceof supply.




1.7 continued

22

which have a low water demand, especially when thetrees are young.

The first measure lowers soil temperature and reducessurface evaporation during the summer, while assistingwith water infiltration. The labour input forestablishment and maintenance is low, the technology issimple and cheap to maintain, and there is sufficientlocal skill to sustain and expand the system. The secondmeasure helps to reduce surface erosion.

In addition to the positive ecological impacts (erosioncontrol, reduced runoff, lower need for irrigation), thepractice also improves olive production. Nevertheless, asthe orchards have been developed to achieve self-sufficiency in olive oil production, it is not possibleformally to confirm the extent to which the practice is asource of well-being or financial gain.

The cost of the practice is considered to be low, and noadditional external inputs are required. To achieve waterpreservation and reduce summer irrigation needs, it isadvisable as an accompanying measure to change the

irrigation system. The use of localised irrigation,

especially drip irrigation, or other improvements are

recommended, because if traditional surface irrigation is

applied, the potential savings offered by water

harvesting may not be fully realised.

REFERENCES

Tubeileh, A. and F. Turkelboom (2004). “Participatory

research on water and soil management with olive

growers in the Khanasser Valley.” KVIRS project,

ICARDA, Syria.

Tubeileh, A., A. Bruggeman and F. Turkelboom (2004).

Growing olive and other tree species in marginal dry

environments. ICARDA, Syria.

WOCAT (2016). Furrow-enhanced runoff harvesting for

olives (Syria). World Overview of Conservation

Approaches and Technologies.

https://qcat.wocat.net/fr/wocat/technologies/view/tech

nologies_487/

PERIOD Land users’ initiative started over 50 years ago

LOCATION Boqueras-Guadalentin catchment in theMurcia region of Spain

TARGET To provide up to 550 mm of additionalirrigation water in areas with an average annual rainfall

of 300 mm.


• Small-scale land users

• Experimental Station of Arid Zones (EEZA)

• Water Authority of the Segura River Basin (CHS)

RESULTS OBTAINED

• Assuming average annual rainfall in Boqueras of 300 mm (between 250 and 500 mm/year), the practice provides up to 550 mm of additional water,resulting in projected increases in crop yields.

• Water harvesting by building terraces reduces runoffvolumes in intermittent streams, which also helps tocontrol erosion and reduce flood damage.

SUCCESS FACTORS

• Local knowledge among land users.

• Easy to build with shovels or tractors.

• Requires monitoring and some maintenance aftereach important runoff event.

INDICATORS USED

• The volume of water available for irrigation on agiven plot may increase by up to 550 mm per year.


In addition to the drought factor, the key question for

replicability is the existence of gentle to moderate slopes

(in Boqueras, the slope gradient is from 5 to 15 degrees).

Workforce availability and financial support are the most

important factors in facilitating the application of this

measure in other locations.

TOTAL COSTS

Labour costs and the price of concrete are the mostsignificant factors. Costs were calculated assuming bunddimensions of 5 x 1 x 1 metres. The estimatedconstruction cost is USD 900 per hectare. Maintenance isrequired once every five years, thus annual costs are thetotal costs divided by 5. The estimated maintenance costis USD 41 per hectare per year (prices as of spring 2008).


Large areas of the southeast of Spain suffer fromshortages of water for agricultural purposes. The climateis semi-arid, with mean annual rainfall of around 300 mm.Droughts, most common in summer, typically last formore than four or five months. Annual potentialevapotranspiration rates greater than 1,000 mm arecommon. Recent decades have been characterised byextreme variability in terms of weather, causing anincrease in temperature and seasonal rainfall (heavyrainfall events, in both intensity and amount) andflooding, while also causing dry spells and shorteninggrowing periods. Soil depth is mostly shallow to medium(20 to 60 cm), with a loamy texture. The infiltration rate islow and soil storage capacity is medium. In terms of theavailability of conventional water resources, surface waterresources are non-existent in most of the region, andwater quality is deemed appropriate for agricultural useonly. Slope gradient, the most important success factor, isgentle to moderate, at between 5 and 15 degrees.


Before implementing the water harvesting measure inBoqueras, the range of viable agricultural commoditieswas limited because of water scarcity and quality.Farmers’ incomes were low, and floods had greatlyeroded the soil and damaged downstream properties.


Water harvesting in Boqueras involved the constructionof small earthen or stone bunds (dykes orembankments) that divert flood water from intermittent

Section heading

CASE STUDY 1.8


Water Harvesting from Concentrated Runoff for Irrigation Purposesin Boqueras, Spain

Micro-catchmentsare a low-cost wayto retain water forolive plantations.




1.8 continued

24

streams towards fields cultivated with almond trees,orchards and/or cereals. Land users aim to achievemaximum infiltration by developing several terraces inthe fields, as they reduce slope gradient and retainwater for longer periods. To prevent excessive flowconcentration, several spillways can be made perterrace, depending on the expected inflow of water.

For farmers, the main goal in implementing a waterharvesting system is to increase crop yield. However, thestructures also help to reduce runoff volume inintermittent streams and, consequently, limit theintensity of floods and the damage caused.

Although most land is privately owned, the streams arenot privately owned, thus permits are required for the

construction of a water harvesting structure. Whilewater use rights are individual, they are provided andcontrolled by the Water Authority of the Segura RiverBasin (CHS). The first step in measure implementation isto identify a suitable location for the construction of adiversion structure. Expected water inflow must beassessed, either by means of simple field observationduring rainfall events or based on the local knowledgeof land users. Water quality can be affected by otherfactors, such as livestock breeding or upstreampollution, thus it is important to assess the downstreamimplications of water harvesting.

Bunds with a height of 1.5 m are built (using shovels ortractors, depending on size) in the centre or to the sideof the stream. The structures can be strengthened withconcrete to limit maintenance requirements toapproximately once every five years.


The measure improved crop yields in Boqueras andincreased soil moisture. Surface runoff was reduced andbetter water drainage was observed. The measure alsohelped to increase the infiltration rate and,consequently, recharged the groundwater table.


Water harvesting increases the availability of irrigationwater and crop yields, generating higher farm incomes.According to land users, the practice is relativelyexpensive. However, once a system is installedmaintenance is not expensive, and costs are soonrecovered due to higher productivity.


The adoption of water harvesting technology iscompletely voluntary. At present, there is no observabletrend towards its spontaneous adoption.

REFERENCES

Frot, E., B. van Wesemael, A.S. Benet and M.A. House(2008). “Water harvesting potential in function ofhillslope characteristics: A case study from the Sierra deGador (Almeria province, southeast Spain).” Journal ofArid Environments, 72(7): 1213–1231.

Mekdaschi Studer, Rima and Hanspeter Liniger (2013).Water Harvesting: Guidelines to Good Practice. Centrefor Development and Environment. Downloaded from:www.wocat.net/projects-and-countries/projects/water-harvesting-guidelines-good-practice

Water harvestingstructures limit thedamage caused byfloods and help in-crease crop yields.

Chapter 2 – Reduction of Non-RevenueWater and Water Saving by Final UsersOne of the most promising but underutilised WDM measures is the reduction of non-revenuewater and water saving by final consumers. Non-revenue water comprises network losses (waterthat is physically lost during transmission through pipelines) and administrative losses (waterthat is consumed but not paid for). Reducing the physical loss of water is an obvious WDMmeasure: the smaller the amount of water lost during delivery, the smaller the amount that needsto be introduced into the network. While most of the MENA region suffers from high levels ofphysical loss (sometimes well over 30 percent), there are good examples of where networklosses have been successfully reduced to below 20 percent (e.g. the case of Limassol). Itbecomes clear from the good practice cases that network loss reduction is not rocket science —the technologies are widely available, but a strategic approach and corresponding organisationalsolutions are essential.

While reducing administrative losses does not directly save water, this is still an important WDMmeasure since it affects the relationship between the water service supplier and the consumer,and provides consumers with a strong incentive to save water.

Finally, water-saving initiatives can yield significant benefits for a modest cost, althoughsustaining such practices in the long run requires more than just an initial investment in water-saving devices. It also involves regular inspection and maintenance, as well as communicationwith water users on the importance of the measure.


Chapter 2 Reduction of Non-Revenue Water and Water Saving by Final Users

2.1 continued

Water Demand Management A Good Practice Handbook26

Section heading

CASE STUDY 2.1


Reduction of Non-Revenue Water in Limassol, Cyprus

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10%

15%

20%

25%

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Drought years: Intermittent supply

Non-Revenue Water Financial PI basic (IWA Level 1, Fi 36)

NRW as a percentage of SIV

1987 19991989 1991 1993 1995 1997 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 Year

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300

400

500

600

700

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1970 1980 1990 2000 20101960

200

900 Average annual precipitation (mm)

Annual precipitation in CyprusFIGURE 1

Seasonality of temperature and precipitation in Limassol, CyprusFIGURE 2

Time series of NRW at the Water Board of LemesosFIGURE 3

Source: WBL

PERIOD Long term, covering several decades

LOCATION Limassol, Cyprus

TARGET To reduce water loss to 8 percent by 2020,compared to 25 to 27 percent in the 1980s.


• Water Board of Lemesos (WBL)

RESULTS OBTAINED

• The rate of non-revenue water (NRW) was as low as17 percent in 2007, although it began to rise againdue to the drought in 2008/9.

SUCCESS FACTORS

• Thorough, systematic implementation of interna-tional NRW reduction methodologies and measures.

INDICATORS USED

• Percentage of NRW.


The achievements of the WBL are certainly replicable inthe MENA region. However, financial resources, whileimportant, are not sufficient on their own to establish asuccessful NRW strategy: dedicated management and awell-organised and properly equipped leakage responseteam are also crucial. Moreover, if a water utility doesnot acknowledge the true cost of its water input, theincentive to run a high-profile NRW strategy will belimited. Finally, if water scarcity is the cause ofintermittent drinking water supply — as in Jordan — thepresent case study might not be fully applicable.

Case description and analysisIn the past two decades, there have been two seriousdrought periods: between 1996 and 2000, and in2008/9, when only intermittent drinking water supplywas feasible. Water is extremely precious in suchconditions, and the WBL has made major efforts toreduce NRW. The WBL successfully developed andimplemented a strategy to reduce NRW, based on the

creation of 60 so-called district metering areas,sophisticated pressure management, leakagemonitoring, and a specialised team to explore andquickly repair pipe ruptures. As a result, NRW declinedfrom between 25 and 27 percent to around 15 to 17 percent within just two decades.

Annual precipitation in Cyprus is highly variable (asshown in Figure 1), and the country is exposed tosubstantial water stress during dry years. Climatechange models predict more frequent periods ofdrought for the island, due to the combined effect ofhigher summer temperatures and declining overallprecipitation. Challenges related to water scarcity aretherefore likely to intensify in the future.

Precipitation varies across the years, while there is alsostrong seasonality within each year. As Figure 2 shows,rainfall in Limassol (Greek name Lemesos) during thesummer months is essentially zero. Summer also seesthe highest temperatures and the most intensiveevaporation.

Water consumption is also seasonal, being highest duringthe summer (about 20 percent higher than in winter).

The population of Cyprus has steadily increased inrecent decades, and has doubled in the past half-century. In this context, the main challenge facing theWBL is to supply an increasing number of consumersunder worsening hydrological conditions, exacerbatedby adverse seasonality (the situation facing most waterutilities in the MENA region).

Each municipality in Cyprus has its own water authority(water utility) that sets its own water tariffs. The WBLsupplies a population of about 160,000 through a totalof almost 90,000 connections (residential and non-residential combined) in the south of the island. Allcustomers are metered, and all properties have rooftoptanks for local water storage.

Since Cyprus has taken advantage of essentially alleconomically feasible supply-side measures, it nowneeds to focus its attention on demand-side solutions, akey component of which is the reduction of NRW. TheWBL has adopted and successfully executed a long-termstrategy for NRW reduction. As Figure 3 illustrates, NRW


PERIOD 2008–2009

LOCATION Tizi Ouzou, Algeria

TARGET To reduce non-revenue water from the originallevel of 40 to 50 percent of total water production.


• Algerian Water (ADE)

• Hydrographic Watershed Agency of Chellif-Zahrez

(ABH-CZ)

RESULTS OBTAINED

Technical achievements:

• Better network management through the use of

acquired facilities.

• Continuous monitoring of distributed volumes.

Commercial improvements:

• A reliable customer database, owing to the update

of subscriber files.

• 3 percent improvement (i.e. reduced losses) in

network performance.

• 8 percent improvement in invoiced volume, due to

more accurate metering.

• 9 percent corresponding increase in revenues.

SUCCESS FACTORS

Based on human, material and financial resources, the

pilot project was successful. Strong administrative,

technical and managerial skills to identify, diagnose and

map networks were needed to achieve the pilot

project’s aims.

INDICATORS USED

31,500 subscribers; daily supply of 200 litres per capita;

daily distribution volume of approximately 41,000 m3

(quarterly volume of around 3.7 million m3).


The aim was to apply the measure in other sectors of TiziOuzou if the experience was considered successful. Thereduction of NRW exceeded the financial capacity of thewater management company of Tizi Ouzou, thus theyrequire significant funding from the state.

TOTAL COSTS

Around USD 65,000 were used to purchase networkequipment (isolation valves, large- and small-diametermeters). Additional costs included existing operatingcosts related to the upgrading of the geographicalinformation system (GIS), updating the subscriber files,and leak detection and repair work.

Case description and analysisThe supply of drinking water to Tizi Ouzou (100 km eastof Algiers) is ensured by a hydraulic system consistingof 18 wells, 10 pumping stations, 16 storage tanks, a 64-km supply network and a linear distribution networkof 167 km. The interconnected distribution network ofTizi Ouzou consists of 31,000 metres of pipelines madeof different materials (asbestos cement, steel, cast iron,high-density polyethylene).

The public water service is managed by two centres —the Hydrographic Watershed Agency (ABH) forproduction; and Algerian Water (ADE), a national publicinstitution under the supervision of the Ministry of WaterResources, for distribution — with commercialmanagement by two customer agencies. Together theymanage a portfolio of approximately 31,500 subscribers,representing a network connected to approximately200,000 inhabitants.

The distribution sector of Tizi Ouzou covered by thiscase study satisfies the drinking water requirements of apopulation of 33,000 inhabitants, living in 13 districts,representing 5,100 subscribers, 950 of which used to becharged at a fixed rate. In terms of water loss, as ofDecember 31, 2008, the ratio of invoiced to producedvolumes was 40 percent, indicating high levels of NRW.



2.1 continued

28

Section heading

CASE STUDY 2.2


Segmentation of the Drinking Water Distribution NetworkCombined with a Meter Installation Programme as the Foundationto Reduce Non-Revenue Water (NRW) in Tizi Ouzou, Algeria

fell from between 25 and 27 percent in the late 1980s to17 percent by 2007. Leakage increased again after the2008/9 drought (the specific technological reasons forwhich are explained below). The WBL’s long-term goal isto achieve an NRW rate of 8 percent.

In devising and implementing its NRW strategy, theWBL followed international methodologies. The keyelements of the strategy are outlined below:

• Nine pressure zones were created in the drinkingwater network, and each pressure zone subdividedinto district metering areas. There are a total of 60 such areas, each with its own storage reservoirand a single metered source.

• Pressure management is applied to all district meter-ing areas. This is an important measure because ex-cess pressure contributes to the attrition of thepipelines, while also increasing the volume of waterlost through leaking sections.

• Meter readings from the water sources and key net-work points are connected through a SCADA systemto a central control room, which provides constantinformation on water flow through the system.Nightly data are analysed to identify changes inwater flow, which can be a sign of pipe bursts.(Night-time data are more suitable for this purposethan daytime data, because during the night mostusers consume little or no water, making networkruptures easier to identify.)

• The rapid identification of leaks is made possiblethrough the deployment of a permanent, well-trainedteam dedicated to leak detection, and the procure-ment of the latest leak detection technology.

• A network repair policy has been designed and im-

plemented in order to reduce the speed of interven-

tion to less than a day. Most leaks are fixed on the

day they are discovered. High-quality materials are

used during repair in order to prevent future ruptures

at the same location.

• The SCADA system can also provide useful informa-

tion to identify sources of apparent loss, such as

illegal connections or broken water meters.

• Network reconstruction programmes target those

network sections that are most problematic based

on pipe break records, assuming that the durability

of the pipelines and connections is least satisfactory

in these locations.

As shown in Figure 3, NRW values increased after the

2008/9 drought. During this period, water in Cyprus

was so scarce that drinking water services were

operated irregularly instead of the usual 24/7 supply.

Because the leakage control system in such

circumstances was difficult to operate, leaks were not

detected and repaired as quickly as before. An analysis

of the water balance before, during and after the

drought period showed that while intermittent supply

saves water in the short run, in the longer term it

generates losses due to more leakages. On balance, if

sufficient water is available, it is better to continue with

24/7 supply, even at lower than usual pressure, than to

switch to intermittent water supply to save water.

REFERENCES

Blinda, Mohammed (2012). “More efficient water use in

the Mediterranean”. Plan Bleu, Paper 14.

Charalambous, B. “Experiences in DMA redesign at the

Water Board of Lemesos, Cyprus”.

www.studiomarcofantozzi.it/Experiences%20in%20DMA

%20redesign%20at%20the%20WBL.pdf

EU (2015). “Good Practices on Leakage Management:

WFD, CIS, WG, PoM.” European Union reference

document.

Hochstrat, Rita and Christian Kazner (2009). “Flexibility

in coping with water stress and integration of different

measures.” Case study report on Cyprus. Techneau.

Sofroniou, Anastasia and Steven Bishop (2014). “Water

Scarcity in Cyprus: A Review and Call for Integrated

Policy.” Water, 6, pp. 2898–2928.

Stedman, Lis (2012). “Water-scarce Cyprus leads

discussions on utility management and pricing”, WaterUtility Management International, Volume 7, Issue 1(March).

Water Board of Lemesos website:

www.wbl.com.cy/en/page/home


PERIOD 2002 to present, with data covering 2003–2011

LOCATION Fez, Morocco

TARGET To reach an 80 percent yield (i.e. 20 percentnon-revenue water) for operators by 2020, compared toan estimated rate of 53 percent in 2003.


• French Development Agency (AFD)

• State-Owned Water and Electricity DistributionCompany for the City of Fez (RADEEF)

• Marseilles Water Company (SEM) as engineeringconsultant

RESULTS OBTAINED

• Network performance increased from 53.3 percent in 2003 to 63.2 percent in 2011.

SUCCESS FACTORS

• Financial aid from AFD.

• Engineering expertise study from 2006 (SEM).

• RADEEF skills and own funds.

INDICATORS USED

• Network performance.

• Non-revenue water (NRW).

TOTAL COSTS

RADEEF obtained a loan of EUR 10 million to financethe rehabilitation work (100 km of pipeline and 25,000connections). The financial value of saved wateraccumulated to about EUR 25 million in 10 years.


Morocco has good control over its water resources andconsumption. However, the water sector faces seriousconstraints and challenges due to the climatic andhydrological context and the growth of urban andtourist populations. Groundwater reserves areoverexploited, causing a deterioration in the quality ofwater by seawater intrusion. Efforts are thereforerequired to preserve and manage the available waterresources in a rational and sustainable manner. In Fez,and in other cases, the water distribution performancerate is severely affected by water losses due to cracksand leaks in the distribution system. The topography ofthe city causes excessive pressure that needs to be kept



2.2 continued

30

48%

52%

54%

56%

58%

60%

62%

2003

50%

2010

53.31%

53.18%

54.73%

56%

59.61%

57.91%

60.82%61.78%

63.23%

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2011

64%

Network performance in Fez (2003–2011)FIGURE 1

Section heading

CASE STUDY 2.3


Leak Detection and Repair to Improve Network Performance in Fez, Morocco

The absence of reliable statistics on the performance ofvarious network segments was a barrier to decisionmaking on the most attractive measures to stem theflow of NRW. The pilot project therefore aimed todetermine the importance of various factors involved inthe successful reduction of NRW, provide reliablestatistics and evaluate the impact of a meter installationprogramme.

Even though large-scale leakage management was notpart of the project, network segmentation, mapping andthe installation of meters provided a foundation for theimproved management of NRW. The results can be usedby other sectors of Tizi Ouzou and elsewhere in Algeria.

The first step was to divide the city network into ninesectors. Detailed analysis focused on Sector 4, wherethe following actions were undertaken:

1. Installation of a large-diameter meter in each tank.

2. Updating of the network GIS.

3. Updating of subscriber files after a thoroughinvestigation.

4. Replacement of 1,300 individual meters to improvethe accuracy of metering.

The assessment was carried out for only one sub-sectorof Sector 4, July 5 City, which has nearly 2,000inhabitants connected through 300 subscriptions.Expected gains in terms of reduction in NRW wereevaluated, and eight activities were completed toachieve greater network control:

1. Installation of a block valve and large-diameter meterat the starting point of the distribution network.

2. Checks on the tightness of isolation valves (setwithin the prescribed limits of the sub-sector).

3. Moderate leak detection and repair operations.

4. Some rehabilitation work.

5. Installation of a valve and meter at the city entranceto measure incoming volume.

6. Installation of dividing meters at the entrance toeach city building.

7. Control of individual meters, resulting in the sealingof all counters to deter fraud.

8. Replacement of 171 meters.

POSITIVE IMPACTS

• 3 percent improvement (i.e. reduced losses) in

network performance.

• 8 percent increase in invoiced volume, due to more

accurate metering.

• 9 percent corresponding increase in revenues.

These results improved the financial position of the

company, as higher revenues were accompanied by

lower operating costs due to lower NRW.

While the results are encouraging, carrying out a large-

scale network rehabilitation and improvement

programme requires major capital investments that are

not available within the water utility. However, the

success of this pilot project encouraged the Algerian

Government to launch a massive study project for the

assessment and rehabilitation of drinking water supply

systems in 43 major cities managed by ADE.

REFERENCES

ADE (2013). “Goals and action plan for the operation.”

Internal policy memorandum. Algerian Water,

Directorate General, Algiers.

Hattoum, Y. and A. Bouayad (2008). Commercial

aggregates of sector 4. ADE area of Tizi-Ouzou.

Hattoum, Y. and A. Bouayad (2010). “Sectorization

works in the city of Tizi-Ouzou.” Internal report: ADE

area of Tizi-Ouzou.

Ministry of Water Resources (2008). “Specification

standard for the management by concession of the

public service of drinking water supply and regulations

thereunder.” Official Gazette of the Algerian Republic,

No. 8, pp. 12–21.

Mozas, Morgan and Alexis Ghosn (2013). État des lieux

du secteur de l’eau en Algérie. Études & Analyses.

Institut de Prospective Économique du Monde

Méditerranéen:

www.ipemed.coop/adminIpemed/media/fich_article/13

84435889_Etat%20des%20lieux%20du%20secteur%20

de%20l'eau%20en%20Alg%C3%A9rie_oct2013.pdf

Silhadi, S. (2011). “Operating balance.” Internal memo,

Algerian Water, Directorate General, Algiers.



2.3 continued

within limits. At the same time, the water distributionnetwork needs to be upgraded.


In the city of Fez, water distribution performance is 30 percent lower than that envisaged by the MoroccanNational Plan for 2020. By reducing the loss of water viacracks and leaks in the distribution system by means ofregular maintenance and reconstruction, the need toinvest in new water sources can be delayed oreliminated. Such actions also cut operating costs byreducing the frequency of breakages and faults in thedistribution network. In 2002, RADEEF acknowledgedthe importance of detecting and repairing leaks. Despitetopographical constraints, substantial growth waspossible in network performance if serious networkupgrade measures were implemented, as demonstratedby the case study.

The RADEEF action plan was based on four measures:

1. Network regulation

Pressure reducers were installed to regulate thenetwork. When pressure exceeds 10 bars, it is reducedto a maximum value of 6 bars. In addition, RADEEFacquired pressure modulator devices that further reducebase pressure downstream from stabilisers duringperiods of low consumption (i.e. at night).

2. Network modelling

The first step was to develop a numerical model of thewater network (reservoirs, equipment, pipes with adiameter of DN ≥100 mm), while taking intoconsideration topological data (altitude Z,characteristics of works and sections) and consumptiondata. In addition, a campaign to measure flow andpressure was carried out for each zone of influence overa 24-hour period. Once a calibrated model wasobtained, a dynamic analysis was performed over 24 hours to highlight irregularities in the distributionnetwork, such as excessive and low pressure during off-peak times, excessive speed in segments etc.

3. Study of performance improvement and definitionof rehabilitation works

The study for the definition of rehabilitation works wasbased on the identification of sectors with the highestnumber of leakages, as well as the location of leaks (atconnections or in pipes). All statistical data available tothe operating department (all leaks detected on thenetwork, by both the repair maintenance and preventivemaintenance crews) were used jointly with the existingsegmentation.

4. Network rehabilitation works

Rehabilitation was carried out on 100 km of pipeline and25,000 connections, especially in areas with old systemsand/or where night-time flows were significant.


The action plan implemented by RADEEF resulted inimproved network performance (from 53.31 percent in2003 to 63.28 percent in 2011), as shown in Figure 1.

In addition to the significant reduction in pressure in thearea, the action allowed for lower operating costs andsignificant flow gains. Annual savings of water in cubicmetres are summarised in Table 1.


The accumulated generated gain was evaluated in 2011at around MAD 258 million. Details of gains aresummarised in Table 2.

The accumulated gain is roughly EUR 25 million, whichexceeds the initial investment of EUR 10 million. Evenafter accounting for interest, the measure to reducenon-revenue water seems to be economically attractive.


An investment in building operator skills is required tosustain the obtained result. The National Office forElectricity and Drinking Water (ONEE Water Branch),through the International Institute for Water andSanitation (IEA), meets all the requirements to achievethis aim. Concerning information management, effortswill be undertaken to implement geographic informationmanagement systems introducing real-timemanagement components.

REFERENCES

ONEE Water Branch. Outline report on leak research.National Office for Electricity and Drinking Water

ONEE Water Branch (2009). Manual of leak research.National Office for Electricity and Drinking Water.

RADEEF (2012). “Action plan for improving theefficiency of the distribution network,” MP3:“Connection policy at ONEP”. State-Owned Water andElectricity Distribution Company for the City of Fez.

RADEEF website: www.radeef.ma

Veolia Environment (2011). Technical report on drinkingwater.



2.3 continued

32

Indicator Generated gain Accumulated generated gain

Unit million MAD/year million MAD

2003 7.854 7.854

2004 14.217 22.071

2005 23.622 45.693

2006 19.558 65.251

2007 33.102 98.353

2008 26.982 125.335

2009 39.155 164.49

2010 43.378 207.868

2011 50.229 258.097

Indicator Saving on managed water/ until 2001 Accumulated volumes saved

Unit million m3/year million m3

2003 2.583 2.583

2004 4.677 7.26

2005 7.77 15.03

2006 6.434 21.464

2007 10.853 32.317

2008 8.847 41.164

2009 12.838 54.002

2010 14.222 68.224

2011 16.469 84.693

TABLE 2 Generated gains (million MAD)

TABLE 1 Annual water savings (m3)



2.4 continued

total (real and apparent together) loss of 50 percent inneighbouring municipalities. “Real loss” is the physicalescape of water from the distribution system, andincludes leakages and overflows prior to the point ofend use. “Apparent loss” is essentially a loss on paper,and consists of customer use that is not recorded dueeither to metering errors or unauthorised consumption.

It is important to control both types of losses in waterdistribution systems.


When the measures were launched, there was no explicit

scarcity or shortage within the case study region, and


Action Cost (million USD)

Volume recovered (million m3),

2000–2004

Unit cost(USD/m3 saved)

Real loss

Reduce response time to customercomplaints about visible leakages 5.5 63.5 0.09

Leakage repair 50 190.5 0.26

Start an intensive non-visible leak detection programme 11.5 131 0.09

Reduce the average pressure in thewater distribution network 12.5 223 0.06

Implement re-zoning in 15 sectors 12.5 15.7 0.80

Subtotal 92 623.7 0.15

Apparent losses

Enhance the bulk metering system 1

Renew and upgrade 1 million residential meters 16.5 101.9 0.16

Replace 26,000 large consumer meters 20 60.5 0.33

Reinforce anti-fraud actions 10 17.6 0.57

Correct inclined residential meters 2 47 0.04

Subtotal 47.5 227 0.21

Total 139.5 850.7 0.16

TABLE 1 Action scheduled for loss control

Section heading

CASE STUDY 2.4


Water Loss Control Programme in Sao Paulo, Brazil

PERIOD 1995–2004

LOCATION Sao Paulo, Brazil

TARGET To recover a significant amount of lost waterwithin a short time in order to help fund the followingstages of the programme as well as longer-termstructural programmes.


• Sao Paulo Water and Sewerage Company (SABESP)and its customers

RESULTS OBTAINED

• Average pressure of the water distribution networkreduced: nearly 30 percent of the distribution systemhas pressure higher than 60 metres per head, whileacceptable pressure in water distribution rangesfrom 25 metres per head to 42 metres per head.

• Response time to customer complaints about visibleleakages reduced.

• An intensive non-visible leak detection programmeintroduced in the entire network.

• Re-zoning implemented in 15 sectors.

• 1 million household meters in the system renewedand upgraded.

• 26,000 meters for large consumer replaced.

• Antifraud actions reinforced.

• Bulk metering system enhanced.

SUCCESS FACTORS

• Dedicated management staff.

• Well-planned programme for loss control.

• Availability of funds.

• A more active position in daily operational routinesadopted by the company.

INDICATORS USED

• Evaluated savings for the 417 installed pressure reducing valves (PRVs) of 1.5 m3/s.

• 30,000 leaks fixed per month: around 10 percent(roughly 3,000) in main pipes, and 90 percent inservice connections.

• Expected return on investment (USD 139 million)from 2000 to 2004 of USD 272 million.


This measure can be applied widely across the MENAregion. Dedicated and professional management is justas important as the availability of medium-term loans tofinance the investments.

TOTAL COSTS

USD 139 million for the period 2000–2004.


The metropolitan region of Sao Paulo, Brazil, has apopulation of 17 million inhabitants and an area of 800 km2. The landscape is hilly, varying from 730 to 850 metres above sea level. The Sao Paulo Water andSewerage Company (SABESP) supplies water andsanitation services through a distribution network of26,000 km of mains with 3 million connections, andthrough bulk sales to six municipalities. The watersystem is fully metered, and consumers have individualstorage tanks because supply is not constant due todrought conditions and daily water shutoff.

The water distribution network in Sao Paulo works on agravity principle, and much of the system is made up ofold pipes (nearly 30 percent of the pipes are more than40 years old). The distribution network delivers at highvelocity with the old pipes, which are typicallyundersized relative to actual demand, meaning thatsignificant head loss occurs during peak hours. Anadvanced pressure strategy was therefore compulsoryin order to cope with such scenarios.

Another characteristic of the Sao Paulo water supplysystem is low overall distribution storage capacity (1.5 million m3), although a positive impact is thatcustomers have domestic roof tanks.

In the last year of the case study, average productionwas 62 m3/s. The figure for real and apparent losses was15 percent and 18 percent respectively, compared to a

36 37Water Demand Management A Good Practice Handbook

PERIOD 2001–2002

LOCATION Jordan University of Science andTechnology (JUST), Irbid, Jordan

TARGETS

• To determine actual water consumption at JUST-CFSD.

• To carry out a water audit for JUST-CFSD in order toidentify water fixtures and appliances; and flow ratesfor water fixtures and the volume of water consumedby the appliances.

• To develop a water consumption model for JUST-CFSD.

• To demonstrate the feasibility of retrofitting atJUST-CFSD.


• Queen Rania Al-Abdullah Center for EnvironmentalSciences and Technology, Civil Engineering Depart-ment at JUST

• Operation and Maintenances Department at JUST

RESULTS OBTAINED

• One year after the measures were implemented, thedormitory’s per capita water consumption declined byover 30 percent, confirming the original expectations.

• The payback period was about six months.

SUCCESS FACTORS

• Low investment need.

• Short payback period.

• The retrofitting of devices was a good measure forachieving potential water savings of 30 percent.

• Awareness raising on the importance of water sav-ings separately targeted the younger generation.

INDICATORS USED

• Time series of total and per capita consumption data.

• Water savings per fixture.


The measure can be repeated in similar locations, suchas schools, hospitals, and residential and commercialproperties. Maintenance and communication areimportant prerequisites for success.

TOTAL COST USD 7,500

Case description and analysisWater meters at JUST-CFSD were monitored over eightweeks to determine actual water consumption in thedormitory buildings. The dormitory complex has sevenbuildings (two wings, four floors) housing 761 students.Meter readings were recorded twice a week, giving twosets of weekly consumption figures. An audit for thedormitory building was carried out (Al-Majali 2002) toobtain an accurate inventory of water fixtures, includingtype, condition, flow rate and leakages. A questionnairewas used to obtain additional information on the numberof students in each building and how the water was used(see Tables 1 to 3). End-use analysis at JUST-CFSD wasused to develop a water consumption model. The modelreported good results for the five buildings in which it wastested, with an average deviation from metered averageconsumption of 14 percent. Using the model, the potentialsavings in consumption from retrofitting the buildings wasestimated at 30 percent. The investment was feasible,with a payback period of just six months. Since the valueof water is higher than its price (prices do not cover costs,and scarcity is not reflected in the prices), the “socialreturn” of such an investment is even more attractive.

The retrofitting cost was reasonable, and a fund wasavailable. The university benefited from the project byreducing water consumption and therefore saving money.

An important conclusion was that maintenance of allwater-saving devices is critical in order to prevent waterwaste. If devices are not repaired or sufficientlymaintained, they can become blocked by scale fromhard water, which is quite simple to remove by cleaning.Regular maintenance is important, because if thedevices get clogged, students may simply remove them.



2.4 continued

consequently there were no immediate conflicts

between different water users or interest groups.

A potential conflict emerged in that providing the

necessary financial sources for the enlargement of the

dam system and transfer capacities posed a threat to

public finances. The investment costs were estimated to

equal the total three-year revenues of the water service

of the region. An adaptation process, including demand

management, seemed to be a more attractive choice.


Response time: The programme reduced the time takento respond to customer complaints about visibleleakages, bringing the 1994 72-hour average repair timedown to 24 hours in 1999 and 13 hours in 2000.

Re-zoning: As part of the pressure reductionprogramme, it was essential to rebuild the main pipes insome sectors and zones. The intense expansion of thecity, plus the presence of large sections of old pipes,causes excess pressure at night. New pressure zoneswere implemented to lower the average pressure in thezones and minimise pressure at critical nodes. Thetarget was to re-zone five new sectors per year in thewhole metropolitan region. The expected volume to berecovered was 3.1 million m3 per year.

Replacement: Apparent losses were attributed in part toinaccurate residential meters. The target of the initiativewas to renew 1 million residential meters over a three-year period (2000–2002), using the criterion ofmaximum possible volume to be recovered. The averagemonthly gain from changing 250,000 meters was 3 m3.In 2002, USD 8 million were invested in new equipment,and the total amount recovered was 33 million m3.

PHYSICAL, ECOLOGICAL AND FINANCIAL IMPACTS

The predicted physical and financial impacts of thesecond phase of the project (2000–2004) aresummarised in Table 1. Real loss control for the period2000–2004 reached 623.7 million m3, at a total cost ofUSD 92 million, while apparent loss control contributeda saving of 227 million m3, worth an estimated USD 47.5 million.


Such a programme, if rationally executed, is sustainablebecause the potential revenue from the programmecovers the costs.

Some customers complained about having lowerpressure than previously, thus the need for lowerpressure needs to be effectively communicated.

REFERENCES

Thornton, Julian. Water Loss Control Manual, McGraw-Hill (2002)

Wikipedia entry on Water Management in Sao Paulo:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_management_in_the_Metropolitan_Region_of_S%C3%A3o_Paulo

Section heading

CASE STUDY 2.5


Development of a Water Consumption Model for the JordanUniversity of Science and Technology (JUST) Campus FemaleStudents Dormitory (CFSD)

Efficient water distribution networks contributeto controlling water losses.



The sustainability of the results depends on:

• awareness raising targeting the younger generation;and

• continuous maintenance of water-saving devices toensure water savings.

REFERENCES

Abdulla, F. A. and R. Haddad (2002). Developing a waterconsumption model for the JUST Campus FemaleStudents Dormitory. Queen Rania Alabdullah Centre forEnvironmental Sciences and Technology, Irbid, Jordan.

Al-Majali, A. (2002). Water efficiency of using watersaving devices: A case study for studentaccommodation within JUST campus. Civil EngineeringDepartment, Jordan University of Science andTechnology, Jordan



2.5 continued

38

Location Total number Number of leaksPercentage

of fixtures withleaks

Average flow rate(litres per minute)

Bathroom faucets 408 91 22% 22.8

Kitchen faucets 48 18 37% 29.5

Laundry room faucets 12 4 33% 50.7

Showerheads 180 47 26% 24.2

Turkish toilets 114 16 14% 9 litres/flush

Seat toilets 120 25 20% 9 litres/flush

Water use Frequency Duration of use

Kitchen faucet use 2.6 times per day 13.1 min

Shower use 2.7 times per week 19.0 min

Toilet use 5 times per day –

Laundry 2.5 times per month 64 min

Water appliance/fixtureFlow rate (litres per minute)

Before retrofitting After retrofitting

Showering use ≥ 12 9

Toilet use 9 litres per flush 6 litres per flush

Bathroom faucets ≥ 12 6

Kitchen faucets ≥ 12 8

TABLE 1 Summary of the water audit of fixtures in the dormitory before retrofitting

TABLE 2 Water use behaviour among students

TABLE 3 Baseline flow rate versus retrofitting flow rate for dormitory water appliances and fixtures

2.5 continued

Water meters wereused to determineactual consumptionat JUST-CFSD.

Water Demand Management A Good Practice Handbook 41Water Demand Management A Good Practice Handbook40

PERIOD 2004

LOCATION Amman, Jordan

TARGET To carry out a water audit and retrofitting of

the buildings of the Ministry of Awqaf in order to

monitor the efficiency of water-saving devices


• Ministry of Awqaf, Islamic Affairs and Holy Places

• Water Efficiency and Public Information for Action

(WEPIA) project team

• Private company for retrofitting

RESULTS OBTAINED

The amount of water saved was 420 m3 per year

(52 percent), while the annual financial savings

amounted to JOD 630.

SUCCESS FACTORS

• Awareness among employees.

• High level of commitment on the part of the ministry.

• Availability of funds.

• Maintenance of devices.

INDICATORS USED

• Water consumption reduction by 52 percent.

• Flow rate reduction from 20 litres per minutes to

6 litres per minute.

• Toilet flush reduced by about 67 percent.


The measure can be applied in similar public and

commercial buildings, especially as it also results in

financial savings. Device maintenance is a key

component of success.

Case description and analysisThe ministry is situated in Jabal Al-Hussein, Amman, andemploys approximately 450 people in two buildings, onenew and one old. Neither of the buildings has apressurised system (e.g. pumps) to supply water outlets(taps) directly. Instead, the system works with gravity,meaning that the pressure depends on the water head(i.e. the height of the building). Pressure ranges between0.3 and 1.2 bars. The ministry’s outdoor gardens are smalland probably negligible in the water audit. Although theministry was aware of the use of water-saving devices asa solution to decrease both water consumption andwater bills, no such devices had been installed.

The Water Efficiency and Public Information for Action(WEPIA) project was funded by the United StatesAgency for International Development (USAID) andimplemented by the Academy for EducationalDevelopment (AED), based in Washington, D.C., incooperation with the Ministry of Water and Irrigation.The WEPIA project recommended several water-savingtechniques. One of these — the use of suitable water-saving devices that operate by mixing water with air —allows consumers to use less water while enjoying thesame level of satisfaction. The study produced adetailed inventory of water outlets at the headquartersof the Ministry of Awqaf, Islamic Affairs and Holy Places,followed by the identification of items that could beretrofitted. An economic analysis of the feasibility ofusing water-saving devices was also presented.

According to the results of the survey in the twoministry buildings, the main water outlets requiringretrofitting were the taps. There were 35 taps in all, 27 ofwhich were threaded, while the other eight wereJordanian-manufactured taps without threads. None ofthe taps leaked. The water bills showed that the ministryconsumes an average of 800 m3 of water per year. Thecost of one cubic metre for the ministry is JOD 1.5, thusthe total cost of water consumption per year was JOD 1,200, which, although a modest amount, could befurther reduced. The aerators installed in the ministrybuildings had flow rates of 6 litres per minute, as

Water Auditing and Retrofitting at the Ministry of Awqaf, Islamic Affairs and Holy Places, Jordan

Section heading

CASE STUDY 2.6


recommended in the WEPIA Voluntary Code. The pricerange for a single aerator is between JOD 2.5 and 3.5.

The actual calculations used in the WEPIA project areshown below.

D is the potential water saving in (l/yr).

Fb is the faucet flow rate before retrofitting (l/min).

Fa is the faucet flow rate after retrofitting (l/min).

P is the population (employees) in the target area usingthe faucets.

C is the number of working days during the year.

R is the number of uses per person per day.

T is the average number of minutes per use.

The number of employees that use the ministrybathrooms targeted by the case study is 120 (27 percent of ministry employees).

D = (20 - 6) 250 X 120 X 1 X 1 = 420,000 l/ year = 420m3 per year.

The cost of 1 m3 = JOD 1.5 for the ministry’s buildings.

The investment cost was JOD 109.

The amount of money saved = E = 420 X 1.5 = JOD 630per year.

Percentage saving = 420 / 800 X 100 = 52.5%.

Payback period = I / E = 109 / 630 = 0.173 year = 63days = 2 months

Even though the return profile for the water-savingdevices is very attractive, such devices are still notcommon in Jordan for a variety of reasons, including:

• lack of awareness;

• concerns regarding convenience, cost and publichealth;

• variability of water pressure and variability of sanitary fixtures;

• availability of water-saving devices from local suppliers; and

• lack of demonstrable success in previous water conservation projects.

There are also sociological reasons that hamper efficientwater conservation measures, the most important ofwhich are related to the unreliability of the water supplyand the low cost of water.

REFERENCES

“Retrofitting the Ministry of Awqaf buildings”, WEPIAproject (2004).


2.6 continued

Retrofitting ministrybuildings resulted inboth water and financial savings.

43Water Demand Management A Good Practice HandbookWater Demand Management A Good Practice Handbook42

Section heading

CASE STUDY 3.1

Chapter 3 Economic Instruments in Water Policy

Adaptation to a Growing Population through the Decline of Per Capita Consumption Triggered by Increasing Block Tariffs — Rabat-Casablanca Costal Areas, Morocco

Chapter 3 – Economic Instruments in Water PolicySeveral types of economic instruments are used in water policy:

• Fees for water and sewerage services generate revenue for the service provider to cover itscosts.

• Resource charges can supplement the price of water to reflect scarcity, and these chargesgenerate a revenue for the state administration, similar to taxes.

• Effluent charges are imposed for pollution released from the sewerage network/wastewatertreatment plants, and again these provide revenue for the state administration.

• Financial support (such as grants or preferential loans to support investments) enables devel-opments that can result in water saving/reduced demand.

• Water trading is a market-based mechanism that helps to allocate scarce water resources tomore efficient uses.

Within the MENA region, most of the WDM schemes that are based on economic instrumentsinvolve pricing, and typically progressive, multi-part tariffs. There are several examples ofprogressive drinking-water pricing schemes, with a long history of the adjustment of prices tochanging circumstances, most notably population growth, which implies higher water demand(e.g. the case of SONEDE in Tunisia, or Morocco). The Abu Dhabi case highlights the benefits ofwater pricing as a tool, while the case study from rural Gambia shows how a well-devisedcharging scheme for local drinking water can result in a win-win situation.

PERIOD 1989–2000

LOCATION Rabat-Casablanca Costal Areas, Morocco

TARGET To avoid investment in new supply-sidecapacities by promoting efforts to reduce per capitaconsumption.


• Ministerial and national bodies

• Catchment area agencies

• Water service providers

RESULTS OBTAINED

• 10 years after measure implementation, per capitahousehold consumption declined by over 20 percent.

• A 30 percent increase in the population went hand inhand with a production increase of only 10 percent.Overall productivity (net consumption plus total pro-duction) did not change during the observed period,implying that there was no improvement in leakage.

SUCCESS FACTORS

• Tariff increases were introduced as part of a packageof supplementary measures, thus the financial burdenwas balanced by improvements in service quality.

• Awareness raising about the importance of watersavings separately targeted the younger generation.

INDICATORS USED

• Time series of total and per capita consumption data,and population.


Other decentralised catchment agencies and operatorswere later established in Morocco. Implementationelsewhere requires the careful adaptation of the legal andinstitutional environment. Volume-related pricing requiresaccurate metering; and price rises should be accompaniedby service improvements and credible service providers.


In the case study area, the capacity of traditional watersources (about 100 million m3 per year) was sufficient toprovide only about 20 m3 of water per person per year.To augment the supply, a water transfer infrastructurefrom the Fourart water table was built in the 1930s. Theinfrastructure was later expanded, in parallel withpopulation growth and increased economic activity. In2000, transfer capacity was 270 million m3 per year, 100 million m3 of which was lost in the transfer process.

Water consumption was steadily increasing, withforecasts of 890 to 1,145 million m3 per year by 2020, atripling of capacities over 40 years, which was deemedprohibitively expensive. There was not enoughinformation to suggest sufficient water to meet increaseddemand, even with delivery infrastructure in place.

Policy makers concluded that, instead of further capacitycreation, demand-side solutions should be applied toensure that existing supply can meet future demand. Acomplex set of measures was applied, the core being theintroduction of an incremental block tariff system, withthe greater burden falling on consumers using above-average amounts of water. Supplementary measuresincluded the decentralisation of service responsibilities;improvements in service quality and coverage;widespread metering of water use; a reduction innetwork losses; and awareness raising.


When the measures were launched, there was noexplicit scarcity or shortage in the case study region,thus there were no immediate conflicts betweendifferent water users or interest groups. A potentialconflict began to emerge in the form of a future threatto public finances in terms of providing the necessaryfinancial resources to enlarge the dam system andtransfer capacities. The investment costs were estimatedto equal the total three-year revenues of the waterservice of the region, and this was deemed tooexpensive. An adaptation process, including demandmanagement, seemed a more attractive option.



3.1 continued


A package of measures was devised to restrict thecontinued increase in water consumption:

• A progressive block tariff system was introduced toact as an incentive to save water. Four blocks wereestablished, as shown in Table 1. The new prices wereintroduced after a period of price stagnation, thus in-flation was not a complicating factor.

• In 1995, a uniform volumetric sanitation price wasalso introduced, reinforcing the incentive effect ofdrinking water tariffs on consumption levels.

• Water tariffs were introduced for public bodies thathad not previously paid for water. A voucher systemallowed a certain level of consumption for each pub-lic body, above which they had to pay from their in-ternal budget, creating an incentive to save water.

• Campaigns were launched to raise awareness of theneed to save water, focusing on the young.

• Another supporting measure was the involvement ofprivate sector operators in the distribution of water.While ownership is of less importance than the rulesof utility regulation, it is still possible to count onsome indirectly supportive side effects: a privateservice contract defines the price adjustment for-mula, providing some stability to tariff levels, and aprivate owner has a primary interest in maintainingthe financial integrity of the service.

• An outreach programme was initiated to facilitate ac-cess to drinking water for low-income urban residentsthat had previously used standpipes in the streets.

• A reduction in water loss in the transfer and distribu-tion systems was targeted.


The physical impacts of the measure are shown inTable 2. A 32 percent increase in population resulted ina 10 percent increase in water production. Unitconsumption (total consumption divided bypopulation) fell by almost 20 percent, suggesting thatthe new tariff system led to real adaptation. Adaptationtook place mainly in households, while consumption bypublic bodies did not change substantially. The overalltechnical efficiency of water transfer and distributiondid not improve — although by 2011 it had improved to 72 percent (AbuZeid and Elrawady 2014). It can beconcluded that the increasing block tariff successfullycurbed household water consumption, but that thesupporting measures were not very effective.

There is insufficient information to assess the ecologicalimpacts of the measure. A key question is what happensto water that is not transferred for urban consumption.It remains unclear whether it is used for agriculturalpurposes, or stored for future consumption.


Water service revenues increased due to the new pricingregime. The bigger customer base (due to a biggerpopulation and more people directly connected to thenetwork) also contributed to higher revenues. Actualfigures are not available. Also important are the level ofcost recovery and the burden on households.

Every cubic metre of water saved due to the appliedmeasures makes the initially planned supply-sideinvestment (i.e. new dams) unnecessary. Many poor andoff-grid households previously supplied by standpipes


Block tariff units (m3 quarterly consumption per connection)

Rate of price increase between 1982 and 2000compared to the uniform price level of 1982

0–24 4-fold increase



91 and above Introduced only in 1998

TABLE 1 Block tariff structure and the price increase in each segment

Section headingChapter 3 Economic Instruments in Water Policy

3.1 continued

were connected to the system, improving socialstanding, quality of life and health prospects.


The sustainability of the results depends on:

• awareness raising among the younger generation;

• cooperation with private operators to make long-term application of the price formula more probable;and

• the fact that the increasing block tariffs were notabandoned after a few years, which suggests thatthe population accepts the scheme and is open to itscontinued application.

REFERENCES

AbuZeid, K., M. Elrawady (2014). Second Arab State ofthe Water Report, 2012. Water Resource ManagementProgram – CEDARE and Arab Water Council, ISBN:978977 90 3806 3, pp. 3–34. Accessed on July 4, 2016:

www.acwua.org/sites/default/files/water_utilities_reform_-_case_studies_from_the_arab_region.pdf

African Development Bank Group (2010). “Project toUpgrade Drinking Water Supply in the Rabat –Casablanca Coastal Area.” Accessed on July 4, 2016:www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Project-and-Operations/Morocco%20-%20Upgrade%20drinking%20water%20supply%20in%20the%20Rabat%20-%20Casablanca%20coastal%20area.pdf

OECD (2010). “The Challenges of Water Governance inMena Countries.” Chapter 10 of Public Management inthe Middle East and North Africa, Case Studies on PolicyReform. Organisation for Economic Co-operation andDevelopment. ISBN 978-92-64-08207-6.

Plan Bleu (2002). Report of Analysis of the Case Studyon the Drinking Water Supply in the Rabat-CasablancaCoastal Area. Final Report for the Mediterranean Centreof Regional Activities, No. 103.

1989 2000 Rate of change between 1989 and 2000

Total production and consumption (million m3/year)

Production 245 269 1.10

Estimated water loss 78 90 1.16

Consumption 167 179 1.07

Population

Inhabitants (million) 3.7 4.9 1.32

Unit production and consumption (litres per person per day)

Production 178 150 0.84

All consumption 124 100 0.81

Consumption by public bodies 17 17 0.97

Efficiency

Transfer and distribution efficiency (%) 68% 66% 0.97

TABLE 2 Impacts of measure implementation


Effect of Pricing Policy on Water Conservation: Abu Dhabi City,United Arab Emirates

Section heading

CASE STUDY 3.2

Chapter 3 Economic Instruments in Water Policy Chapter 3 Economic Instruments in Water Policy

3.2 continued

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85

16

0

Frequency Reduction in consumption (%)

Frequency of households that reduced their consumptionFIGURE 1

PERIOD 1999–2000

LOCATION Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

TARGET To combat the high level of water consumption(636 litres per capita per day) in a city where the cost ofwater production is among the highest worldwide.


•Water and Electricity Department (WED), Abu Dhabi

RESULTS OBTAINED

• Following the introduction of meters and a new pric-ing policy, 66 out of 90 surveyed households reducedtheir consumption by between 5 and 85 percent.

• It was possible to measure changes in consumptionas the cubic metre–based variable tariff was intro-duced two months after the installation of the newmetres, and consumption was measured over thesame two-month period.

SUCCESS FACTORS

• Installation of meters in all households.

• Commitment of various stakeholders to the introduc-tion of the new pricing system.

INDICATORS USED

• Frequency of households that reduced their con-sumption by various percentages (see Figure 1).


This measure has been replicated by other cities in theUnited Arab Emirates, including Al Ain, Dubai andSharjah, and can be introduced elsewhere.


The main source of water for Abu Dhabi City isdesalinated seawater from the Arabian Gulf. The cost ofwater production through desalination is higher thanother conventional methods of potable waterproduction. Despite the implementation of several

awareness-raising campaigns to inform the public of theimportance of water and its high cost, the averageconsumption rate in the city of Abu Dhabi in 1997 wasabout 318,000 m3 per day, meaning an average percapita consumption of 636 litres per capita per day. Thehigh consumption rate was partially attributed to theexistence of wasteful and inefficient water use, due tothe lack of economic incentives in the form of a cubicmetre–based tariff. The WED therefore decided tochange the pricing mechanism and charge consumersbased on the actual volume of water consumed.

The WED installed water meters in different buildingsand houses in the city. As of the beginning of 1997, mostconsumers in Abu Dhabi are charged based on thevolume of water they consume, and the new rate is AED2.2 per m3, replacing the earlier flat rate of AED 50 permonth, irrespective of the level of consumption.


Those with the highest consumption before the newmeters were introduced expressed the greatestdissatisfaction with the new scheme.


Although the average revenue per cubic metre in Abu

Dhabi increased by 290 percent, it is still lower than the

real cost of producing and supplying water to Abu Dhabi

consumers. Most consumers accepted the increase

without any complaint. The revenues from the new tariff

cover only 29 percent of the real cost. However, this

increase in price can be considered as a first step

towards achieving a fair and economically sound pricing

system, which should be based on the real cost of water.


The new pricing system has resulted in decreased water

consumption, and has reduced the amount of generated

wastewater that needs to be treated. This in turn means

less energy is required for treatment and less sludge is

produced that requires disposal.


The new pricing system has increased the

revenue from water supply to consumers.

Although the revenue does not cover the full

cost of desalinating and distributing the water,

it does help the WED to partially cover the

cost of supplying water.


The sustainability of the results depends on

several factors:

• an awareness-raising campaign targetingconsumers;

• the ability to increase the block rate; and

• a gradual approach to pricing that recoverscosts.

REFERENCES

Abu Qdais, H.A. and H.I. Al Nassay (2001).

“Effect of Pricing Policy on Water

Conservation: A Case Study.” Water Policy 3,pp. 207–214.


How a Public Drinking Water Utility Applied and Adapted aProgressive Tariff for Over 45 Years to Satisfy Its Financial Needswhile Ensuring Affordability for Domestic Users and ProvidingIncentives to Rationalise Water Consumption

Section heading

CASE STUDY 3.3

Chapter 3 Economic Instruments in Water Policy Chapter 3 Economic Instruments in Water Policy

3.3 continued

has undergone seven reforms, with several tariff levels

being applied per band within each reform as

described in Table 1.

Until 1978, SONEDE’s pricing strategy could be

considered as a supply management policy: the

company’s main aim was to increase the number of its

subscribers, thus only two levels of tariff per band were

applied. However, since 1979 the pricing policy has

shifted to water demand management by gradually

increasing the consumption bands and the levels of

tariff per band.

In 1982, the first band — representing what is considered

as the “social band” — was reduced to just 20 m3 per

quarter rather than 40 m3 in order to rationalise water

consumption, as 20 m3 represents approximately

50 litres per day per person for a family of five, which

complies with the World Health Organisation (WHO)

guidelines on drinking water accessibility.

In 1988, the social tariff was blocked, meaning that thetariff was applied only for those consumers whoseconsumption did not exceed 20 m3 quarterly. Ifconsumption went above this volume, users had to payfor all their consumption according to the tariff for theupper band. This is an important feature that also appliesto all other consumption bands: once water use reachesa given consumption band, all previous consumptionalso becomes subject to the higher tariff level.

In 1992, the number of tariffs per band was reduced totwo for all consumption bands. This additional measureaimed to further rationalise drinking water consumption,given the high cost of realising new investments in watersupply networks.

During the first decade of the 2000s, and due to adecision by the ministry to freeze drinking water tariffsfor nearly four years, SONEDE decided to abandon themultiple levels within a band and to implement a singletariff level for all bands in order to recover its financialbalance, which had been impacted by the tariff freeze.

1968 1990 2000 2010 2014 2015

Number of subscribers 103,000 937,676 1,548,085 2,304,242 2,637,903 2,720,146

Introduction of progressive tariff 1974–1978 2 consumption bands 2 levels of tariff per band

1st reform 1979–1981 3 consumption bands 3 levels of tariff per band

2nd reform 1982–1983 4 consumption bands 4 levels of tariff per band

3rd reform 1984–1987 5 consumption bands 5 levels of tariff per band

4th reform 1988–1991 5 consumption bands 3 levels of tariff per band

5th reform 1992–2004 5 consumption bands 2 levels of tariff per band

6th reform 2005–2010 5 consumption bands Single tariff within a band

7th reform 2011–2016 7 consumption bands Single tariff within a band

TABLE 1 Tariff levels applied per band

TABLE 2 Evolution in the number of subscribers (1968–2015)

PERIOD 1968 to 2016

LOCATION Tunisia

TARGET To maintain financial balance; ensureaffordability for domestic users; and rationaliseconsumption.


• Société Nationale d’Exploitation et de Distributiondes Eaux (SONEDE), the Tunisian drinking waterutility

RESULTS OBTAINED

Aided by the continuous adaptation of its progressivetariff system, SONEDE succeeded in substantiallyincreasing the number of subscribers (and the rate ofdrinking water supply in general); shifting from watersupply to water demand management; guaranteeingwater affordability for the majority of domestic users;and maintaining its financial balance.

SUCCESS FACTORS

• Strategic view.

• Availability of financial and statistical data.

• Responsiveness.

• Support of regulatory authorities.

INDICATORS USED

• Different tariff schemes from 1968 to 2016.

• Change in number of subscribers.

• Affordability.

• Consumption per connection.


The measure can be duplicated depending on thewillingness of drinking water utilities and authorities toadopt a progressive tariff and their capacity to provideproper financial projections.

Case description and analysisThe Tunisian drinking water utility SONEDE was createdin July 1968 and operates under the supervision of theMinistry of Agriculture, Water Resources and Fisheries.As a public enterprise, SONEDE has financial autonomy:its budget is independent from the state budget and itdoes not receive governmental subsidies. This meansthat, for its operating and investment costs, SONEDEhas to rely mainly on revenues from water sales andfixed fees, representing around 70 percent of itsoperating revenues in 2015.

Before the creation of SONEDE, a single tariff had beenapplied for drinking water. Immediately after its creation,the enterprise decided to implement three types oftariffs:

• for connected domestic, tourism and industrial users;

• for non-connected domestic users; and

• for certain categories of industry, such as metallurgi-cal and textile facilities and sugar refineries.

According to this scheme, non-connected domesticusers paid the lowest tariff (less than half that paid byconnected domestic, tourism and industrial users),followed by the industrial tariff and then the tariff forconnected users. As a public enterprise, SONEDE’stariffs were seen by the government as a way toimplement state policies, and the priority at that timewas to develop and encourage basic industries andensure access to safe water for the most vulnerablemembers of the population.

According to Decree No. 73-515 of October 30, 1973, onthe regulation of subscriptions to water, water pricingand ancillary fees are fixed by a ministerial decision. Thismeans that SONEDE, as a drinking water utility, has onlythe authority to make proposals, while the final decisionis made jointly by the minister of agriculture, waterresources and fisheries and the minister of finance.

In 1974, SONEDE decided to shift to the progressivetariff that it has used ever since. This progressive tariff


PERIOD 1995–2014

LOCATION Tunisia

TARGET To reduce water consumption for irrigation.


• Ministry of Agriculture, Water Resources and Fisheries (MAWRF)

RESULTS OBTAINED

• Irrigation efficiency increased by 16 percent from1995 to 2014.

• 20 to 35 percent of water resources saved in theconcerned perimeters.

SUCCESS FACTORS

• Comprehensiveness of the programme.

• Awareness campaigns.

• Allocation of a specific budget.

• Existence of monitoring units at the regional level.

INDICATORS USED

• Coverage of water-saving equipment (in terms ofhectares).

• Volume of investment allocated to the water-savingprogramme.


The programme is replicable in similar contexts of water

scarcity, subject to the implementation of the different

components and the allocated budget.

TOTAL COSTS

The investments had an estimated total cost of

TND 1,100 million, of which TND 553 million were

allocated in the form of financial incentives to farmers.

50

257

368395 410 416 420 423 425

1960 1986 2000 2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

Source: General Directorate of Water Resources (MAWRF)

Distribution timeframe for irrigated perimetersFIGURE 1

Section heading

CASE STUDY 3.4


The Main Axes of the Strategy Adopted by the Tunisian Authoritiessince the 1990s to Encourage Water Savings in Irrigated Perimetersand Their Concrete Results

In terms of the evolution in the number of subscribers,this tariff policy (supporting domestic low-volumeusers), along with the financial incentives given to newdomestic subscribers (who can pay their connectioncharges in multiple installments over up to eight years),contributed to the encouragement of drinking waterconnections and improved the living standards of themajority of the Tunisian population (see Table 2).

In terms of affordability, according to the current tariffof the first band, representing 20 m3 per quarter (TND 0.2), the final price of drinking water billed forthis category of consumers will be around 2 percent ofthe minimum legal wage (TND 350 per month),including fixed fees and taxes. This means that watercharges for the most vulnerable connected userscomply with the United Nations Development

Programme recommendation not to exceed 3 percentof household income.

Another important outcome of the highly progressivetariff scheme applied by SONEDE is that consumptionper connection has stabilised for the last five years,proving the effectiveness of demand management.

REFERENCES

Decree No. 73-515 of October 30, 1973, approving theregulation of subscriptions to water

Law No. 68-22 of July 2, 1968, creating SONEDE, asamended by Law No. 76-21 of January 21, 1976

SONEDE statistical report 2015

SONEDE annual report 2015



50

3.3 continued

Tariffs can be usedto ensure access to safe water for vulnerable membersof the population.



3.4 continued

• 116,000 hectares using spray irrigation, representing

30 percent of perimeters; and

• 91,000 hectares using improved surface irrigation

systems, representing 24 percent of perimeters.

By the end of 2014, the total cost of state investment in

the implementation of the water-saving programme was

estimated at TND 1,100 million, of which TND 553 million

were allocated in the form of financial incentives to

farmers. Of these incentives, 56 percent benefited

medium and large farms, while 44 percent went to small



3.4 continued

52

Centre

North

South51%

39%

10%


Groundwater (deep wells)

Other resources

Surface water

36%30%

32%


2%

Groundwater (surface wells)

50,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

300,000

350,000

1995 2000 2005 2010 20140

400,000

450,000

1

202,750

223,000

137,500

310,000

93,000

354,000

65,000

380,000

45,000

202,750

223,000

137,500

310,000

93,000

354,000

65,000

380,000

45,000

Evolution of perimeters equipped with water-saving systems (yellow) out of the total irrigated area (blue)

FIGURE 4

Geographical distribution of irrigatedperimeters

FIGURE 2 Distribution of irrigated perimeters according to water resource classification

FIGURE 3Case description and analysisBASELINE SITUATION

Agriculture currently consumes around 80 percent ofthe total water volumes allocated to different sectors inTunisia. Between 1950 and 2014, the total area ofirrigated perimeters in the country rose from 50,000 to425,000 hectares (Figure 1), 55 percent of which weredeveloped through public investments and are managedmainly by agricultural development groups (GDAs).

Of the irrigated perimeters in the north of Tunisia, 51 percent are close to major hill dams; 39 percent incentral Tunisia use deep wells and surface wells; and 10 percent in the south use deep wells (down to 3,000 metres). A total of 36 percent of perimeters inTunisia are irrigated by surface water (dams and rivers),32 percent by deep wells (down to 50 metres); 30 percent by surface wells; and 2 percent throughreclaimed waters (see Figures 2 and 3).

In May 1995, the Tunisian authorities introduced a water-saving policy that contained a series of measuresgrouped into three categories: economic, institutionaland technical.

FINANCIAL AND TAX INCENTIVES

• Higher incentives for projects to save irrigation waterby increasing financial support from 25 percent ofequipment costs to 40, 50 or 60 percent, accordingto farm category (i.e. small, medium or large).

• From 1998, the granting of a premium of 60 percent,instead of 50 percent, on water-saving equipment toGDAs.

• The granting of a premium of 30 percent, up from 20 percent, on the total cost of water-saving equip-ment renewal.

• Reduction of tariffs related to water-saving equip-ment to 10 percent, and the abolition of VAT andconsumption tax on imported and locally madeequipment.

The above incentives are granted to farmers, debtsnotwithstanding (Decision of the Minister of Agricultureof September 9, 1997).

INSTITUTIONAL MEASURES

Institutional measures were also applied to implementthe incentives. Monitoring units for water-savingprojects were created within the regional offices foragricultural development, responsible for determining

the necessary documentation required to apply forincentives; providing agricultural and hydraulic data forpreliminary studies of the projects; supervising projectstudies; monitoring the costs and the installation of farmequipment; and advising farmers on the entry intoservice and maintenance of water-saving systems.

WATER SYSTEMS RENEWAL AND MAINTENANCE

At the same time, the MAWRF led several major projectsaimed at rehabilitating public irrigated perimetersystems. The most recent projects have covered 52,000hectares in the southern oases, the Lower MedjerdaRiver basin and other perimeters in the centre and thenorth of the country.

Maintenance works on several pumping stations, thecleaning of water reservoirs, and the renewal of waterpipes have been initiated by the regional agriculturaldevelopment offices, with a total annual budget of TND 12 million.

AWARENESS CAMPAIGNS AND CAPACITY BUILDING

Even before the official launch of the national water-saving programme, a series of awareness-raisingcampaigns, as well as some capacity-building actions,were initiated between 1992 and 1995. These actionsincluded the organisation of training cycles for GDAoffice technicians and the heads of monitoring unitsinvolved in the technical field of water saving and newirrigation technologies; the organisation of several “infodays” (the broadcasting of awareness-raising clips ontelevision, and the dissemination of materials ontechnical, financial and procedural issues); theintroduction of a master’s degree on water saving at theNational Institute of Agricultural Sciences for the benefitof 20 students from 1993 to 1995; and the establishmentof the National Day for Water Saving.

RESULTS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAMME ON WATERSAVING FOR IRRIGATION

1. Water saving equipment

By the end of December 2014, a total of 380,000hectares were equipped with water-saving systems,compared to the 127,000 hectares in 1995 (see Figure 4).The various measures undertaken led to the equipping of89 percent of intensively irrigated perimeters in 2014,with the following systems:

• 172,000 hectares using localised irrigation, represent-ing 46 percent of perimeters;



3.4 continued

farms. Nearly half of the investments (47 percent) were

implemented between 1999 and 2004.

2. Water savings

According to the MAWRF, the programme resulted in

water savings of 15 to 20 percent, based on monitoring

reports from some perimeters. The savings are due to

enhanced irrigation efficiency, reaching 76 percent in

2014, compared to rates in the 1990s that never

exceeded 60 percent.

At the same time, 20 to 35 percent of water resources

were saved in areas benefiting from MAWRF

interventions to renew and maintain the water systems

of irrigated perimeters, thus reducing water leakages.

The authorities have recorded other positive results,

such as drainwater reduction, the expansion of irrigated

lands (especially small plots) and increased agricultural

productivity in perimeters using localised irrigation.

REFERENCES

Agricultural Investment Promotion Agency (APIA) website: http://www.apia.com.tn

General Directorate for Water Resources reports


PERIOD From 2014

LOCATION Villages in Gambia

TARGET To provide affordable, safe and sustainabledrinking water to rural communities.


• African water enterprises

• Africell (mobile phone operator in Gambia)

• Department of Water Resources, Gambia

RESULTS OBTAINED

• The eWaterPay scheme succeeded in ensuring sustainable drinking water supply operations in ruralGambia and Senegal. If everything goes as planned,500 taps will be installed by the end of 2017.

SUCCESS FACTORS

• A long-term perspective.

• The inclusion of the local population, especiallywomen.

• Involving payment as part of the scheme, as thishelps to establish a fund for maintenance and repair.

INDICATORS USED

• 110 taps installed by 2017.

• Price paid for water is about EUR 0.01 per 20 litres.


This tested, replicable measure ensures a sustainable,long-term water supply.

Case description and analysisThe majority of rural settlements in Sub-Saharan Africa

lack easily accessible, safe drinking water. Water is often

transported on foot over long distances, mainly by

women and children. The time and effort spent carrying

water can be substantial, limiting the time available for

other activities, including education. To tackle this

situation, aid programmes regularly build wells, from

which water is pumped to serve local needs. However,

there can be problems with the operation of these wells.

If water supply is insufficient to meet all needs, quarrels

can break out among the local population. Moreover, in

many villages, well maintenance stops when the aid

stops, and pumps and other components break down

after a while and supply discontinues. In some locations,

the village council or a committee is entrusted to collect

fees to cover repairs, but these bodies are often

ineffective and sometimes corrupt, and funds rarely

accumulate in sufficient quantity to ensure continued

maintenance. At any given time, roughly one-third of the

water infrastructure is broken and the population has to

revert to the old ways of fetching water from a distance

— water that may not even be safe to drink.

In response, the British start-up eWater introduced the

eWaterPay system, under which wells are created using

donor money, and typically using solar power for

pumping. The local population pays for the water up

front with smartphones (a widespread means of

payment in rural Africa) at local shops, and in exchange

they receive an electronic tag that they can use to

receive water from the public tap. The payment goes

directly to a fund that will cover maintenance and the

replacement of parts, and the water costs about EUR

0.01 for 20 litres. The system has already been

successfully introduced in seven Gambian villages. The

taps are connected to the mobile network, and they

transmit usage data signals to alert repair personnel

when problems occur.

At present, 110 taps have been installed in the sevenvillages, although eWater hopes to have a total of 500 taps serving 50,000 people by the end of 2017,mainly in Gambia and Tanzania.

Experience shows that paying for water makes it moreprecious to water users. The women and girls whocollect the water are careful not to spill any of it, whichnot only saves water but also leaves fewer puddles inwhich mosquitoes can breed.

54

Section heading

CASE STUDY 3.5


Providing Sustainable Drinking Water Services in Rural Africa withthe Application of Modern Technologies

Irrigation efficiencyin Tunisia increasedas a result of a water-saving strategy.

57Water Demand Management A Good Practice HandbookWater Demand Management A Good Practice Handbook


3.5 continued

Since funds are available for repair and there are clear

lines of responsibility, broken taps are repaired within

three days. Under other schemes, the average repair

time is 27 days.

Local populations have responded positively: water is

always available, and because it is acquired in exchange

for payment, there is no cause to fight over it. The

scheme is on track for sustainability. In the Gambian

village of Jarreng, for example, in the first three days

after the taps had been installed, over 500 households

had registered with the system and started to use it.

Women expressed their satisfaction with the fact that

most of the payment covers maintenance and repair (a

small portion is taken as a fee by the mobile payment

system). Electronic payment is important in ensuring

that the repair fund is not misused: cash payments often

result in corruption and the loss of a portion of the

collected funds.

REFERENCES

Africa Water Enterprises website:

www.africawaterenterprises.com/

“Pay as you drink: A better way to provide drinking

water in rural Africa.” The Economist, March 4, 2017.

www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-

africa/21717766-innovative-cure-broken-pumps-better-w

ay-provide-drinking-water

56

Ensuring an affordable watersupply frees womenand girls from thedaily task of fetching water.

Chapter 4 – Institutional and LegalMeasuresSome WDM measures rely primarily on institutions and regulations, as opposed to investments,economic instruments, communication or other tools. In this chapter, we provide case studies inwhich institutional arrangements, or the legal framework, play a significant role. The first twocases illustrate the powerful impact of properly designed public–private partnerships for waterservices. In the case of Amman, a private player was able to reduce non-revenue waterconsiderably (a topic already discussed in Chapter 2), while in the Madaba public–privatepartnership, the efficiency of operations improved due to reduced administrative losses andhigher revenues.

In the Jordan Valley good practice case study, institutional reform contributed to improvedasset management, the more efficient collection of fees, as well as reduced illegal water use.The rest of the cases illustrate — among other things — how regulations are important intriggering behavioural change in line with WDM priorities. However, implementation — includingmonitoring and enforcement — are equally critical, while the introduction of incentives forparticipation can also help.


Chapter 4 Institutional and Legal Measures

4.1 continued

recovery tariff, and inefficient monitoring control and

liability concerning expenditures.

These conditions resulted in intermittent and uneven

supply, loss of consumer confidence, the continuing

deterioration of water resources, a growing deficit in the

supply/demand equation, and greater focus on supply

than on demand management. They also resulted in a

failure to develop an adequate strategy for network

rehabilitation, maintenance and repair activities, and

restructuring and leakage control. The consequences of

high levels of non-revenue water and inadequate billing

and collection systems compounded the problems.

As a result, the WAJ decided to hire the services of a

consultant. A consultation services company was

commissioned primarily to prepare a statement of

operation for the Amman Governorate Service Area

(AGSA), the largest domestic water market in Jordan.

Among the recommendations of the consultant was to

involve the private sector in water management in

Greater Amman.

In 1997, the WAJ decided to prepare a four-year

contract, with the possibility of extension, for a private

operator to run the Amman Governorate Water Utility

and to implement a well-defined service improvement

programme. The terms of reference of the contract

defined as the private company’s main responsibilities to

operate the facilities and maintain them to an improved

standard; carry out all billing and collection; and

improve customer service functions. The operator was

also to cooperate with the WAJ in developing andimplementing the capital investment programme.Operator performance was to be measured againstspecific targets over the four-year contract period: themost important of these had to do with standards fornon-revenue water, accounts receivable and theconstancy of water supply.

The WAJ issued a call for proposals in December 1997,after which five firms from the 25 applicants were short-listed and asked to submit their technical and financialoffers. The LEMA consortium was selected in April 1999,and the contract was signed by the WAJ and LEMA forfour years, starting from July 31, 1999.

From the start, LEMA brought the necessary technologyand experts to facilitate the work and improve theefficiency of operations. The consortium introduced arange of efficiency measures, such as reducing thenumber of employees while providing training toretained employees. Customer tariffs had beenrestructured to progressive tariffs before themanagement contract commenced, while the newmanagement succeeded in achieving higher billcollection rates. The efficiency improvements and higherrevenues, coupled with a capital injection from the WorldBank, made it possible to improve services (e.g.continuous water supply on a pilot basis) and reducenon-revenue water. At the end of the managementcontract, the water facility was transferred to thegovernment-owned Jordan Water Company(MEYAHONA), which is being run on a commercial basis.


ComponentCosts, including contingencies (USD million)

Bank financing (USD million)

1. Management contract 10.03 10.03

2. Operating Investment Fund (OIF) 24.11 24.11

3. Capital Investment Program (CIP) 94.69 15.36

4. Technical assistance 7.17 5.50

Total 136.00 55.00

TABLE 1 Component costs

Section heading

CASE STUDY 4.1


Private Sector Participation in Water Management: Amman WaterManagement Contract

PERIOD 1999–2006

LOCATION Amman, Jordan

TARGET To improve the operational and financialperformance of the water utility in the Greater Ammanregion and reduce the level of unaccounted-for water



• Water Authority of Jordan (WAJ)

• The three-company consortium LEMA, comprisingLyonnaise Des Eaux (France), Montgomery Watson(UK) and Arabtec Jardaneh (Jordan)

RESULTS OBTAINED

• Lower costs and higher revenues achieved.

• Number of staff reduced from 1,593 in July 1999 to1,116 in July 2002.

• Ratio of unaccounted-for water reduced from 54 percent to 29 percent.

• More efficient operations and improved service quality due to transfer of technology.

• Major advances in GIS technology.

SUCCESS FACTORS

• Competition among bidders for the managementcontract.

• Private sector participation without embedded interests.

• Utilisation of advanced technology and transfer ofknow-how.

• Training programme for employees.

• A smart mix of measures introduced simultaneously(revenue improvement, cost reduction, technologicalupgrade).

INDICATORS USED

• 250,000 metres of pipelines repaired and replaced.

• Number of pipe breaks repaired in the network de-creased from 4.2 per km in 2002 to 2 per km in 2005.

• Reductions in unaccounted-for water are far moredramatic (35 percent) in 150 out of 310 districts,where the network and metering have been up-graded: overall, unaccounted-for water was reducedfrom 54 percent to 29 percent.

• In 30 selected districts where continuous water supply was achieved on a pilot basis, losses were reduced to an average of 23 percent.


The LEMA management contract paved the way for acommercial mindset in the country's overallmanagement of water and wastewater services. Inseveral cities, water supply and distribution aremanaged by government-owned companies and run on a commercial basis.

TOTAL COSTS

The total costs, some of which are financed through theWorld Bank, are presented in Table 1.


The public sector management of the Amman watersupply system had failed to produce improvements inservice levels, and high levels of leakages were partly toblame for water shortages. To overcome the weakgovernance structure associated with public sectormanagement, the Water Authority of Jordan (WAJ)chose to apply contractual obligations to improveservice levels by employing a private operator, chosencompetitively from among pre-qualified operators withinternational experience.


The WAJ was constrained by a lack of financialresources and insufficient cash flow, coupled with highlevels of subsidies. This resulted in inadequate funds forreplacing and upgrading water supply systems. Otherfinancial constraints contributing to the crisis werecentralised budgeting procedures, the lack of a cost-


PERIOD 2005–2011 (after 2011, the WAJ continued the developed practices)

LOCATION Madaba, Jordan

TARGETS

• To improve water and wastewater revenue

• To reduce unpaid bills

• To improve customer management efficiency

• To introduce computer-aided customer management

• To promote the technical and administrative devel-opment of Madaba customer management


• Water Authority of Jordan (WAJ)

• German Development Cooperation (GIZ)

• Engicon Consulting Firm

RESULTS OBTAINED

• The private partner managed to considerably de-crease the high level of non-revenue water (NRW)and, by collecting additional cash, to significantly improve the financial situation of the WAJ.

• Both the net billed and net collected amounts roseremarkably: the billed amount increased by almost80 percent between 2005 and 2008, while theamount collected increased by 84 percent.

• Outstanding invoices (or accounts receivable) as a per-centage of the billed amount were cut by almost half.

These results are important from the perspective ofwater demand management. Once invoices are issued,delivered and collected, the incentive to reduceconsumption suddenly becomes much stronger.

SUCCESS FACTORS

• Political will and commitment

• Stakeholder acceptance of a win–win scenario

• Transparency

• The establishment of benchmarks for achievements

INDICATORS USED

• Billed amounts in the Madaba Water Administration

• Amount of illegal water use

• Number of water meters replaced and resealed


As a result of its success, the Micro-PSP contractimplemented in Madaba was not only extended for threeyears, but was also expanded in terms of outsourcedtasks. At national level, it has been replicated in theKarak and Balqa governorates. Upscaling may ultimatelytake place on a region-wide basis: some water sectorauthorities from other countries in the Middle East andthe Gulf States are already investigating the Micro-PSPpilot study in Madaba in terms of how to apply it withintheir own reform processes.

TOTAL COSTS

The total cost of the contract was JOD 900,000. Thisamount included the cost of equipment procurementand software. In addition, the contractor was eligible foran incentive of 14 percent from the supplementalcollected revenues, as compared to the revenues of thebase year. These costs, however, were balanced byincreased revenues.

Case description and analysisThere are a total of 19,500 water customers in MadabaGovernorate, up to 94 percent of whom are householdcustomers (there are only a few large consumers inMadaba). The Madaba water authority faced seriousproblems in terms of customer management: customerswere lost due to faulty application processes; poorestimates often resulted in incorrect billing; bills werenot distributed due to poor information systems; andcollection was ineffective. This led to very high ratios ofNRW, which, 10 years before the start of the micro-PSP,ranged between 49 and 66 percent. While some of thiswas due to network losses or leakages, a large part of itwas related to customer service problems. Total revenueimprovement potential was estimated at approximatelyJOD 1.9 million.



4.1 continued

The GIS system was upgraded to allow the morecomprehensive mapping and recording of the water andwastewater networks. The following results were achieved:

• 100 percent of water mains were digitised in the GIS;

• 270,000 customer meter locations were digitised inthe GIS;

• the wastewater mains were digitised in the GIS; and

• all repair data were entered into the GIS, which wasused to manage the entire process through to com-pletion.


Improved network maintenance, reduced response timesin the case of pipeline ruptures (from 72 hours at thestart of LEMA’s contract down to six hours), and thetargeted reconstruction of the least-efficient sections ofthe network resulted in a substantial decline in the ratioof unaccounted-for water, from 54 percent to 29 percent.Sewerage network operations were also upgraded, whichimproved the quality of the environment.


Progressive tariffs were introduced and the average tarifflevel increased, although the higher bills wereaccompanied by improved service levels. Importantly,the tariff adjustment happened before the public–privatepartnership, not as part of it, which helped to avoid apolitical backlash against the private operator that wouldhave made it difficult to bill and collect payments forservices, albeit on behalf of the employer (the WAJ). Atariff increase was approved in 1997, well in advance ofinviting the private operators to pre-qualify and bid.

With respect to human resources, LEMA established aplanned training process, a training centre and aspecialised training staff. Improved staff skills helpedLEMA to reduce staff from 1,593 on July 31, 1999, to 1,116on July 31, 2002. The reduction in staff did not haveadverse impacts on the quality of service: on thecontrary, service improved over the three-year period.

The financial performance of the utility significantlyimproved after LEMA took over operations. Revenuesincreased and expenses decreased, thus improving netincome.


The sustainability of the results depends on severalfactors:

• having sufficiently high water prices in an expandingblock structure;

• following the commercial mind-set, even after thepublic–private partnership ended;

• using advanced technology and the transfer ofknow-how; and

• providing continuous training for employees.

REFERENCES

Al Zoubi, M. (2008). “Role of Private Sector Participationin the Management of Jordanian Water Sector.” Master’sthesis, Jordan University of Science and Technology

World Bank (2007). “Implementation Completion andResults Report on a Loan in the Amount of USD 55million to the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan for theAmman Water and Sanitation Management Project.”

60

Section heading

CASE STUDY 4.2


Reducing Non-Revenue Water by Improving Billing and Collection:Micro-Private Sector Participation in Madaba, Jordan



4.2 continued

the necessary framework conditions regarding theinstitutional settings were in place. Nonetheless, theoutcomes of the contract were very positive, and included:

• the introduction of an efficient, transparent and reli-able billing and collection procedure (route digitali-sation);

• the establishment of more professional processesthrough the enhancement of equipment and stafftraining, thus securing the sustainability of results;

• the increased responsibility and accountability oflocal staff towards their customers through the newcomputer-aided billing system and decentralisationof part of the responsibilities from the central WAJ to the Madaba Water Administration;

• improved staff motivation due to the incentive sys-tem and capacity development activities;

• better customer care and customer satisfaction as a

result of professionalised services; and

• the enhancement of a reliable customer base by in-creasing customer numbers and reducing illegal users.

The PSP approach resulted in increased billed amountscompared to the base year, as shown in Table 1.

REFERENCES

Rothenberger, Dieter (2009). “Improving Water UtilityPerformance through Local Private Sector Participation.Lessons Learned from the Micro-PSP in Madaba.”Discussion Paper Series, German-Jordanian Programmefor the Management of Water Resources.

SWIM (2013). “SWIM Support Mechanism —Documentation of Best Practices in Non-Revenue WaterManagement in Selected Mediterranean Countries:Algeria, Israel, Jordan and Morocco.”



4.2 continued

The WAJ decided to follow a micro-PSP approach inmanaging billing and water revenues in Madaba. OnDecember 11, 2003, the WAJ announced in the localnewspapers its intention to implement a micro-PSP forbilling and revenue collection in Madaba. Interestedcompanies were invited to submit company profiles andinformation about their relevant experience. Based onthis information, companies were invited to apreparatory workshop, which took place in February2004. This two-day workshop was attended byrepresentatives from four companies. In addition toproviding information, the companies were alsoencouraged to digest the topics discussed after theworkshop and formulate questions that they couldforward to the governorates support director. A contractwas awarded to Engicon on November 9, 2005, andstarted on January 1, 2006.

The contract was divided into two phases. Phase 1 (thepreparatory phase) was the basis for re-engineering thebusiness processes. During this phase, the necessarysystems and equipment were put in place, the databaseswere refined, and staff were trained. Remuneration forPhase 1 is in effect a fixed fee. Phase 2 (the performancemanagement period) is when the private company takesover performance-based operations, such as meterreading, billing, collection, handling bill disputes,technical and financial inspections and follow-up, servicedisconnection and the prevention of illegal use. These

activities are motivated by an incentive fee equivalent to14 percent of the difference between the new, higherlevel and the baseline revenues.

The micro-PSP provided a good management tool formonitoring, controlling and assessing the reduction innon-revenue water through different activities, such asbuilding capacity, awareness and incentives. Theinstitutionalisation of such a system was noted in terms ofchanges in behaviour on the part of both staff andcustomers. The new communication style between thecompany and the customers paved the way forconfidence building, which was very important inchanging the attitude of customers regarding illegaltapping, which in turn reduced illegal water consumption.

Several measures were introduced by the privatepartner, such as:

• conducting digital mapping and base data surveys aspreparatory measures;

• water meter reading, billing and collection;

• leak detection and repair;

• the procurement and installation of the requiredequipment;

• business re-engineering of customer services; and

• staff training.

The performance risks of the micro-PSP were initiallythought to lie in the capability of the company itself, since

62

Year Billed with tariff effect

Billed increase with regard to base year (%)

Billed without tariff effect

Billed increase with regard to base year (%)

2005 879,137 879,137

2006 1,540,853 175 1,370,716 156

2007 1,604,555 183 1,401,718 159

2008 1,587,493 181 1,372,710 156

2009 1,618,202 184 1,384,052 157

2010 1,724,962 196 1,491,053 170

2011 2,084,655 237 1,542,645 175

TABLE 1 Effect of the Madaba PSP on billed amounts

Leaks in the distribution systemlead to water shortages and losses in revenue.



4.3 continued

The potential annual harvested rainwater in cubicmetres from different roof areas and rainfall can beestimated using the formula:

Potential water harvest (m3/year) = Roof area (m2) *annual rainfall (mm) *0.0008

According to the Population and Housing Census of2004, conducted by the Department of Statistics, about33,229 rainwater cisterns existed at that time inJordanian governorates and were used as a main sourceof drinking water. In a home in Amman that receives 350mm average annual rainfall and has 200 m2 of roof area,the potential rainwater that can be captured isapproximately 56 m3. This is sufficient to supply a familyof five people for approximately 140 days, based on thecurrent average water supply of 80 litres per capita perday. Potential rainwater harvesting in various Jordaniangovernorates for varying sizes of collection area isillustrated in the new water and sanitation plumbingcode. The amount of rainwater storage that would becost-effective to build is based on the monthly inflowsof harvested rainwater, the monthly extracted water use,and the storage construction cost.

COSTS, BENEFITS AND OPTIMAL TANK SIZE

The water storage tank usually represents the biggestcapital investment element of a rainwater harvestingsystem, and thus requires careful design to provideoptimal storage capacity while keeping the costs as lowas possible. Installing a water harvesting system athousehold level can cost anywhere from JOD 400 tomore than JOD 2,000. It is difficult to make an exactestimate of cost, as it varies widely depending on theavailability of existing structures, such as pipes, tanksand other materials. The actual cost depends on thefinal design and size of the tank. The cost iscomparatively lower if the system is incorporated duringbuilding construction.

The average cost of a pear-shaped storage tank(including a stone reservoir and underground cisterns)with a maximum capacity of 50 m3 is about JOD 33/m3,while for a concrete tank the cost may range from JOD 60 to 100/m3. Cost also varies between locations.The quoted costs are used only to assess the economicfeasibility of the proposed tank sizes for different rainfallzones and roof areas. Estimating the total cost of aconcrete tank involves consideration of all the materialsinvolved in system production (steel, concrete, pipes,pumps, steel gate, plastering and isolation), excavation,and the required labour for construction. The proposed

system, if feasible, would be in use for many years (closeto the lifespan of the building), hence future costs andbenefits will have to be discounted before computingthe total cost. The costs of the construction andinstallation of rooftop rainwater harvesting could be aslittle as JOD 2,000 for a tank capacity less than 20 m3,and might go up to JOD 6,000 for a tank of around 100m3 capacity. Figure 1 shows how the overall system costtypically rises with increasing tank volume, even assystem costs per cubic metre of storage drop (Figure 2).

Cost-benefit analyses of two rooftop harvesting systems(pear-shaped and concrete tanks) were carried out.When calculating the costs and benefits, the unit priceof water (from regular sources, whether piped water orwater delivered by truck) is an important factor indeciding whether or not the proposed system iseconomically feasible. The results showed that pear-shaped tanks are economically feasible in all rainfallzones when JOD 1/m3 is used as the value of harvestedwater. Concrete tanks will not be economically feasibleat this level, as they require a higher water value.

The optimal tank size for any roof area depends on theamount and seasonal distribution of rainfall, the unitcost of the tank, and the value of water (price of waterfrom the utility or truck-based water vendors).

IMPLEMENTABILITY OF ROOFTOP WATERHARVESTING

A positive cost–benefit ratio alone does notautomatically increase rainwater harvesting use. Severalother conditions need to be met, including:

• a team of trained plumbers who can estimate thecosts and the optimal size of the storage system, andwho are able to implement projects on site;

• the capacity to monitor and learn from implementedprojects;

• public awareness;

• government commitment to enforcing the RoofWater Harvesting Code;

• due consideration of cultural perceptions and reli-gious views related to the use of water, as well as traditional preferences in terms of location, taste,smell and colour; and

• knowledge of the population, awareness of their con-cerns, and encouragement of their participation atevery step of the rainwater harvesting process — themore a community is involved, the greater the poten-tial success.


Section heading

CASE STUDY 4.3


Rainwater Harvesting in the Water and Sanitation Plumbing Codefor Jordan

PERIOD 2011

LOCATION Jordan

TARGET To contribute to the enhanced harvesting ofroof water for domestic and agricultural activitiesthrough supporting research



• Municipalities, households, public buildings, commercial buildings

RESULTS OBTAINED

• A study is available to help promote the widespreaduse of rooftop water harvesting, although there areno data resulting from the study on the actual utilisa-tion of the technology.

SUCCESS FACTORS

• The proper choice and sizing of the technology is important for successful rooftop water harvesting. Integrating the construction of a rooftop water har-vesting system with building construction reducescosts. The information is available, but it needs toreach citizens and building operators, making com-munication critical.

INDICATORS USED

• Potential annual harvested rainwater (in m3) from different roof areas and rainfall amounts.

• Unit cost of tanks for rooftop water harvesting.


The practice is replicable in arid regions. If there is toolittle rain, with high seasonality, the financial viability ofthe scheme becomes uncertain.

TOTAL COSTS

Installing a water harvesting system at household levelcan cost anywhere from JOD 400 to over JOD 2,000. Ifthe value of water from alternative sources (tapwater,water delivered by truck) is above JOD 1 per m3, thenrooftop water harvesting can be economically viable.


The capture and utilisation of rainwater (or rainwaterharvesting) is an ancient tradition, and moderntechniques resemble techniques used around 5,000years ago in agriculture. Some rainwater harvestingstructures are in good working condition, such as theRoman pools near Ajlun, Madaba and Mwagger.Rainwater can provide water for both domestic andirrigation purposes. Due to water shortages, Jordanianscontinue to collect rainwater despite the availability ofwater distribution systems. In fact, there is rapidlygrowing interest in rainwater harvesting and storage asa potential source of water supply to meet part of urbanand rural water demand.

In 2011, a research project was conducted in Jordan togenerate information to assist in designing effectiverooftop water harvesting schemes. The researchersstudied rainwater patterns, annual precipitation, the cost ofwater tanks and other necessary technology. The optimalsize of the technology depends on the local values forthese variables. The advantages and disadvantages ofrooftop water harvesting are also considered so as tocontribute to well-informed decision making.

The study reviewed the rainwater harvesting potentialfor municipal use in rural and urban areas in Jordan andinvestigated the feasibility of rainwater harvesting acrossJordan. The study provides specific recommendationson the most appropriate methods and technologies,adapted to Jordan. Figures on quantities of collectedwater, water quality, impacts on health and theenvironment, appropriate designs of water harvestingsystems, and cost–benefit analyses are also provided.

THE AMOUNT OF COLLECTED WATER

In the study, water harvesting yields are calculated for27 roof areas ranging from 100 m2 to 1,000 m2. Theseroof areas include residential buildings (single houses,villas and apartments) and public, commercial andindustrial buildings. The rainfall data used in the studyare from 17 rainfall zones, ranging from 50 mm to 850mm annual rainfall. The results reveal that the potentialharvested water that could be obtained from a roof withan area of 100 m2 ranges from 4 m3 to 68 m3 for rainfallzones ranging from 50 mm to 850 mm.



4.3 continued

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

The following are among the clear advantages of

rainwater harvesting:

• the size of the system can be adapted to roof size

and climate;

• it is one of the easiest and cheapest methods of pro-

viding a good water supply to urban and rural com-

munities in Jordan;

• it does not require the mobilisation of vast quantities

of resources and imports of materials and expertise,

compared to the planning and building of large dams

and reservoirs;

• a small rainwater harvesting and storage system re-

lies and builds on local skills and experience in rela-

tion to construction, water consumption rate and

rainfall patterns;

• rainwater harvesting systems are easy to maintain;

and

• it can be an essential resource during recurring

periods of drought.

However, rainwater harvesting also has the following

disadvantages:

• it is susceptible to limited supply and uncertainty —

the quantity of rainwater available depends on rain-

fall, and for long periods of drought it is necessary to

store an excessively large volume of water;

• there is a high initial cost for building the permanent

storage facilities (the primary expense is the stor-

age tank);

• collected rainwater may not be fit for human con-

sumption without additional screening and/or the

addition of minerals; and

• as rainfall is usually unevenly distributed throughout

the year, rainwater collection methods can serve only

as a supplementary source of household water.

REFERENCES

Abdulla, F.A. (2001). Rainwater Harvesting Potential for

Municipal and Industrial Use in Rural and Urban Areas in

Jordan.

Abdulla F. A. (2011). “Rainwater Harvesting in the Water

and Sanitation Plumbing Code.” Report submitted to the

USAID-funded IDARA project, Amman, Jordan.

Abdulla F. A. and A.W. Al-Shareef (2009). “Roof

rainwater harvesting systems for household water

supply in Jordan.” Desalination, 243, pp. 195–207.

Jordanian National Building Council (2011). JordanianNew Water Supply and Sanitation Plumbing Code.



4.3 continued

66

Tank size in cubic metres

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000Cost in JOD

200 40 60 80 100

Tank size in cubic metres

0

20

40

60

80

100

120Cost in JOD per cubic metre

200 40 60 80 10010 30 50 70 90

Total cost variation of a concrete rainwater harvesting storage tankFIGURE 1

Unit cost variation of a concrete rainwater harvesting storage tankFIGURE 2

Harvested rainwatercan meet part ofurban and ruralwater demand.

The adoption of this technology requires a bottom-upapproach rather than the more usual top-downapproach employed in other water resourcedevelopment projects. This may make rainwaterharvesting less attractive to some governmentalagencies tasked with providing water in developing

countries, although local government and NGO

resources can serve the same basic role in the

development of rainwater-based schemes as water

resources development agencies within larger, more

traditional public water supply schemes.



4.4 continued

distribution level in 2001. The partial devolvement ofmanagement responsibility followed an agreementreached between the JVA and the WUAs, targeting 12 of the 23 WUAs established in the Jordan Valley.

A participatory approach to irrigation management wasselected as a strategic option. The programme startedby rebuilding trust and advancing mutual understandingbetween the farmers and the JVA, following some yearsof difficulty between the two parties. The programmealso contributed to the reconstruction of networksegments and to know-how transfer to farmers.

The WUAs in Jordan are established under the JordanCooperative Corporation (JCC) following theprocedures stipulated in Article 3 of the CooperativeAssociations by-law of 1998. The WUA acquires a legalstatus allowing for its financial and administrativeindependence (Article 17 of JCC Law No. 18/1997) andenabling it to own funds and assets and sign contracts.Eligible members are Jordanian landowners or tenants(of not less than 3 hectares) within the association

service area, above 18 years of age (except when aminor is a legitimate inheritor of a deceased member),and of good reputation.

Membership is compulsory and 90 percent of thefarmers are members. However, the WUA servesmembers and non-members alike. An association isestablished with no fewer than 10 people. Founderselect a preparatory committee, consisting of a minimumof three members. The preparatory committee isresponsible for the association registration (applicationand follow-up) and the preparation of the internalstatutes. The application, signed by all the founders, issubmitted to the JCC director in the required formtogether with the internal statutes (also signed by allfounders). An association is effectively dissolved if 75 percent of its members approve this through signingor finger-stamping the request.

Farmers initially showed resistance to the transfer to becarried out under the umbrella of the JCC. Theresistance was justified, given the bad experiences


Section heading

CASE STUDY 4.4


Water User Associations: Participative Irrigation Management in the Jordan Valley


LOCATION Jordan Valley, Jordan

TARGET To involve farmers in the Jordan valley in themanagement of irrigation water at retail level


• Jordan Valley Authority

• Jordan Farmers Association

• German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ)

RESULTS OBTAINED

• By April 2010, a total of 22 water user associations(WUAs) had been established in the Jordan Valley,covering almost 80 percent of the irrigated area inthe Jordan Valley.

• The performance records of the WUA for Pump 55 (apilot district in the Jordan Valley), which is annuallyevaluated by the JVA, show that positive results havebeen achieved, including:

— a 15 percent reduction in irrigation operation andmaintenance costs to farmers;

— a 15 percent reduction in irrigation operation andmaintenance costs to the government;

— the increased efficiency of fee collection(reaching 100 percent in 2011, compared with 67 percent prior to the task transfer); and

— improved maintenance quality.

SUCCESS FACTORS

• The bottom-up approach (ideas were gathered fromthe farmers themselves).

• The ability and concerted commitment to changeamong the farmers (WUAs) and the authority. Thiswas developed by means of continuous dialogue be-tween stakeholders (farmers, the GTZ project, theJVA) leading to immediate action and implementa-tion, which demonstrated good intentions and builttrust and confidence.

• Respect for the status of the new water managemententities.

INDICATORS USED

• Distribution efficiency increased from 86 percent in2007 to 93 percent in 2009.

• Equity of water delivery reduced penalties and im-proved overall satisfaction among farmers. Fewer ille-gal abstractions and improved pressure levelsincreased flow rates from 2 litres per second to 6 litres per second.

• The utilisation of modern irrigation techniquesboosted crop yields, thanks also in part to bettermanagement of the irrigation system and betterservices provided to users.


The WUA concept is being replicated in manycommunities in the Jordan Valley, and there are nowmore than 20 WUAs. The concept can also serve as agood example for other territories within the MENAregion to improve cooperation between farmers and tomanage assets and water resources more efficiently.

Case description and analysisUntil fairly recently, the Jordan Valley was known as thesupplier of fresh fruits and vegetables to Jordan.However, this role has been challenged by thecontinuous stress on water resources. Established in 1977,the JVA served as an excellent model for bulk watermanagement, but in the 1990s the retail distribution ofirrigation water became gradually less efficient due to,among other things, maintenance costs and thedeterioration of the network. Overwhelmed bybureaucracy and a lack of resources, the efficiency ofwater distribution in the valley was jeopardised, whichresulted in a lack of trust between farmers and theauthority, loss of faith in the operation, and competitionfor water. In response, in line with national strategies andpolicies and motivated by donors, the JVA introducedthe Irrigation Management Transfer scheme at retail

Water user associations nowcover 80 percent ofirrigated area in theJordan Valley.


PERIOD 2014–2016

LOCATION Tunisia

TARGET To limit the volume of illegal waterconsumption.


• Société Nationale d’Exploitation et de Distribution desEaux (SONEDE), the Tunisian drinking water utility

RESULTS OBTAINED

The volume of illegal consumption is below 1 percent ofthe total amount of water consumed.

SUCCESS FACTORS

• A legal framework that severely punishes water theft.

• A comprehensive regulatory framework.

• Well-supervised litigation agents.

INDICATORS USED

• The volume of water consumed illegally.

• The number of registered water theft cases duringthe first quarter of 2016.


The measure can be replicated in the MENA region,depending on the effectiveness of the law andmonitoring efforts.

TOTAL COSTS

Costs are partly or fully compensated by the higherrevenues that result from reduced illegal consumption

Case description and analysisAccording to SONEDE statistics, the volume of drinkingwater consumed illegally in 2015 did not exceed

3.7 million m3, out of a total of around 447.6 million m3

of consumed water. This represents an illegalconsumption ratio of less than 1 percent, which iscertainly low compared to other water operators.Having low levels of illegal consumption is important fortwo main reasons: it helps to balance finances; andwater users who do pay for water are offered prices thatprovide an incentive to save water. SONEDE hasachieved a favourably low level of illegal consumptionthrough a combination of a supportive legalenvironment, active monitoring of abrupt changes inbilled amounts, and a well-designed and properlyimplemented internal procedure to investigate andpursue cases of illegal consumption.

The success of SONEDE is related to two factors — theexistence of a legal framework that criminalises andseverely punishes water theft; and the existence at thelevel of the drinking water utility (SONEDE) of a specific,updated and comprehensive internal procedure for thetracking of fraudulent water consumption.

Article 258 of the Tunisian Penal Code is very clear aboutwhat is considered as theft: “Anyone who fraudulentlysubtracts something that does not belong to them isguilty of theft. Fraudulent use of water, gas or electricityto the detriment of dealers is considered as theft.”

It should be noted that the maximum penalty that maybe imposed for water theft is a prison sentence of up tofive years, according to Article 265 of the same code.

In practice, water theft may take several forms, such astampering with meter data using different techniques;re-establishing a water connection illegally afterdisconnection; or connecting premises illegally to thepublic network.

In addition to the above law, Decree No. 73-515 ofOctober 30, 1973, approving the regulation ofsubscriptions to water, prohibits any misuse of water orequipment under Articles 22 and 16.

Preventive measures are also foreseen in this decree,such as the improvement and surveillance of interiorwater installations (Articles 17 and 20).



4.4 continued

farmers had had with cooperatives established in the1970s in the Jordan Valley, which were characterised byinefficient financial and administrative management.The duality in irrigation management involving boththe JVA and the WUA accentuated farmers’ fears andresistance to the transfer.

However, after several meetings involving farmers, theJVA and the JCC, the farmers decided to step forwardand establish a formal WUA with a defined statute. In2003, the first WUA was founded and a managementcommittee was elected. Two sub-committees were alsoelected among the management committee membersto participate on a voluntary basis in irrigation waterdistribution in collaboration with the JVA. In 2009, thetask of retail water distribution on 1,050 hectares out ofa total of 1,065 was transferred to the WUA through anagreement signed with the JVA that defines thefunctions and duties of each of the parties, and which isannually renewed based on target indicators.

The establishment and operation of the WUAs isconsidered a successful measure from the perspectiveof water demand management. The arrangementcontributes to increased fee collection, which isimportant both for asset maintenance and as anincentive to save water. Experience from the JordanValley shows that the operation and maintenance costsof the irrigation system decreased, distributionefficiency increased, and illegal abstraction declined.Cooperation between farmers is critical when there arescarce water resources that need to be allocated andwater use needs to be monitored.

The establishment of WUAs has led to:

• the more efficient and decentralised distribution ofirrigation water;

• greater stabilisation of network water pressure andwater structure;

• a decreased percentage of penalties related to illegalwater use and maintenance;

• greater trust and cooperation between the JVA andfarmers; and

• the transfer of water distribution tasks from the JVAto 11 WUAs.

The increasing adoption of a participatory approach toirrigation is a good indication of the acceptance of theprocess. Satisfaction among farmers is high: 95 percent offarmers are well served with water, while only 5 percent were benefiting earlier. Continuing high levels ofsatisfaction will guarantee the sustainability of the WUAs.

REFERENCES

Adwan A. and B. Hayek B. (2011). “Participative IrrigationManagement in the Jordan Valley.” WIT Transactions onEcology and the Environment, Vol. 145.

GTZ (2010). “German-Jordanian Programme:Management of Water Resources.” DeutscheGesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit.

SWIM (2012). Regional assessment: Water users’associations in the SWIM-SM partner countries. Finaldocument produced after discussion and validationduring the WUA expert regional workshop, April 23–24,Athens, Greece.

70

Section heading

CASE STUDY 4.5


SONEDE, Tunisia: Tracking Illegal Consumption among DrinkingWater Utility Subscribers Based on an Existing Legal FrameworkPunishing Water Theft

Involving farmers inwater demand management can increase distributionefficiency and prevent conflicts intimes of shortage.


PERIOD 2001–2015

LOCATION Tunisia

TARGET To improve the efficiency of the water systemsof large-scale consumers, and to reduce water losses.


• Ministry of Agriculture, Hydraulic Resources andFisheries

• Société Nationale d’Exploitation et de Distribution desEaux (SONEDE), the Tunisian drinking water utility

RESULTS OBTAINED

• Establishment of a corps of water systems auditors.

• Establishment of a system of financial incentives.

• Realisation of a series of technical diagnostics.

SUCCESS FACTORS

• A comprehensive legal framework, including a seriesof implementation texts.

• Establishment of a certification and training body.

INDICATORS USED

• Comprehensiveness of legal framework

• Entry into force

• Number of diagnostics realised

• Number of auditors certified


The experience is replicable, depending on theavailability of relevant experts; the existence of acertification authority able to implement and supervisethe mechanism; and a system of financial incentives.

Case description and analysisWater resources management in Tunisia is mainlyregulated by the Water Code, promulgated by Law No.16-75 of March 31, 1975, and amended on a few

occasions. However, an important reform of this legalframework took place in 2001 (Law No. 2001-116 ofNovember 26, 2001), which introduced a range ofprinciples and measures closely linked to the concept ofwater demand management.

Among the measures included in Chapter VI is theestablishment of mandatory water systems auditing forlarge-scale consumers.

According to Article 89 of the Water Code, waterconsumption is subject to a technical, periodic andcompulsory diagnosis of equipment, work andproduction methods linked to the use of water, startingfrom a threshold fixed by a decree passed according toa proposal by the minister in charge of agriculture.

In addition, the text states that this type of diagnosis isto be carried out by experts appointed by the ministerof agriculture.

Article 89 also includes a penalty provision forconsumers who fail to make these technical, periodicand compulsory diagnoses, with a fine of between TND 5,000 and 10,000. However, these penalties are notstrictly enforced.

This legal statement was followed by a series ofimplementation texts — namely Decree No. 2002-335 ofFebruary 14, 2002, and a decision of the minister ofagriculture issued on April 7, 2003, which wascompleted and supplemented by a series of otherdecisions issued in 2005, 2006 and 2011.

According to Decree No. 2002-335, which details thewater auditing procedure throughout its 21 articles, threetypes of users are concerned by the audit: agriculturalusers with consumption exceeding 5 million m3 per year;domestic and hygiene users (i.e. consumers who usewater for hygiene purposes outside the household, suchas in workplaces, tourist resorts etc., as opposed to usingwater for industrial purposes) with a consumptionexceeding 2,000 m3 per year; and industrial users with aconsumption exceeding 5,000 m3 per year.

Persons entitled to act as auditors must comply with thefollowing conditions:



4.5 continued

72

Section heading

CASE STUDY 4.6


A Legal Framework for Auditing the Water Systems of Large-ScaleConsumers, Tunisia

According to the decree, any regularly establishedabuse is punished by the cancellation of thesubscription (Article 26.1). However, if the abuseconstitutes water theft, according to the Penal Code, inaddition to disconnection SONEDE’s districts follow aspecific procedure to initiate criminal proceedings. Thisprocedure is described in Internal Regulation Note No.285, “On the illicit consumption of water”, datedSeptember 9, 2014, an updated version of previousnotes on the same subject.

The frequency of these updates can be explained by theincreased incidence of water theft since 2011. During thefirst quarter of 2016 alone, around 100 cases werereported in the districts of Greater Tunis, and another 50 in the country’s southern districts.

The note describes in detail the procedure that shouldbe followed, and is divided into nine sections:

I. Definition of water theft cases

II. Preventive measures

III. Establishment of illegal consumption cases

IV. The elaboration of bills for illegal consumption

V. Billing for damage

VI. Conditions for conciliation and waterreestablishment

VII. Case preparation

VIII.Complaints instruction and follow-up

IX. File tracking

In addition, the note recommends checking all billsquarterly and recording abnormally low levels ofconsumption and cancelled subscriptions. If anyinfringement is detected, a court bailiff is invited to issuea warrant, and the regional director of SONEDE thensends an official complaint to the public prosecutor atthe court with territorial jurisdiction.

To ensure the rigorous follow-up of cases of water theft,regional departments are in charge of drafting and

registering official complaints. The regional departments

must also send a copy of the register each quarter to

SONEDE’s central department of legal affairs.

SONEDE aims to achieve two objectives through this

internal procedure: to discourage users from consuming

drinking water illegally; and to recoup the costs of

damage and consumed quantities by urging offenders

to “normalise” their situation.

SONEDE has established specific rules for calculating

illegal consumption according to different categories of

consumers (domestic, industrial, tourist etc.), generally

based on the user’s consumption record over the past

eight quarters, multiplied by five. However, specific

variants are applied if records are missing or incomplete

(e.g. a new subscriber or a cancelled subscription).

Values are added if damage has been caused to the

operator’s equipment.

This procedure allows SONEDE to recover the cost of

most of the quantities of water consumed illegally, and

often to obtain fair compensation for damage caused to

the network.

Illegal users generally tend to pay for their illegal

consumption for at least two reasons: firstly, because

conciliation with SONEDE certainly reduces the penal

sentence; and secondly, because supply cannot be

re-established without paying compensation.

REFERENCES

Decree No. 73-515, October 30, 1973, “On Approving the

Regulation of Subscriptions to Water”.

Penal Code, approved by the Decree of July 9, 1913, as

amended by subsequent texts.

SONEDE Regulatory Note No. 285, September 9, 2014,

“On the Illicit Consumption of Water”.

SONEDE statistics report (2015).



4.6 continued

mechanisms for raising awareness among those

concerned, the incentive system, and penalties provided

under law. These include strengthening the control

system and providing for other types of sanctions, such

as restrictions on the use of water resources.

REFERENCES

Decision of the Minister of Agriculture and Water

Resources of July 22, 2006, “On Appointing Experts

(Auditors) on Technical, Periodic and Mandatory

Diagnostics of Equipment, Work and Production Meth-

ods Related to Water Use”, supplemented by the Deci-

sion of the Minister of Agriculture and

Environment of August 15, 2011.

Decree No. 2001-2185 of September 17, 2001, supple-

menting Decree No. 94-427 of February 14, 1994, “On

the Classification of Investments and Laying Down Con-

ditions and Arrangements for the Granting of Encour-

agement in the Field of Agriculture and Fisheries.”

Decree No. 2001-2186 of September 17, 2001, “On Fixing

the Rate, Terms and Conditions for the Granting of Spe-

cific Premiums for Water Systems Mandatory Diagnos-

tics Operations, Investments in Research, Production

and Use of Non-Conventional Water Resources in Vari-

ous Sectors, Excepting Agriculture and Investment

Aimed at Achieving Water Savings in the Light of Diag-

nostics.”

Decree No. 2002-335 of February 14, 2002, “On Fixing

the Point at Which Water Consumption is Subject to a

Technical Diagnostics, Periodic and Mandatory Equip-

ment, Work and Production Methods Related to the Use

of Water, Conditions of Appointment of Experts, the

Nature of the Diagnoses and Their Periodicity.”

Law No. 2001-116 of November 26, 2001, “On Repealing

and Replacing Certain Articles of the Water Code.”

Water Code, promulgated by Law No. 16-75 of

March 31, 1975.



4.6 continued

74

• hold at least a national diploma in engineering or its

equivalent, and have a qualification in hydraulics,

rural engineering, mechanics or electricity;

• be a member of the Order of Engineers;

• have been trained in the field of hydraulic diagnos-

tics; and

• provide necessary material and equipment for water

systems auditing.

Diagnosis consists of a detailed and comprehensive

review of various data related to the operation and use

of these systems, as well as the control of the reliability

of the measuring instruments they are equipped with.

According to the law, the aims of this diagnosis are to

identify and assess water losses; and to determine the

performance of water systems, the implementation of a

water loss reduction programme, and the expenditure

due to implementation.

Decree No. 2002-335 contains a comprehensive

description of the auditor’s mission and working

method from the water resources inventory and data

collection phase to the action plan preparation phase to

reduce water leakages and identify potential alternative

water resources.

The action plan proposed by the auditor must be

divided into two parts: technical aspects; and economic

and financial aspects. The technical aspects mainly

include repairing water leaks, repairing and replacing

defective equipment, wastewater recycling and reuse,

the installation of a metering system, and searching for

alternatives to industrial and agricultural production

methods that reduce consumption.

With respect to the economic and financial aspects, the

action plan must be based on a detailed and

comprehensive estimate of the investments to be

undertaken, as well as a financial analysis over several

years, highlighting the financial benefits envisaged in

relation to the investment and operating costs and

taking into account the equipment and material to be

acquired, the costs of energy, water and treatment

products, maintenance, repair and renewal, as well as

subcontracting and labour costs.

The auditor must draw up a complete report containing

all the information from the technical diagnostics that

must be approved and signed by the legal

representative of the institution. Subsequently, the

report must be sent to the Rural Engineering

Department of the Ministry of Agriculture for approval.

According to the decree, this type of diagnosis has to be

realised every five years. In practice, and in relation to

large-scale consumers of drinking water, SONEDE gives

notice annually to concerned subscribers to undertake

the diagnosis. Once the report is elaborated, it must be

reviewed by a specific commission. In 2015, the

commission approved 42 such reports.

To implement this auditing mechanism, a certain

number of auditors (natural and legal persons) have

been appointed by the Minister of Agriculture and Water

Resources, starting from 2003. These auditors have

been trained and certified by SONEDE.

It should be noted that, simultaneously, a series of

financial incentives have been introduced through

Decree No. 2001-2185 of September 17, 2001, and

Decree No. 2001-2186 of September 17, 2001, to

encourage those persons and companies subject to

mandatory and periodic technical diagnosis to carry out

the diagnoses and invest in research and the production

and use of non-conventional water resources. These

incentives must be added to those already given to

farmers to improve irrigation systems to realise water

savings, and they also affect other sectors, such as

industry and tourism. For those sectors, the subsidy to

carry out the diagnoses may amount to 50 percent of

the investment. In addition, small and medium-sized

enterprises can recover up to 20 percent of their

investments in research and the production and use of

non-conventional water resources.

Between 2003 and 2015, more than 600 diagnoses were

carried out, of which 90 were in public institutions

(hospitals, schools, administrations etc.). Of these,

50 percent were involved in industrial activities,

20 percent in tourism, and less than 1 percent in

agricultural activities. On the other hand, 77 auditors

were trained, certified and appointed by the authorities.

Full implementation of the reform requires a thorough

evaluation and some readjustments, especially regarding

Water audits involvethe detailed reviewof data related towater system operation.


PERIOD 2004–2010

LOCATION Souss region, Morocco

TARGET To reduce the overexploitation of deep aquifersand shallow groundwater resources.


• Souss-Massa Regional Council

• Souss-Massa Basin Agency

• Agricultural Development Authority

• Regional Water User Federation

• Chamber of Agriculture

• Agricultural professional organisations for the marketing of garden produce and citrus fruits

SUCCESS FACTORS

• Confiscation of borehole drilling instruments pro-vides a strong incentive for compliance.

• Consideration of the interests of small producers isessential.

INDICATORS USED

• Agricultural area either lost or abandoned.


The clearly devastating effects of water shortages offera strong incentive for cooperation, while the exclusion ofsignificant but poorly represented user groups will posea threat to the sustainability of any such agreement.

TOTAL COSTS

EUR 310,000 (provided by the Farmers’ Association)

Case description and analysisIn the Souss region of Morocco, the overexploitation ofgroundwater resources (both deep and shallowaquifers), along with a drought in 2003, resulted in

orange plantations on about 10,000 hectares beingabandoned. This was a considerable loss, as theseorchards represented intensive production for export.

The development strategy of the Souss-Massa RegionalCouncil subsequently proposed an agriculture-basedsub-strategy, a critical element of which was to limit theoverexploitation of the aquifer. A framework agreementwas established between the Souss-Massa RegionalCouncil, the Agricultural Development Authority, theSouss-Massa Basin Agency, the Chamber of Agriculture,the Regional Water User Federation, and threeagricultural professional organisations involved in theexport of market-oriented garden produce and citrusfruits. The agreement aimed to increase productionefficiency and strengthen water policing, and includeddam building and further research to broaden the waterbase for agriculture (e.g. wastewater reuse, deepaquifers). Financing to cover the estimated cost of EUR 310,000 came from farmers with a plot size of over15 hectares, representing 15 percent of farms and 80 percent of water withdrawals (see AfDB).

As one of the measures implemented by the agreement,in 2006 the basin agency initiated strict control onborehole drilling. Official actions were launched to curbwell drilling, and unlicensed equipment was confiscated.Between 2006 and 2009, 120 drilling machines wereconfiscated, and the basin agency expected a decline inillegal borehole activities.

Such measures — constraints on borehole expansion andsubsidies for efficiency improvements — stabilised excesswater abstraction and export-oriented agriculturalproduction, but failed to improve the situation ofsmallholders, whose access to water did not improve(presumably their situation will worsen along the lines ofclimate change predictions), and who are now barredfrom their previous informal, but now more strictlypoliced, response measure of borehole expansion.

The case shows that, in the informal terrain of water use,positive changes can take place if there is an agreementbetween officials and informal leaders of a community.On the other hand, different interpretations of the casehint that the agreement helped the most well-offfarmers to secure their production position, despite


Section heading

CASE STUDY 5.1

Chapter 5 Innovative Solutions to Address Water Scarcity

Agreements on Groundwater Use to Mitigate the Devastating Effect of Resource Depletion and Droughts on an Agricultural Area of Morocco

Chapter 5 – Innovative Solutions toAddress Water ScarcityIn this chapter, the good practices are based on some kind of innovation — whether an advancedtechnology or a new policy solution, or both. In Morocco, in order to control the overexploitationof aquifers, borehole drilling was closely monitored. The measure can be deemed partlysuccessful: it helped to slow the decrease in water levels — although at the expense of theviability of smallholdings. In another case from Morocco, an advanced technology — theinstallation of specially designed nets to harvest water from the morning fog — wasaccompanied by a carefully designed social development project to ensure sustainability.

In the good practice case from Northern Italy, satellite images and various models for weather,soil water balance and crop growth are combined to provide an estimate of the water need ofcrops as an input to decision making on water allocation. In Mexico, water abstraction fromgroundwater wells is estimated through metered electricity consumption, which can beconsidered as an innovative solution, although the accompanying policy approach failed in someMexican states. Finally, the case of Singapore shows that a smart combination of a range ofsupply-side and demand-side measures, a constant quest for perfection and the use of economicinstruments such as cost-recovery pricing together create sustainable water services in a placethat is otherwise short of water.


PERIOD Ongoing (pilot phase 2011–2015)

LOCATION South-West Morocco, Ait Baamranecommunities, Mount Boutmezguida

TARGET To harvest water condensation from fog in thehigh mountains


• Dar Si Hmad Foundation

• WaterFoundation

• Water for the World

• Munich Re product design

• Aqualonis Gmbh–CloudFisher

• For a complete list, see http://darsihmad.org

RESULTS OBTAINED

• The harvested water is clear, with very low levels ofcontaminants but well below EU health standards.

• About 10.5 litres of water can be captured per squaremetre of net. With 600 m2 of installed net, about3,150 litres of water are harvested per day during thefoggy season.

• A reservoir with 50 m3 capacity is part of the schemeto store water.

• Villagers have an enhanced awareness of environ-mental quality.

• The project has improved quality of life and time allocation for women.

SUCCESS FACTORS

• This is a deeply integrated project with an innovativesolution to the water stress problem.

• The integrated approach has enhanced social equal-ity in the villages.

• A national NGO was the centre of a wide-ranging in-ternational scientific and financial cooperative effort.

INDICATORS USED

• Surface of the fog-catching nets (m2)

• Volume of daily water collection during the suitableseason (litres per day)

• Volume of water collected during one year

• Number of households supplied


The measure can be repeated in any area where upwindairstreams contain water vapour and nets can besecured on solid ground. Since the actual costs are notavailable, the financial viability of the scheme withoutexternal funding is not clear.


The villages involved in the case study, located in the AitBaamrane region in southwest Morocco, rely onsubsistence farming. The case study area is in the driestpart of Morocco and suffers from severe water stress. Thelack of a reliable water supply (precipitation is less than150 mm annually) makes it difficult to meet human needsand places severe constraints on agricultural activity. The161 families in the villages have a per capita waterconsumption of 10 to 15 litres per day, and the estimatedhousehold income is USD 5 per day. Women in the villagestypically spend three to four hours per day collectingwater from distant wells. The project is part of the Dar SiHmad Foundations’s effort to improve the livelihood ofpeople through the reorganisation of how water isaccessed and managed in this arid and poor region.


Beyond its destructive effects on livelihoods and thesocial fabric of the area, water stress places anoverwhelming burden on women, whose traditional roleincludes supplying water for their families. Despitefulfilling this essential role, these women are alsomarginalised socially: the time needed for watercollection makes other income-generating activities oreducation impossible for young girls.


As part of the comprehensive technology and socialdevelopment project, the Dar Si Hmad Foundation



5.1 continued

worsening water access conditions for smallholders andother water users. Poor farmers would need specificcompensation measures.


Regarding the resilience of the achievements,maintaining effective water withdrawal constraints areessential parts of any groundwater management regime.Since groundwater withdrawals are spatially dispersed,it is almost impossible to uphold the rules without theconsent of water users. The constraints on boreholeexpansion can presumably be exercised in the short term,although imbalanced (and socially questionable) accessto essential water resources cannot be maintained overthe long term in the face of future water shortages.

REFERENCES

AfDB. Website of the African Development Bank:

www.afdb.org/en/

Houdret, Annabelle (2008). “The Privatization of

Irrigation Water Services: New partnerships and water

conflicts in the El Guerdane project, Morocco.” Paper

presented at the 13th World Water Congress,

International Water Resources Association, Montpelier,

France (September 1–4, 2008).

World Bank (2010). Morocco: Guerdane irrigation.

Infrastructure advisory success stories.Washington, D.C.

http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/299721468

062051348/Morocco-Guerdane-irrigation

78

Section heading

CASE STUDY 5.2


Drinking Water Provision from Fog Harvesting in the Anti-Atlas Mountains in Morocco

Agricultural areas inMorocco have beenlost or abandoneddue to drought.



challenges. The programme also provided educationalbenefits, especially in terms of basic technical literacy,by teaching women to handle the water managementsystem through their phones. The project has additionalfeatures that help to improve water use and householdsanitation.


The installed technology can ease water stress amongthe rural Berber population. No ecosystem is adverselyimpacted, as the whole water quantity is collected fordomestic or agricultural use.


Faucets and meters were installed in homes, andvillagers pay for the service — although not the fullprice, as this would be beyond their means.

Women received basic literacy and technical education.The project also managed to devise a solution to theproblem posed by the rule that unmarried persons ofdifferent sexes are not allowed to speak to each other.This had made the necessary communication betweentechnicians (men) and users (mostly women) a seriouschallenge for later system operation.

An attitude of stewardship towards the environmentwas promoted among the local project participants.


The development of a more water conscious householdsanitation technology is under way in the area, and thelead local NGO Dar Si Hmad is working to improve therecycling side of the technology, and to save water byreducing freshwater needs.

As of January 2017, the project is being upgraded toCloudFisher next-generation fog collection technology,and eight more villages will be connected to the grid.The technology was developed by donor funding, whileits advanced form (CloudFisher) is advancing towardscommercial application.

The project received a Momentum for Change Awardfrom the United Nations Framework Convention onClimate Change Secretariat in September 2016.

REFERENCES

Aqualonis CloudFisher:https://www.aqualonis.com/cloudfisher

Dar Si Hmad Foundation: http://darsihmad.org/fog/

Dodson, Leslie L. and Jamila Bargach (2015).“Harvesting Fresh Water from Fog in Rural Morocco:Research and Impact of Dar Si Hmad's Fogwater Projectin Ait Baamrane.” Procedia Engineering, Vol. 107, pp.186–93: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2015.06.073

Jefferson, Nathaniel, Brian Praetorius and CarolinaRamos (2015). “A Greywater Recycling System toSupport a Fog Harvesting Initiative in Ait Baamrane,Morocco.” Dar Si Hmad/Worcester Polytechnic Institute:Project report: https://web.wpi.edu/Pubs/E-project/Available/E-project-101615-173527/unrestricted/WPI_Greywater_Recycling_Systems_IQP-Report.pdf

The Moroccan Times, September 29, 2016:http://themoroccantimes.com/2016/09/20870/moroccan-fog-harvesting-project-to-provide-drinking-water-wins-un-award



80

5.2 continued 5.2 continued

Fog harvesting was inspired by thewater-trapping efficiency of a spider’s web.

Condensed water is transferred to villages and collected in cisterns.

combined a water-focused educational programme(Water School) and the mitigation of the daily burdenon women and young girls with high-tech innovationand international engineering expertise.

The core element of the project was the installation ofspecially designed nets near the top of MountBoutmezguida in the Anti-Atlas Mountains. Thetechnology was inspired by observation of the water-trapping efficiency of spiders’ webs. The systemcondenses water from clouds and fog, which is thentransferred to the villages via pipes and collected incisterns. The test system for harvesting andtransportation comprised 600 m2 of nets, seven small-scale reservoirs (with a total capacity of 539 m3), six solarpanels, and approximately 10 km of pipeline. A total of 52 homes in five villages (about 400 persons) receivedthe collected water through pre-paid water meters.

Started as an experiment in 2006, the construction workbetween 2011 and 2015 included a major technologyupgrade based on the gathered experience.

The project is the result of international cooperation, inwhich the local NGO Dar Si Hmad worked with severalMoroccan, European and American research partners inthe technological development and installation of thefog harvesting system. All the project work (includingthe technology development and pilot installation) wasfunded through a wide range of Moroccan andinternational Institutions and individuals.

The project followed the principles of integrateddevelopment, while also addressing the area’s socialchallenges resulting from water stress. The firstsuccessful experiments to provide water via the fog-harvesting nets helped to overcome some of these



5.3 continued

Irrigation water savings can be achieved through thecalibration of the water needs of various crops and fruitorchards. Farmers can obtain information on the waterneeds of their fields, based on which they can avoidsub-optimal over-irrigation and under-irrigation. Sinceover-irrigation is more likely to happen (“to be on thesafe side”, at least when enough water is available), thismethodology contributes to water savings whileenhancing yields and lowering irrigation costs.

The method also helps to estimate water use by farmers,which is the basis of payments for irrigation water, andcontributes to the assessment of drought damage.

REFERENCES

DMC International Imaging: http://www.dmcii.com/

European Space Agency, COLT Project:https://earth.esa.int/workshops/livingplanetsymposium2010/sessions/CXNL_10a04_867228.html

Ideo-Meteo-Clima, COLT project:http://www.arpa.emr.it/sim/?telerilevamento/colt

Ideo-Meteo-Clima. CRITERIA soil water balance model:https://www.arpae.it/dettaglio_documento.asp?id=708&idlivello=64

Villani, Giulia et al. (2013/2014). “iCOLT Seasonalforecasts of crop irrigation needs at ARPA-SIMC.”ECMWF Newsletter No. 138, Winter.https://www.arpae.it/cms3/documenti/_cerca_doc/meteo/agrometeo/2014_iCOLT_ECMWF_newsletter_estratto.pdf

WATER CoRe (2010). “COLT project.” WATER CoReData sheets, February.www.arpae.it/cms3/documenti/_cerca_doc/siccita_desertificazione/ARPA_WGA1_Colt.pdf

WATER CoRe and ARPA (n.d.). INTERREG IVC Projecton Water Scarcity and Drought (Emilia Romagna).www.arpae.it/cms3/documenti/_cerca_doc/siccita_desertificazione/Watercore_poster2.pdf


Section heading

CASE STUDY 5.3


Real-Time Agricultural Classification for Water Needs Estimation(COLT project) in Emilia-Romagna, Italy

Irrigation savingscan be achieved bycalibrating the waterneeds of differentcrops.

PERIOD From 2008

LOCATION Emilia-Romagna, Italy

TARGET To save water for seasonal irrigation and to setpriorities for irrigation water use


• Arpa (Agenzia Regionale Per La Prevenzione EL'Ambiente Dell'Emilia-Romagna)

• Hydro-meteo-climate Service

• Emilia-Romagna Region

• UK-based DMCii is the satellite provider.

RESULTS OBTAINED

• The project established a successful pre-operationalservice for the real-time monitoring of crops to de-fine water needs for agriculture via the application ofan extended water balance model.

• Data extracted from satellite images are exploitedthrough an operational chain managed by the EmiliaRomagna Reclamation Consortium to aid decisionmaking on a range of issues, such as water distribu-tion priorities according to crop types.

SUCCESS FACTORS

• Advanced technology using satellite images.

• Trust in the technology on the part of institutions,farmers and other stakeholders (which can be en-hanced through education).

INDICATORS USED

• Volume of saved water for irrigation.

• Number of hectares covered by the scheme.


In principle, the methodology can be applied in anylocation. Preconditions for application include theacquisition of field data, and cooperation among variousentities such as agricultural institutes, farmers’associations, service providers (satellite companies) andwater agencies. A high level of organisation betweenmultiple players is essential.

TOTAL COSTS EUR 40,000 per year

Case description and analysisThe aim of the COLT project, which started in 2008, wasto classify a set of remote sensing images acquired duringthe first part of the agricultural season and to estimate thewater needs of crops using CRITERIA, a soil/waterbalance modelling system that includes a modifiedversion of the Wofost crop growth model and a modifiedversion of the LeachM and SoilN model as supplementarymodules. The approach also requires the use of samplefield surveys covering around 600 plots that are equallydistributed in the focus area. Crop maps are readybetween mid-June and mid-July (depending on satelliteacquisition times), right at the start of the irrigationseason (typically peaking in July). The results areprovided to the Regional Agriculture Department and theReclamation Consortium to assist with decision makingrelated to water management (e.g. identifying allocationpriorities when there is not enough water) and forstatistical purposes. The main idea is to classifyagricultural land before the beginning of the irrigationseason.

The study area, about 1 million hectares, is in the plain ofEmilia-Romagna, within the Po and Reno river basins.

The developed methodology was first tested in2007/2008. Four sets of images were acquired (inNovember, February, April and May), and by using thesehigh-resolution datasets it was possible to verify theoperational situation on the ground. At present, thesynthetisation of field data (e.g. crop choice by plot) andsatellite images seems adequate for the purpose. TheJuly model of calibration is necessary to properly handlesummer crops. The precision of satellite images todetermine land use is quite high: 90 percent for thewinter crop class, 85 percent for maize in the summercrop class, 70 percent for sugar beets in the summercrop class, 83 percent for alfalfa in the meadow class, and >90 percent for orchards and vineyards in the fruittree class.

The testing also helped to calibrate the methodologyand to achieve the best possible quality and detail at thelowest possible cost.



5.4 continued


Mexico’s Rural Energy Law caps the preferential annualelectricity use limit on wells (based on permitted waterquantity and water table depth, and coupled withsome region-specific efficiency values). Above thatvolume there is a block tariff with price-level increasesof 10, 20 and 30 percent. The conditions for granting apreferential tariff are registration of the groundwaterwell and the proper metering of electricity use. Theimpact of the scheme in terms of cutting consumptionwas weakened by the possibility for the regionaladministration to modify the technical parameters ofthe cap calculation, which is a risk for farmers.

A further 20 percent tariff reduction was introduced forshifting electricity use to night-time, the period whenconsumption is lowest. However, the introduction of thenight-time tariff countered the efforts being madetowards rationalisation. Agricultural electricityconsumption effectively shifted to the off-peak period,while the consumed quantities of electricity andabstracted water increased substantially throughout thecountry. Only a few states — such as Sonora — were ableto stabilise electricity use and pumped water volumes.


Contrary to expectations, the scheme failed to curbagricultural groundwater consumption. The heavilysubsidised electricity tariff for pumping not only failed todecrease groundwater consumption, but in fact thevolume of groundwater consumed increased even further.

As farmers readily adapted to the night-time tariff, itfailed to control consumption. The introduction of thenight-time tariff resulted in increases in groundwaterwithdrawal in 2004 and beyond. In 2009, the pumpedquantity exceeded the permitted volume by 1.36 times.


The agricultural electricity tariff is between 25 and

50 percent of the electricity tariff for public services,

and the availability of the night-time tariff further

reduces electricity bills. This means the groundwater-

using segment of the agricultural sector is significantly

subsidised from the public budget. The reason for

introducing the subsidy was the existence of similar

subsidies in the competing sectors in the U.S. (Scott

2013). The subsidy augments the virtual water trade

towards the U.S. Mexican agricultural exports include

fruits and vegetables produced by groundwaterdepletion, while agricultural imports from the U.S. toMexico comprise goods produced mostly from rainfall,and only to a smaller extent from surface water orgroundwater (Scott 2013).

The invitation to farmers to register wells in exchangefor financial benefits would have been a reasonablepolicy from a long-term perspective, as it would havegiven the authority the information needed to be able toregulate consumption. Weak enforcement, however,meant that the status quo was more or less maintained,while the night-time tariff extension to the subsidisedtariff resulted in a time shift from day to night, alsocontributing to a substantial increase in consumption.The case study illustrates the genuine problem of anypolicy or policy mix that fails to confront users with boththe direct cost of their infrastructure use and theresource cost of their water use. Although the case isnot a true success story, it successfully highlights what isrequired for good policy.


Another example of a policy capture trap is the growthmitigation measure in Chihuahua state, when the federaland state governments wrote off the unpaid electricitybills of farmers in 2012 to a total value of USD 200million (Scott 2013).

A clear message of the case study is that monitoringand enforcement are crucial components of successfulimplementation.

REFERENCES

Mun�oz C. et al. (2006). Agricultural demand forgroundwater in Mexico: Impacts of water rightenforcement and electricity user fees on groundwaterlevel and quality. Instituto Nacional de Ecologia (INE-SEMARNAT), Working Paper INE-DGIPEA/0306. Mexico.

Scott, Christopher A. and Shah, Tushaar (2004).“Groundwater overdraft reduction through agriculturalenergy policy: Insights from India and Mexico,” WaterResource Development, Vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 149–64 (June).

Scott, Christopher A. (2013). “Electricity forgroundwater use: Constraints and opportunities foradaptive response to climate change,” EnvironmentalResearch Letter 8, 035005,stacks.iop.org/ERL/8/035005 doi:10.1088/1748-9326/8/3/035005


Section heading

CASE STUDY 5.4


Pairing Groundwater-Based Irrigation Well Registration with theContinuation of Electricity Subsidies for Water Pumping in Mexico

PERIOD 2002–2004 (re-evaluation study carried out in 2012)

LOCATION Mexico, with a focus on states with highgroundwater overuse.

TARGET To reduce the volume of groundwater overuseand increase the share of permitted water abstraction.


• National water authority (Conagua)

• State power utility (CFE)

RESULTS OBTAINED

Groundwater use did not decrease, but in fact increased.In states that made considerable efforts to cutquantities from registered wells, for example the state ofSonora, consumption stabilised, demonstrating that themeasure can be used effectively. Water abstraction inthe other states of Mexico, however, continued to rise(Scott 2013). At the same time, the shift to a night-timetariff resulted in considerable adaptation on the part offarmers, supporting the assumption that theirconsumption patterns are sensitive to the pressure thatcan be exerted by economic instruments, which is animportant lesson for policy making.

SUCCESS FACTORS

The biggest shortcoming of the scheme was that theagricultural electricity tariff was very low, compared tothe rates for other users. At such a low price, farmer’spumping demand is inelastic, so sufficiently high tariffswould need to be introduced to make preferential, lowertariffs attractive in exchange for registering wells. Asteeply progressive tariff with preferential rates wouldalso be useful.

INDICATORS USED

• Annual consumption of electricity (kWh) at state level.

• Annual subsidy provided at state level.

(Electricity consumption is a good approximation of water use, as groundwater pumping represents 98 percent of farmers’ electricity consumption.)


The interest group capture of a subsidy is a major threat,as it introduces long-term false incentives for water usersthat are difficult to modify. Farmers’ economic interestsdrive them to consume more water resources, meaningmore pumping. While the cost of electricity is a smallshare of their total production costs, many are not awareof the risks of over-irrigation on production volumes.Education for farmers should therefore be an importantcomponent of similar policies. Good policies also requireeffective monitoring and enforcement.


There was a considerable increase in the number ofgroundwater wells and the volume of water used inMexico between the 1960s and the 2000s — from a fewthousand wells to nearly 100,000. In 1972, 32 of Mexico’s188 aquifers were overexploited, and 102 wereoverexploited by 2003. One-third of the water used inMexico comes from groundwater resources, and 70 percent of groundwater used supplies agriculture.Agricultural water use includes consumption by 55,000concession holders and 41,000 farmers that do not haveregistered wells (Munoz et al. 2006).

Overuse has led to a significant groundwater overdraftthat regulatory and participatory approaches have failedto manage. The state with the highest groundwater usehas an overdraft of 1.3 km3 per year, or 4.4 percent ofestimated total use. A 2002 deadline was thusannounced, after which consumption for unregisteredpumping would not be entitled to a subsidised electricitytariff for agricultural use.


The degradation of groundwater-supplied wetlands hasa negative impact on migratory species. Saline intrusionis evident in several locations. Water supply to thepublic and industry is increasingly insecure. Non-agricultural consumption of groundwater is rising. Thistrend suggests the formation of an intergenerationalequity trap between short-term agricultural gains andlong-term societal demand for water.


A Smart Mix of Mutually Supportive Measures to Ensure a HighLevel of Water Service in Singapore Despite Scarce Water Resources

PERIOD Ongoing

LOCATION Singapore

TARGET To ensure a high level of water services despitescarce water resources.


• National Water Agency of Singapore (PUB)

RESULTS OBTAINED

• Sustainability of water services ensured.

• Costs recovered.

• Extremely low levels of unaccounted-for water.

• Widespread public awareness of water-saving opportunities.

SUCCESS FACTORS

• A long-term strategic vision behind the measures.

• Full support for the vision from a dedicated and well-functioning government.

• Reinforcement of the implementation of the watermanagement strategy through the relentless pursuitof efficiency.

• Constant monitoring and improvement of measuresand policies.

• Widespread acceptance of the use of economic instruments and economic incentives, including full-cost pricing of water services.

INDICATORS USED

• Consumption per connection per day.

• Rate of unaccounted-for water.

• Share of wastewater reuse.


Individual elements of the Singapore water strategy arereplicable to some degree in most countries. However,developing and executing a coherent and efficientstrategy that includes an optimal mix of supply- anddemand-side solutions requires a long-term vision and

the stable commitment of the government. Singapore’ssuccess has been due to the use of advancedtechnology, economic incentives and communication,supported by a well-run public utility company.

TOTAL COSTS

Due to the long-term nature and complexity of theapplied measures, it is difficult to quantify the costs.However, because tariffs ensure cost recovery, the costsof the strategy do not need to be financed by externalsources, as everything is paid for through the tariffs.


Singapore is an island city-state in Southeast Asia with aland area of just 719 km2 and a population of 5.6 million,making it one of the most densely populated countriesin the world. Following colonial times and its role as aBritish trading post, Singapore was briefly a part ofMalaysia before being expelled in 1965. Within a singlegeneration, Singapore advanced from being a ThirdWorld country to a developed country, as the country’sprogressive economic policy and its location as acommercial and transport hub delivered positiveeconomic impacts. In 2015, Singapore was the thirdrichest country in the world in terms of GDP per capita.

Singapore’s small surface area makes it difficult to storean otherwise abundant supply of rainfall (2,400 mm peryear), which accounts for the country’s water scarcity.

The main source of natural freshwater is water importedfrom Malaysia. Under a long-term agreement that willexpire in 2061, Singapore can transfer water fromMalaysia for a price of less than SGD 0.01/m3. The wateris imported through three large pipelines across the 2 km causeway that separates the two countries. WhileSingapore may be able to extend the agreement forcontinued water imports beyond 2061, it aims — quiteunderstandably — to achieve self-sufficiency in terms ofits water supply as soon as possible so that it will notdepend on a foreign country for an indispensableresource. Even if domestic sources of supply are farmore expensive than the price of imported water,

Section heading

CASE STUDY 5.5

Chapter 5 Innovative Solutions to Address Water Scarcity Chapter 5 Innovative Solutions to Address Water Scarcity

5.5 continued

autonomy of water supply is extremely important andhas a correspondingly high economic value. This is thecontext in which Singapore has implemented one of theworld’s most sophisticated water management systems.


The baseline situation is a water-scarce future (beyond2061) and immediate risk due to dependence on onemajor supply source (Malaysia). If the worst happens,the consequences would be dire for the whole societyand economy of Singapore. This was the basis forimplementing a robust water management strategy, amajor component of which is WDM.


Over several decades, Singapore has successfullyimplemented a mix of supply-side and demand-sidemeasures, each sufficiently powerful to make aconsiderable contribution towards reaching a balancebetween supply and demand. As a smartly composedpackage of measures, they form one of the mostsophisticated and high-tech water management systemsin the world — a system in which scarce water suppliesconstrain neither economic progress nor the well-beingof the population.

Initially, the single most important source of supply wasthe water purchased and transferred from Malaysia. Ablend of several diversified sources now serves the city,reducing Singapore’s dependence on a foreign source. Ifany one major source becomes temporarily unavailable,the rest can still ensure at least basic supplies.

At present, 30 percent of water is supplied through theNEWater technology, which turns wastewater intodrinking water. In fact, NEWater is so clean that specificminerals need to be added to provide it as drinkingwater. It is increasingly accepted as a source of drinkingwater, especially among the young. Its main use,however, is industrial. Since it is purer than tapwater, itis ideal for specific types of industrial processes, suchas semiconductor production, which require extremelyclean water. The cost of producing NEWater is lowerthan the cost of desalination. By 2060, NEWater isexpected to cover 55 percent of Singapore’s demand(with consumption expected to double compared tocurrent levels). Since sewer penetration is complete andall wastewater is collected and treated, the NEWatertechnology ensures that water is used several timesbefore being lost through infiltration into the soil,“export” (supplying ships) or technological use.

A quarter of current consumption is met throughdesalination, a ratio that is expected to rise to 30 percentby 2060. Thus, in a little more than four decades, 85 percent of total demand is planned to be met throughtwo main technologies: NEWater and desalination.

While land area in Singapore is limited, rainwater is still asignificant source of supply, partly due to high levels ofprecipitation. Water is collected in reservoirs forsubsequent drinking water production. Since 2011, thewater catchment area has been increased from half totwo-thirds of Singapore’s land surface with thecompletion of the Marina, Punggol and Serangoonreservoirs. In the long run, the plan is to increase thisratio to 90 percent of Singapore’s land area. Most of theland area comprises unprotected catchments wheredevelopment is allowed — for example, for residential,commercial and non-polluting industrial activities. Thereare also some protected catchments in the city wherethere are severe restrictions on land use, but these makeup less than 5 percent of the total area.

The most important tool on the demand side are cost-recovery tariffs. As PUB claims, “the pricing of water isset to reflect the scarcity value of water, as well as thecost of producing clean water from the next availablesource.” This encourages all water users to be morewater efficient. The water bill consists of fourcomponents: a water tariff, a water conservation tax, awaterborne fee, and a sanitary appliance fee. The watertariff covers the costs incurred in various stages of waterproduction, such as the collection of rainwater, thetreatment of raw water, and the distribution of treatedwater to customers through an extensive network. Thistariff is based on the amount of water consumed. Thewater conservation tax is a 30 percent surcharge on thewater tariff with the explicit goal of encouraging watersavings, making customers feel that water is extremelyprecious in Singapore. The waterborne fee correspondsto the costs of treating used water (NEWatertechnology), while the sanitary appliance fee coverssewerage-related expenses and is charged after eachsanitary fitting.

The water tariff is progressive. The first 40 m3 ofindividual household consumption is subject to a lowertariff and lower water conservation tax than subsequentconsumption. The shipping industry must pay a highertariff because the water it purchases is taken out ofdomestic circulation (i.e. taken away by departingships). The tariff schedule for different consumers isdetailed in Tables 1 and 2.


Section headingChapter 5 Innovative Solutions to Address Water Scarcity

5.5 continued

The PUB also helps customers to save water byproviding comprehensive technical information and tips(www.pub.gov.sg/savewater), and by includingbenchmarking information on water bills (e.g. theaverage consumption of people living in similar housingtypes or streets), as well as the national average, so thatcustomers can assess how they fare compared toothers. This gives an incentive to save more water.

Another important WDM measure is the high-techmonitoring and maintenance of the drinking waternetwork, which means water loss is capped at 5 percent— one of the best figures worldwide. Singapore has asophisticated strategy to manage unaccounted-for water(www.pub.gov.sg/Documents/UFW_Guidebook.pdf).Illegal connections in Singapore are non-existent, partlybecause of monitoring, and partly because of high meanincome. Households with lower income receive targetedhelp to pay for part of the utility bills. Importantly, theyare subject to the same prices as all other customers: inthis way, the incentive effect of prices stays the same,while the burdens are eased through a rebate system.


Results are sustainable because they are the outcome ofa decades-long strategy that is carefully planned andimplemented, and because of the public utility’s highlevel of autonomy (a prerequisite for cost-recoverypricing). The diversity of supply- and demand-sidemeasures also contributes to sustainability. Finally,Singapore is a high-income country with resourcesavailable for investments that have a longer-term payoff.

REFERENCES

National Water Agency of Singapore (PUB) website:www.pub.gov.sg/Pages/homepage.aspx

Tortajada, Cecilia (2006). “Water Management inSingapore.” Water Resources Development, Vol. 22, No.2, 227–240, June.

Zetland, David (2013). “Water management in Singapore”Aguanomics www.aguanomics.com/2013/04/water-management-in-singapore.html

Tariff category Consumption block (m3 per month)

Tariff (USD/m3, before GST)

Water conservation tax (% of tariff, before GST)

Domestic0 to 40 1.17 30

Above 40 1.4 45

Non-domestic All units 1.17 30

Shipping All units 1.92 30

Tariff categoryConsumption

block (m3 per month)

Waterborne fee(USD/m3,

before GST)

Waterborne fee(USD/m3, after GST)

Sanitary appliance fee (before GST)

Sanitary appliance fee

(after GST)

Domestic All units 0.2803 0.30USD 2.8–37 per

chargeable fitting per month

USD 3 per chargeable

fitting per monthNon-domestic All units 0.5607 0.60

Shipping All units 0.5607 0.60

TABLE 1 Potable water (Tariff from July 1, 2000)

TABLE 2 Used water (Tariff from July 1, 2000)

Source: Source: https://www.pub.gov.sg/watersupply/watertariff

watersum.rec.org

The regional project Sustainable Use of Transboundary Water Resources and Water SecurityManagement (WATER SUM) addresses water-related challenges and promotes regional cooperation in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) through two project components: Water Resources Management Good Practices and Knowledge Transfer (WATER POrT); and Water Security (WaSe). The WATER POrT component focuses on building skills and transferringknowledge on integrated water resources management in order to promote sustainable development and climate adaptation. The WaSe component supports the introduction of local water security actionplans to help communities withstand asset scarcity and tackle environment-related conflicts.

The overall objective of the WATER SUM project is to promote and enhance the sustainability of managing water resources in beneficiary countries in the MENA region in order to halt the downward spiral of poverty and to reduce biodiversity loss and environmental degradation. The main expected impact is institutional and behavioural change in water governance and utilisationpatterns. This will be achieved through the successful transfer of knowledge and skills to all participating actors in the water management arena. Additional impacts related to improving water security are also significant in terms of overall environmental security. It is therefore vital to build partnerships in order to address environmental asset scarcity, environmental risks or adverse changes, and environment-related tensions or conflicts, as this is the most effective means for delivering development and conservation targets to local communities and beyond.

The WATER SUM project brings high added value, as it provides beneficiary countries with a structured opportunity to boost their development, share new methods for improved water management, improve planning at all levels of governance, and address unemployment and poverty.

Project duration: April 2014 – March 2018Total project budget: EUR 7.27 million

CONTACTS

Jovanka Ignjatovic • Project Manager • [email protected]

Regional Environmental Center for Central and Eastern Europe (REC)Ady Endre ut 9–11 • 2000 Szentendre • Hungary Tel: +36 26 504 000 • Fax: +36 26 311 294

The REC is an international organisation with a mission to assist in addressing environmental issues. The REC fulfils this missionby promoting cooperation among governments, non-governmental organisations, businesses and other environmentalstakeholders, and by supporting the free exchange of information and public participation in environmental decision making.

The WATER SUM project is financed by the Government of Sweden and implemented by the REC.

PHOTO CREDIT: COVER AND PAGE 50 Ahmadi Zouhaiyer

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