WEALTH

CREATION

WITHIN

GLOBAL

CULTURAL

PERSPECTIVES

S

WEALTHCREATION

WITHINGLOBAL

CULTURAL

PERSPECTIVES

Global Consultation on Wealth Creation for

Transformation

March 2017

lausanne.org•bamglobal.org

WEALTHCREATIONWITHINGLOBAL

CULTURALPERSPECTIVES

ApaperfromtheGlobalConsultationon

WealthCreationforTransformation

organizedbytheLausanneMovementandBAMGlobal

inChiangMai,Thailand,inMarch2017.

© LausanneMovement&BAMGlobal

Permissionisgrantedtodistributethispaperforpersonalandeducationaluse,

freeofcharge.Commercialuseisprohibited.

Pleaseincludethisacknowledgementwhensharingandquoting:

2017GlobalConsultationonWealthCreationforTransformation;Lausanne

Movement&BAMGlobal.

Weencouragethedisseminationofthispaperandalsothevarious

translationsoftheWealthCreationManifesto.

GlobalConsultationonWealthCreationforTransformationSeries:• WealthCreationandthePoor

• RoleoftheChurchinWealthCreation

• WealthCreation:BiblicalViewsandPerspectives

• WealthCreationandtheStewardshipofCreation

• WealthCreationwithinGlobalCulturalPerspectives

• WealthCreators'ContributiontoHolisticTransformation

• WealthCreationandJustice

Formoreinformationcontact:info@lausanne.org•info@bamglobal.org

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TABLEOFCONTENTS

Foreword...................................................................................................................................5

WealthCreationManifesto.......................................................................................................7

ExecutiveSummary:CulturalPerspectivesonWealthCreationforHolisticTransformation...9

CulturalPerspectivesonWealthCreationforHolisticTransformation..................................10

1.0Introduction..................................................................................................................10

2.0AnApproachto‘Culture’Itself.....................................................................................10

3.0TheAnthropologicalTemptation:Overreaction..........................................................14

4.0ThreeMarket-SpecificCulturalChallenges..................................................................19

5.0SomeWaysForward.....................................................................................................26

Appendix.................................................................................................................................33

Endnotes.................................................................................................................................37

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Foreword

‘RemembertheLORDyourGod,foritishewhogivesyoutheabilitytoproducewealth’(Deut

8:18).

TheBibletalksaboutwealthinthreeways;oneisbadandtwoaregood.Hoardingofwealth

iscondemned.Sharingofwealthisencouraged.Creationofwealthisbothagodlygiftanda

command,andthereisnowealthtobesharedunlessithasfirstbeencreated.Butalltoooftentheissueofwealthcreationismisunderstood,neglected,orevenrejected.Thesame

thingappliestowealthcreators.

TheGlobalConsultationonTheRoleofWealthCreationforHolisticTransformationaimed

ataddressingthat.Wewereabout30peoplefrom20nations,primarilyfromthebusiness

world,andalsofromchurch,missionsandacademia.DuringtheConsultationprocess2016–

2017wediscussedvariousaspectsofwealthcreation,includingjustice,poverty,biblical

foundations,culture,wealthcreators,stewardshipofcreationandtheroleofthechurch.

ThefindingshavebeensummarizedintheWealthCreationManifesto,andwillalsobe

publishedinseveralreportsandabook,aswellasaneducationalvideo.

Allthesecontainawealthofknowledgeandinsights,basedontheScriptures,rootedin

historyandinformedbypresent-dayconversationsandexamples.

Goldinthegroundhasnoparticularvalueuntilitisdiscovered,extracted,andtraded.Using

themetaphorofminingletmementionthree‘goldmines’thatwehavesoughttodiginto

duringourConsultationprocess.

ThebiblicalgoldmineFromtheManifesto:‘WealthcreationisrootedinGodtheCreator,whocreatedaworldthat

flourisheswithabundanceanddiversity.WearecreatedinGod’simage,toco-createwith

himandforhim,tocreateproductsandservicesforthecommongood.Wealthcreationisa

holycalling,andaGod-givengift,whichiscommendedintheBible.’Thereisalotmoregold

tobefoundinthebiblicalgoldmine.

Thehistoricalgoldmine

Wealthcreationleadingtotransformationisnotnew.FromtheManifesto:‘Wealthcreation

throughbusinesshasprovenpowertoliftpeopleandnationsoutofpoverty.’Therearemany

storiesofholistictransformationthroughwealthcreationthroughouthistory,andsomeare

stilluntold.Wealthcreationhasahistoryandweneedtoexploreitfurther.Throughour

reportsyoucandigintohistoricalgoldmines.

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TheglobalgoldmineWealthcreationisnotaWesternorrich-worldphenomenon.Manymenandwomenare

makingadifferencethroughbusinessesonallcontinents.FromtheManifesto:‘Wealth

creatorsshouldbeaffirmedbytheChurch,andequippedanddeployedtoserveinthe

marketplaceamongallpeoplesandnations.’Weneedtolearnfromthemandothersandto

extracttheglobalgold,alsofoundinthesereports.

DiscoverandextracttheintellectualwealthintheManifesto,thereportsandbooksaswellasthevideo,andletthemaddvaluetoyourlifeandwork.Sharewithothers.

PleasestartbyreadingtheWealthCreationManifesto.Itwillgiveyouacontextanda

frameworktobetterunderstandeachreport.

MatsTunehag

ChairmanoftheConveningTeam

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WealthCreationManifesto

Background

TheLausanneMovementandBAMGlobalorganizedaGlobalConsultationonTheRoleofWealthCreationforHolisticTransformation,inChiangMai,Thailand,inMarch2017.About

30peoplefrom20nationsparticipated,primarilyfromthebusinessworld,andalsofrom

church,missionsandacademia.Thefindingswillbepublishedinseveralpapersandabook,

aswellasaneducationalvideo.ThisManifestoconveystheessentialsofourdeliberations

beforeandduringtheConsultation.

Affirmations

1. WealthcreationisrootedinGodtheCreator,whocreatedaworldthatflourishes

withabundanceanddiversity.

2. WearecreatedinGod’simage,toco-createwithhimandforhim,tocreateproducts

andservicesforthecommongood.

3. Wealthcreationisaholycalling,andaGod-givengift,whichiscommendedinthe

Bible.

4. WealthcreatorsshouldbeaffirmedbytheChurch,andequippedanddeployedto

serveinthemarketplaceamongallpeoplesandnations.

5. Wealthhoardingiswrong,andwealthsharingshouldbeencouraged,butthereisno

wealthtobesharedunlessithasbeencreated.

6. Thereisauniversalcalltogenerosity,andcontentmentisavirtue,butmaterial

simplicityisapersonalchoice,andinvoluntarypovertyshouldbealleviated.

7. Thepurposeofwealthcreationthroughbusinessgoesbeyondgivinggenerously,

althoughthatistobecommended;goodbusinesshasintrinsicvalueasameansof

materialprovisionandcanbeanagentofpositivetransformationinsociety.

8. Businesshasaspecialcapacitytocreatefinancialwealth,butalsohasthepotential

tocreatedifferentkindsofwealthformanystakeholders,includingsocial,

intellectual,physicalandspiritualwealth.

9. Wealthcreationthroughbusinesshasprovenpowertoliftpeopleandnationsoutof

poverty.

10. Wealthcreationmustalwaysbepursuedwithjusticeandaconcernforthepoor,and

shouldbesensitivetoeachuniqueculturalcontext.

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11. Creationcareisnotoptional.Stewardshipofcreationandbusinesssolutionstoenvironmentalchallengesshouldbeanintegralpartofwealthcreationthrough

business.

Appeal

WepresenttheseaffirmationstotheChurchworldwide,andespeciallytoleadersin

business,church,government,andacademia.1

• Wecallthechurchtoembracewealthcreationascentraltoourmissionofholistic

transformationofpeoplesandsocieties.

• Wecallforfresh,ongoingeffortstoequipandlaunchwealthcreatorstothatvery

end.

• Wecallwealthcreatorstoperseverance,diligentlyusingtheirGod-givengiftsto

serveGodandpeople.

AdmaioremDeigloriam—ForthegreatergloryofGod

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ExecutiveSummary:CulturalPerspectivesonWealthCreationforHolisticTransformation

Thispaperexaminesculture’simpactuponthebiblicalmandatetocreatewealthforholistic

transformation,anditdoessoinfoursteps.First,itexaminestheconceptofcultureitself:

whatisitandhowshouldChristiansrespondtoit?Wearecalledtobebothintheworldand

notoftheworld—tohaveonefootineternityandtranscendencewiththeotherfootfirmly

intimeandimmanence—andthisisthetensionexploredinsectionone.

Next,thepaperexaminesthe‘anthropologicaltemptation’:thetemptationtoidolize

culture,andtooverreactbyfreezingitintime,thuspreventingtheorganicchangethatis

naturaltoculture.Economicdevelopmentisanaspectofandpartnertoculture;andatthe

sametime,itisachallengetoculture.Exploringthepush-pullrelationshipgenerally

betweenbusinessandcultureservesasanintroductiontoournextsection.

Thethirdsectionofthepaperdevelopsfurtherthebusiness-and-culturetensionbyfirst

scrutinizingthreevaluesthoughttobekeytobusinessdevelopment—efficiency,

entrepreneurship,andself-help—andaskingwhethertheyarebiblicalanduniversalor

simplyculture-specific.Second,thissectionremindsusofthedangerinvolvedincross-

culturalbusinessthroughacasestudyofnineteenth-centuryHawaii,whichlostits

independencelargelythroughthefailureofbusinessintegration.Andthird,thissectionthen

askswhetherinteriorculturalchangeiskeytobusinesssuccessorouterlegalstructures,

concludingthatbothareimportant.

Lastly,thepapermovesfromthesebigpicturefoundationalissuestoaddressingthespecific

attributesforindividualsandorganizationsseekingtoactuallyengageincross-cultural

wealthcreation.Attributessuchasintegrity,hardwork,communicationstylesandthe

importanceofalocalmentorareaddressed.OnlywhenChristiansadopttheseattributes

canwebegintotackletheculturalchallengesinvolvedinaddressingoneofthemany

purposesofGod’sheart:wealthcreationfortheholistictransformationofpeoplesand

nations.

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CulturalPerspectivesonWealthCreationforHolisticTransformation

PaulMiller,DecioCarvalho,MarissaMaren,Nora Hughes,FrancisTsui

1.0Introduction

Whatisculture’simpactuponthebiblicalmandatetocreatewealthforholistic

transformation?Thatisthispaper’stask.2Andviceversa:thepaperequallyexploresthe

impactoftheBible,anditswealthcreationmandate,uponculture.Weknowfromthe

creationaccountitselfthatGod’sintentionfortheearthwasabundance(iewealth),and

thatthiswastobeablessingtoman:‘AndGodblessedthem....AndGodsaweverything

thathehadmade,andbehold,itwasverygood’(Gen1:22,28,31).Buttoooftenwealth

creation—businessdevelopment—hasbeentwistedintoacurse,destroyingwholecultures.3

Ontheotherhand,thelackofwealthcreationhasequallybeenacurse,condemningsome

toagrinding,soul-destroyingpoverty.Andifpovertyhasbeenacurse,thennolesshave

certainculturalvicesturnedtohurtman.CulturesbearthemarksofGod’sbeautiful

creation,butalsotheybearthemarksofthesinruiningourworld.Inthischallenging

terrain,wedesperatelyneedtohearGod’sheartandGod’sWordastohowtopursuea

godly,robust,andyetculturally-sensitivewealthcreationthatwill,asGodintended,bless

mankind.

Thispaperwillfirstdefineculture,thenexploreChristianity’srelationshiptoculturethrough

bothatheologicalandhistoricallens.Nextitwillexaminethe‘anthropologicaltemptation’

toapotheosizeculture—allowingaproperrespecttodeclineintoanillegitimateidolization

ofculture.Thepapergoesontoinvestigatesomemarket-specificculturalchallenges,

examiningwhetherkeyvaluessuchasefficiency,entrepreneurship,andself-helpare

biblicallyorculturallyrooted.Lastly,thepaperthenmovesfromthesemoreabstract,big-

picturefoundationstoproposingsomepracticalstepsforward:keyconsiderationsin

navigatingthesensitiveareaofcross-culturalwealthcreation.

2.0AnApproachto‘Culture’Itself

2.1Whatis‘culture’Whatdoesthispapermeanwhenitspeaksofculture?Cultureisnotsimplyhighartor

refinedmanners.Cultureinthispaperisusedinitsanthropologicalsenseof‘patternsof

thinking,feeling,andacting’.4Itreferstobothapeople’s‘interior’aspect—their‘[a]ttitudes,

values,andbeliefs’5—aswellastotheirexternalbehaviors—theirinstitutionalstructuresof

‘kinship,friendship,ethnicaffiliation,...law,morality...andjusticeingeneral’.6Relevant

tothethemeofwealthcreation,wecanalsospeakofapeople’s‘economicculture’,the

‘social,political,andculturalmatrix...withinwhichtheseparticulareconomicprocesses

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operate’.7Cultureinfluencesthewaythepeoplesoftheworlddoordonotdobusiness.

This,then,iswhatwemeanby‘culture’.

2.2HowshouldChristiansrelatetoculture?Regardingculture,weChristiansliveinatension:Christcallingustobeboth‘intheworld’

andyetnot‘oftheworld’(John17:13-16).Wearebothheavenlyandearthlypeoplefor,as

theScripturessay,wehaveaheavenly‘treasureinjarsofclay’(2Cor4:7).Wefollowa

Savior‘fromabove’andnot‘frombelow’(John3:31;8:23)evenasweadheretothe

revelatoryWordwhichis‘ofGod’incontrasttothechangingopinions‘ofman’(1Thess

2:13;Jer23:16,26-31).Wehaveafooteachintwoverydifferentworlds.

Transcendenceisinourblood;butthensois‘immanence’.Wecannotbe‘soheavenly

mindedastobeofnoearthlygood’.Jesusdidnotremaininheaven;hewasincarnatedhere

onearth.ThebookofRevelationrevealsthateveninheaven(theplaceoffull

transcendence)wewillbegatheredtherenotjustinourindividualitybutinourgroup

identities,with‘everynation[politicalunits],tribe[ethnicunits],peopleandlanguage

[culturalunits],standingbeforethethroneandbeforetheLamb’(Rev7:9;21:1;22:2).The

groupidentitiesnotedinRevelationareearthly,butevidentlytheyarenot‘transcended’in

eternity,buteventheretheyaretreasuredandpreservedinthe‘newheavensandnew

earth’.Ratherthanexcludingearthlyculture,God’sapproachistobringintoeternitythe

bestofhumanculture:‘thekingsoftheearthwillbringtheirsplendorintoit....Theglory

andhonorofthenationswillbebroughtintoit’(Rev21:24-25)8.IfGodtreasuresculturein

eternity,thencertainlywemustdolikewiseinthehereandnow.

Holdingtothistensionenablesustoresisttwoextremes:thelossoftranscendenceonthe

onehand,seeninthoseanthropologistswhounderstandculturetosimply‘swallow’

Christianity.Fortheseanthropologists,religiousexpressionissimplyculturalexpression.On

theotherextremeisthetyrannyoftranscendenceoverimmanence—thoseChristians,for

instance,whorefusetogiveanyplacetocultureandwhoseeanyaccommodationtoculture

assinfulcompromise.Whatisthelinebetweenbiblicalandanunbiblicalaccommodationto

culture,canbeathornyquestion.Belowweseesomedifferentapproachestothisquestion.

2.3Niebuhr’sFiveRelationshipstoCultureH.RichardNiebuhrwrotehisoften-referencedChristandCulturespecificallytowrestlewith

thisrelationship.HedescribesfivedifferentrelationshipsChristiansmighthavewithculture:

Firstis‘ChristagainstCulture’.HereChristisperceivedasatwarwithculture.Andindeed,

theGodofthepropheticbooksoftheBiblerevealsmuchthathecondemnsinhuman

culture.Whilethepropheticbookscannotbeportrayedaswhollynegativeintone,still,the

negativetoneisbothrealandprominent.Being‘againstculture’issurelyapartofGod’s

view,andhenceoughttobepartofours.

Niebuhr’ssecondapproachisstyled‘ChristofCulture’.Herethecultureswallows

Christianity;thechurchlosesitssaltandreflectsthesurroundingsocietymorethanitdoes

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God’sheartandmind.Thisisthetemptationof‘syncretism’,anditmustberesisted.Third

andfourth,Niebuhridentifiesthestanceof‘ChristaboveCulture’and‘ChristandCulturein

Paradox’.Bothofthesestancesattempttoavoidtheextremesofthefirsttwopositions,

withbothidentifyinghumancultureassomethingbasicallygood,thoughsin-ravaged,and

Christacknowledgedassovereign.The‘aboveculture’-stanceseestheglassashalf-full:It

emphasizestheopportunityChristianityhastocontributetocultureandbetteritstone.The

‘ChristandCultureinParadox’-stanceseestheglassashalf-empty:Itfocusesonthetensions

andparadoxesinherentinhavingonefootintheculturalcampandtheotherinChrist.

‘ChristtheTransformerofCulture’isNiebuhr’slastcategory.Thisstanceemphasizes

Christ’s—andthechurch’s—roleintransformingculture.Christtaughtustopray,‘Thy

kingdomcome,Thywillbedoneonearthasitisinheaven.’Heavendoesnotsimplywaitfor

thefuture,butwasmeanttoinvadehumancultureinthehereandnow.

Infact,allofthesestancescanlegitimatelybeaChristian’satonetimeoranother.Eventhe

‘ChristofCulture’mode,whennotinitsworstsyncretisticform,isvalidatpoints:whenits

embraceofculturalexpressionssimplyrecognizesthemfortheirrootingnotinsin,buttheir

rootinginman’smade-in-the-image-of-Godaspect.

2.4EvangelicalMissionHistory

From‘civilization’toacculturationandbackagain

ThequestionofhowChristiansrelatetocultureandhowinturnculturethenimpactsthe

biblicalmandateofwealthcreationhasbeentussledoverthroughoutevangelicalism’stwo

centuriesofmissionoutreach.Inthesetwocenturies,roughlythreecyclesofcultural

engagementcanbeidentified:firsta‘civilizationalmodel’,followedbyan‘acculturation

model’,andfinallybacktoa‘culturallymodifiedcivilizationalmodel’.

Stage1:ThreeC’sofChristianity,commerce,andcivilization(earlynineteenthcentury)Earlyevangelicalmissionswerenotnarrowlyspiritual;theywere‘holistic’,thoughperhaps

withcertainunhealthyelements.Whenonelooksintothefoundationaldocumentsof

England’sLondonMissionarySociety(LMS)ortheAmericanBoardofCommissionersfor

ForeignMissions(ABCFM),onecanseethisplainly.TheLMSinstructeditsmissionariessent

toTahiti,Tonga,andtheMarquesasin1796—asdidtheABCFMtoitsmissionariessentto

Hawaiiin1819—thattheywerenotonlytopreachthegospelbuttoteach‘theusefularts

andoccupations’.9AsHiramBingham,theABCFM’sleadingmissionaryinHawaii,wrote,‘To

savetheirsoulswasthemainobject,butthatobjectwasnottobesinglyandconstantly

pressedontheattentionofsuchapeople.’10MissiologistAndrewWallssummarizedthis

earlymissionphaseasdrivenby‘theconvictionoftheessentialconcomitanceof

Christianity,commerce,andcivilization’11—the‘threeC’s’ofoursubsectiontitle.

So,commercewasembracedalongwithChristianity.Whileintroducing‘commerce’entailed

itsownproblems,thegreaterproblemwasthislast‘C’—‘civilization’—whichstruckanoteof

superiority,anassumptionthatone’sownculturewasasawholemoreelevated.The

problemherewastactical—thatthismaderespectfulcommunicationmoredifficultand,

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consequently,arespectfulreceptionofthetranscendentgospelmoredifficult.Theproblem

wasalsofundamentallytheological—itconflatedone’slocalandimminentculturewiththe

universalandtranscendentgospel.Thebestmissionariessoughttoavoidthissenseof

culturalsuperiority.12Butwith‘civilization’asacentralelementtoone’smission,itwas

difficulttoseehowthissenseofculturalsuperiority,ofarrogance,couldbeavoided.

Stage2:Acculturation,makingthegospelChinese(latenineteenthcentury)HudsonTaylor,in1853,uponarrivinginChina,wasbotheredbythefactthathisfellow

missionarieswentmainlytofellowexpatriatesinChina.Hewantedthegospeltogotothe

Chinese.Todothat,heknewhehadtomakethegospelChinese.Heshockedhis

compatriotsbydressingliketheChinese,wearinghishairinChinesefashion,andgoingout

amongstthemasifhewereoneofthem.Thatmeantdroppinghisown(English)cultural

distinctives.Taylorwasnotinterestedinpreachinghisculturebutinpreachingtheeternal

transcendentgospel.

Taylor’sapproachwasthe‘firstsignsofmissionaryskepticismtowardsthevalueofWestern

civilization’,anapproachthatwastobecome‘broadlyrepresentativeoftheevangelical...

mainstreamofthemissionarymovementattheturnofthe[nineteenth]century’.13So,for

instance,amissionarytotheSudanin1891recordshisapproachthus:‘Wecarefullyavoid

praisingcivilizationorcivilizedpowerstotheheathen,andiftheythemselvesareextolling

civilizationwetellthemthattheyshouldnotsettheiraffectionsonthingsbelow.’14Clearly

therewashereafreshnewwindinevangelicalmissions.

Taylorwashugelyimportantbothfortheglobalmissionarymovementandcertainlyfor

ChristianmissionsinChina.Hisemphasisonmakingthegospelculturallyappropriate

impactedmanyotherevangelicalmissionagenciesinthesecondhalfofthenineteenth

century.15DroppingtheconflationofwesternculturewithKingdomculturebecame

accepteddogma.

Thiswasagoodthing.Buttherewasalsoaweaknesstothisapproach.Theweaknesswas

thattheemphasisonpreachingthepuretranscendent,non-culturalgospelentailedthe

reluctancetointroduceanyWesternwaysintocross-culturalsituations—whichmeantthe

refusaltointroduceWesternbenefitssuchasuniversityeducation,technologicaladvances,

conceptsaboutwomen,etc.Therewasanarrowness,asuspicionofwhatwewouldterm

‘holisticmission’today.

ThisnarrownesswassorigidthatevenagiantsuchasHudsonTaylorallowedittointerfere

withmissionaryunity;ithinderedhisabilitytoaccepttheworkandvisionofanotherChina

pioneer—TimothyRichard.Richard,likeTaylor,wasanevangelistandchurch-planter,buthe

alsobelievedthus:

TheproblembeforethemissionaryinChina,asIfounditforty-fiveyearsago,was

notonlyhowtosavethesoulsofafourthofthehumanrace,butalsohowtosave

theirbodiesfromperishing...andtofreetheirminds...fromaphilosophyand

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customwhichhadlastedformanycenturiesandleftthematthemercyofany

nation.16

Taylor,thinkingthatanyemphasisbeyonddirectevangelismwasgenerallyadistraction,

directedthat‘hispeopleshouldn’tcooperatewiththeworkofTimothyRichard’.17

Stage3:Holismw/out‘civilization’(post-WWII)TimothyRichard’sapproach,whilegratingonHudsonTaylor,wasaprecursortowhatbegan

totakerootwithinthepost-WorldWarIIevangelicalmissionsmovement.Especiallysince

the1960s,theevangelicalchurchhasbeguntore-embraceholism.Butnowitseemstobea

holismminusthe‘civilizational’component.Nolongerwasitcommontotrumpetthe

superiorityofWesterncivilizationoverthe‘uncivilized’;atthesametimetheadvantagesof

medical,intellectual,andtechnologicalbreakthroughshousedinWesternculturewereno

longertobedenied.

Oneseesthistwin-sidedemphasis,forinstance,inBruceOlson.Olson,ayoungAmerican

wentofftolivewiththefearedMotilonetribeinSouthAmerica,andhewrote,‘Ihad

wonderedagainandagainwhatChristhadtoofferthem.Theirwayofgettingalongwith

eachotherwasfarsuperiortothatofAmericans.’18Hereistheuncivilized-themversusthe

civilized-usattitude.Ontheotherhand,hewaswillingtorecognizethesuperiorattainments

atcertainpointsofWesternculture—beingkeentointroducemedical,agricultural,and

technologicaladvancestothetribe.Whatismore,theMotiloneswerekeentoacceptthem.

Butinthis‘holismwithoutthecivilizational’approach,atensionexists.Thatis,theholistic

advantagesofmedicinal,economic,andtechnologicaladvancesthatthemissionarysought

tobringareallinescapablylodgedinacertainculturalsetting.Thesethingsdidnotcome

downfromtheclouds.TheiroriginswererootedinaWesternsetting.Olsonbrought

specificallyAmericanandEuropeanknow-howwithhim.Thisimmediatelyraisesthe

question,then,whetherunwittinglythe‘civilizational’componenthasbeensmuggledback

in,butnowinamoremodified,subdued,andgenteelform.Isitpossible,then,tohave

holismwithoutthiscivilizationalsuperiority?Hereisthedilemma.

3.0TheAnthropologicalTemptation:Overreaction

3.1‘Realwealth’:anthropologyandthe‘affluent’hunter-gatherersOfcourse,‘realwealth’involvesmorethanjustmoney.Economicsisonlyonepartoflife.

MadeintheimageofGod,humanity’srelational,intellectual,emotional,andspiritual

factorsarethethingsofrealvalue.Allcultures,howevereconomicallysimple,withtheir

cultural,attitudinal,andrelationalstrengthsaretherefore‘rich’.Thistruthneedstobe

recognizedandvalued.

Butthisisonesideofthetruth.Theothersideisthatwearephysicalbeingslivingina

physicalworldwithphysicalneeds.Focusingmerelyonourcultural,relational,and

emotionalsidesistooblinkered.Economicwell-beingisalsoimportant.Toooftenthe

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churchhasneglectedthis.ThisChiangMai2017consultation,withitsspecificfocuson‘The

RoleofWealthCreationinHolisticTransformation’,deliberatelyzeroesinonmaterial

wealth,andsoweunapologeticallynarrowourfocusinthispaperonthisaspect.

Inthepast,ithasnotjustbeenchurchleaderswhohavestruggledwiththesubjectof

wealthandphysicalwell-being:anthropologistshavetoo.Thisisunderstandable,giventheir

focusonsympatheticallystudyingothercultures,manyofwhicharefar‘simpler’

economicallythanthosetowhichanthropologistsbelong.Manyanthropologistsadopta

methodologicalapproachthat‘presupposesaneutralvantagepoint...call[ing]for

suspendingjudgmentwhendealingwith...societiesdifferentfromone’sown’,thereby

refusinganyassessmentofthe‘actingofonegroupasintrinsicallysuperiororinferiorto

thoseofanother’.19

Thishasmeant,intheeconomicsphere,areluctanceamongstsomeanthropologiststo

acknowledgetheeconomic‘poverty’ofcertaincultures.Indeed,adecades-olddiscussion

loosedbyanthropologistMarshallSahlinsconcerninghunter-gathererculturesexemplifies

thistendency.Sahlins,professoremeritusofanthropologyattheUniversityofChicago,

madethreepointsinhisinfluentialbookStone-AgeEconomics(1972):first,thecounter-

intuitivepointthatsubsistenceeconomiescanbe‘affluent’societies;second,thatone’s

workrateinsubsistenceeconomiesisattunedtoone’slowerexpectations,suchthatthe

resultantreducedworkrateisnoviceof‘laziness’,butratherarationaladjustmentof

meanstoanend;andthird,thatnoneofthissitswellwithourbourgeoiscapitalist

economieswhichtoutthe‘moreandmore’.Asheputit:

Toaccepthuntersasaffluentisalsotorecognizethetragedyofmoderntimesinthe

currenthumanconditionwithpeopleslavingtobridgethegapbetweenunlimited

wantsandinsufficientmeans.Therearetwopossiblecoursestoaffluence.Wants

maybe‘easilysatisfied’eitherbyproducingmuchordesiringlittle....[T]hereis...

aZenroadtoaffluence,whichstateshumanmaterialwantsarefiniteandfew,and

technicalmeansunchangingbutonthewholeadequate.AdoptingtheZenstrategy,

peoplecanenjoyunparalleledmaterialplenty,withalowstandardofliving.20

Sahlinsrejectsthestereotypethatthesehunter-gathererslivedlivesofunendingdrudgery

spentmainlyinthetedioussearchforfood.Rather,hequotesresearchshowingthe

‘materialplentyofAfricanhunters’whichheclaimswassimilartoAustralianAborigines.He

arguesthatbothgroups’workweekamountedtoapproximately15hoursandthat‘when

notworkinginsubsistence,theypassthetimeinleisureorleisurelyactivity...suchas

restingincamporvisitingothercamps.’21Idyllic!

(a)ButSahlinschallengedonfactsandinterpretativezeitgeist(Kaplan)DavidKaplan,ProfessorofAnthropologyatBrandeis,wroteanarticleinthe2000editionof

JournalofAnthropologicalResearchchallengingSahlinsbothonhisfactsandonhisbroader

underlyingassumptions.Hepointsoutvariousmethodologicalshortcomingsinthe

underlyingresearch,forinstancetheverydefinitionof‘work’used.Notincludedinits

definitionwas‘timespentinprocessingfoodaswellashuntingandgatheringit’.Whenone

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includedtimespentinthenecessarytasksof‘foodpreparation,butchery,drawingwater

andgatheringfirewood,washingutensils,andcleaningthelivingspace...estimatedper

weekis44.5hours’onsubsistenceefforts.

Moreover,otheron-the-groundanthropologicalresearchconcerningthesehunter-gatherers

showedthattheyare‘verythinandcomplainoftenofhunger,atalltimesoftheyear’and

concludedthat‘manywouldfinditstrange,asKonner(1983:371)observeswithrespectto

the!KungSan[thehunter-gatherersstudied],torefertoasocietywitha50percent

childhoodmortalityrateandalifeexpectancyatbirthofaboutthirtyyearsasan“affluent”

society.’22

(b)Missionsnapshots:Non-Westernerslikedmodernconveniences(Hawaii/Motilones)Thereisaproblemwiththisredefinitionof‘affluence’andtherejectionof‘things/stuffas

realwealth’asjustyetanotherneo-colonialist,arrogant,culturalimpositionoftheWest.

Thatproblemisthis‘stuff’wasoftenheartilywelcomedwhenintroducedcross-culturally.

Localslikedit!Two(ofmany)examplesfromrecentmissionhistoryillustratethis:Hawaiiin

thenineteenthcentury,andtheMotilonesofEcuador/Colombiainthetwentiethcentury—

bothessentiallystone-agecultures.

So,forinstance,theRev.RichardArmstrongwrotefromhisstationatWailuku,Maui,July7,

1840concerninghisintroductionofthesimplelabor-savingdeviceofyokedoxen:

Idevoteoccasionallyalittletimetoagricultureandwoulddevotemore,ifIhaditto

spare.ItisabusinessthatIwasbroughtupto,andIloveit,asIlovesleepwhen

weary....Ihaveassistedthenativestobreakinsometwelveyokeofoxen,which

havedoneagreatdealtowardsrelievingthepeopleoftheirburdens.Threeyears

agoeverything,food,timber,potatoes,pigs,stones,lime,sand,etc.,werecarriedon

thebacksofnatives,ordraggedonthegroundbytheirhands...butalmostallthis

drudgeryisnowdonebycartsandoxen,andtheheadmensaytheycannotgetthe

menontheirlandstosubmittosuchworkastheyoncecould.Thisiscleargain.23

YokedoxenwasjustoneofmanyWesterntechniquestheHawaiianseagerlyembraced:iron

nails,manufacturingtechniques,weaponry,square-riggedvessels,clothingetc.

BruceOlson’sexperiencewiththeMotilonesinEcuador/Colombiawassimilar,exceptthat

theMotilones,duetocenturiesofnegativeexperiences,wereinitiallyfarmorewaryof

Europeanartifacts.WhenBruceOlsonfinallystartedtopenetratetheMotiloneculture,

actuallylivingwiththemfordecadesintheirlonghousesandeventuallyintroducingthe

gospelthere,herecordedhishesitation,caughtbetweenhisrespectfortheircultureandhis

respectforthebenefitsofmoderntechnology.

Olsonwritesaboutoneofhisearlyheroes,Bobby(thefirstMotiloneconvert,eventually

murderedbyMarxistmilitants)who‘hadavisionforhispeople—tohelpthemincorporate

advantagesofmodernsocietywithoutsacrificingtraditionalvalues’.Olsonwantedto

introducethegospel‘inawaythatshowedunderstandingandrespectforMotilonehistory

andculture’,24whilealso,withBobby,bringingintechnologies:

17

By1971wehadestablishedtwohealthcentersinthejungle....Motiloneslearned

howtotakebloodsmears...formalaria....BecausetheMotiloneshungered

duringtheseasonswhengamewasscarce,Ishowedthemhowtopreparethe

groundforgrowingcrops....Weintroducedlivestock...accesstomeatandmilk.

WealsoorganizedtwoschoolswhereMotiloneslearned...Spanish,sothatthey

wouldbeabletocommunicateandnegotiatewiththeoutsideworld....Iwas

extremelypleasedtoseetheseadvancesimprovethequalityoflifeforthe

Motilone.25

Olson,andtheMotilonesthemselves,sawthesetechnologicaldevelopments—andthe

economicempowermentthatmadethempossible—as‘improv[ing]thequalityoflife.’

Intriguingly,Olsonwritesthatincreasinglyhis‘ideasarenotalwayscompatiblewiththoseof

theIndians,particularlytheyouth’,thethirdgenerationofMotiloneChristianconvertswho

optfor‘modernconveniences’and‘enticementsofWesternculture.’26Olsonhimself

preferredtheoldways.Olson,then,findshimselfsusceptibletooneformofthe

‘anthropologist’stemptation’.

(c)Thetemptation:overlyrosyon‘solidarity’Theanthropologicaltemptationistoavoidvaluejudgmentsonculturaldifferences;heor

sherefusestosaysuch-and-suchstandardoflivingis‘better’.Regardingwealthcreation,the

anthropologistmaybepronetomisreadattitudesandvalues,asevidentintheDavidKaplan

articlecitedaboveonthe!Kung(Bushmen)hunter-gatherers.Forinstance,some

anthropologistshavebeenover-readytopraisethe!Kungfortheirnon-individualistic

solidarityand‘sharing’.Butotheranthropologistsdismissthisasranknonsense:

BothWiessner(1982:79)andMarshall(1968:94)havecommentedonthefactthat

thepersistentpressurestosharehaveledthe!Kungtolimittheirworkeffort,since

inworkinghardertheywouldlikelyexposethemselvestodemandstosharethe

fruitsoftheiradditionallabors.Torefusetoshareopensoneselftoaccusationsof

stinginessorworse.HereareWiessner's(1982:79)observations:‘Inreciprocal

relations,themeansthatapersonusestopreventbeingexploitedinarelationship..

.istopreventhimorherselffrombecominga‘have’....Asmentionedearlier,men

whohavekilledanumberoflargeranimalssitbackforapausetoenjoy

reciprocation.Womengatherenoughfortheirfamiliesforafewdays,butrarely

more....Andso,indecidingwhetherornottoworkonacertainday,a!Kungmay

assessdebtsanddebtors,decidehowmuchwildfoodharvestwillgotofamily,close

relativesandotherstowhomheorshereallywantstoreciprocate,versushowmuch

willbeclaimedbyfreeloaders.’The!Kung,wearetold,spendagreatdealoftime

talkingaboutwhohaswhatandwhogavewhattowhomorfailedtogiveittowhom

(Wiessner1982:68).Alotoftheexchangeandsharingthatgoesonseemstobeas

muchmotivatedbyjealousyandenvyasitisbyanyvalueofgenerosityora‘liberal

customofsharing’.Inhissurveyofforagingsocieties,Kelly(1995:164-65)notesthat

‘Sharing...strainsrelationsbetweenpeople.Consequently,manyforagerstryto

18

findwaystoavoiditsdemands.’...Myownreadingofethnography,andmyown

experienceinanumberofAmericanIndianandAfricansocietieswhosemembers

wouldberegardedashavinghadlittleinthewayofmaterialwealthsuggestsrather

thatpropertyisvalued,thatpeopleareverymuchawarethatpossessionsgiveriseto

envyandthattheyarefearfuloftheconsequencesofenvy.27

3.2TrumpingEconomicsbyCulturalAnthropologyCulturalanthropologyhasmanyinsightstocontribute,buttheymustnotbeallowedto

dismissortrumptheinsightsprovidedbythedisciplineofeconomics.Suchatrumpingis

preciselywhatDouglasWilsonallowsinChristianMissionsandEconomicSystems:aCritical

SurveyoftheCulturalandReligiousDimensionsofEconomies,a2015bookthatdoeswellby

willinglygrapplingwiththeeconomicimplicationsofmissions.Wilsonbeginshisarticleon

Mali:

TheWestandAfricahavedevelopeddifferenteconomicsystemsoutofdistinct

historicalcontexts.Bothsystemshavebeensuccessfulintheirrespectivecontexts.

Maranznotes,‘ContrarytowhatWesternersthink,theAfricaneconomicsystem

workswellindeedindoingwhatitwasdesignedtodo.’28

Thisisextraordinary—Africa,specificallyMali,defendedaseconomicallysuccessfulwhenit

iswidelyadmittedthat,‘Maliisoneofthepoorestcountriesintheworld,ranking178outof

182countriesinthe2009UNDPHumanDevelopmentIndex.Itisestimatedthat60percent

[sic]ofthepopulationlivesbelowthepovertyline.’29WilsonandMaranz’sdefensefortheir

positionreadsthus:

ThefundamentaleconomicconsiderationinWesternsocietyistheaccumulationof

capitalandwealth.ThefundamentaleconomicconsiderationinAfricansocietyis‘the

distributionofeconomicresourcessothatallpersonsmayhavetheirminimum

needsmet,oratleastthattheymaysurvive.’30

Bare‘survival’then,istheaim!Butsurelybare‘survival’istheverydefinitionofpoverty—

theverythingNGOsaimtocombat!

Wilson’s(an‘interculturalministryspecialist’)andMaranz’s(an‘internationalanthropology

consultant’)problemhereistheiraims—apredominantlyanthropologicaloneratherthan

aneconomicaim—asMaranzmakesclearinthearticleWilsonreferences.Maranzlistshis

aimsas,firstly,theincreasingofmutualunderstandingasenabling‘moremeaningful

relationships’and,secondly,‘Westernershavinggreaterrespectforauniqueeconomic

systemthataccomplishesitsmainpurposesverywell’.31Economicbettermentisnot

Maranz’purpose.RatherthanchallengingwhatAfricadoesnothave,hewantsusto

appreciatewhatAfricadoeshave.Whileunderstandablefromaculturalanthropological

pointofview,thissimplywon’tdoinabookclaimingtowanttotakeeconomicsseriously.If

19

therewereeconomiclack—astestifiedtobythemultitudesofeconomicmigrants—one

mustsurelyacknowledgeithonestly.

Anthropologistsneedtoseethatineconomicsgoodintentionsarenotenough,thata

positiveembraceofacultureisnosubstituteforeconomicgoodsenseconcerningit.They

shouldbelikethefarmerinIsaiah28:24-29,ofwhomweread:

Whenafarmerplowsforplanting,doesheplowcontinually?...Whenhehas

leveledthesurface,doeshenotsowcarawayandscattercumin?...Carawayisnot

threshedwithasledge,noristhewheelofacartrolledovercumin;carawayis

beatenoutwitharod,andcuminwithastick.Grainmustbegroundtomakebread;

soonedoesnotgoonthreshingitforever.Thewheelsofathreshingcartmaybe

rolledoverit,butonedoesnotusehorsestogrindgrain.Allthisalsocomesfromthe

LordAlmighty,whoseplaniswonderful.32

Ratherthanimposinghisownrulesontheeconomicsphere,thefarmer,first,observesand

learnswhatworkswithinthatsphere(whatareitswaysandrules)andthen,second,brings

hisactionsintoconformitywiththoserealities.Thisapproach,saysIsaiah,comesfromthe

Lord.

4.0ThreeMarket-SpecificCulturalChallenges

Businessandeconomicdevelopmentaretwo-edgedswords—usheringineithercultural

improvementsorculturaldangers(seetheHawaiicasestudybelow).Belowweraisetwo

questionstoprobethisissueofbusiness’two-edgedpotential,andwelookatitthroughthe

challengespresentedintwoconcretesituations—inEcuadorandHawaii.

4.1Question1:‘Market-centeredprinciplesofefficiency,entrepreneurship,andself-helpequalculturalimposition’?

RobertAndolina,AssociateProfessorofInternationalStudiesatSeattleUniversity,through

hisresearchontheCañarregionofEcuadorraisesthequestionastowhetherthevaluesof

‘efficiency,entrepreneurshipandself-help’—valuescentraltomarketactivityandwealth

creation—arebiblical(hencelegitimate)orsimplynarrowlycultural(henceillegitimate).

Andolina’sresearchidentifiedthesethree‘market-centeredprinciple’asbeingcentraltothe

faileddevelopmentapproachofthoseseekingtohelpEcuadoriantribalsbetterthemselves

economicallythroughanirrigationdevelopmentproject.Heconcludesthatthesemarket

principlesweresimplythe‘colonial’impositionofa‘neoliberalcultureofdevelopment.’33Is

heright?

(a)CañarinEcuadorWhileAndolinarejectsthesethreevaluesastheculturalimpositionofcapitalist

‘neoliberalism’,thispaperarguesthevalues(thoughnotnecessarilytheirapplication)are

biblical.Simplylookateachone:efficiency,entrepreneurship,andself-help.Godhimselfis

20

‘efficient’.Heisthemaster‘doer’;hegetthingsdonewell.Heisnotsloppy.Heis

extravagantbutnotwasteful.WhenGoddoesthingsthey‘work’,theyaresuccessful.

‘Success’isnotsimplyaWesternvalue.OnethousandsixhundredyearsbeforeChrist,the

Egyptiansvaluedit.Afterall,wereadthatPotiphar,Pharaoh’scaptainoftheguard,put

Josephinchargeofallhishouseholdbecauseofonequality:hesaw‘thattheLordgavehim

[Joseph]successineverythinghedid’(Gen39:3).Equally,theearlyHawaiians,ina

Polynesiansocietythatdevelopedinisolationfor400yearsaftertheirfinalsettlementby

Tahitiansinc.AD1400,34valuedsuccess.Thatis,though‘birth-orderstatus’androyal

genealogicalconnectionswerecentraltoanyaspiringHawaiianmonarch’sabilitytogarnera

following,attheendoftheday,andsomewhatparadoxically,‘Hissuccess[inwar]signaled

hismana[hissupernaturalpower],andhismanalegitimizedhispoliticalpower.’35Indeed,as

nativeHawaiianhistorianandactivistGeorgeKanaheleobserves,‘Wenote…theclose

correspondencebetweentheusefulnessofanobjectanditsdegreeofsanctity.’36Sanctity—

that’safairlyhighevaluationofefficiency!

IfefficiencyisbothvaluedinmultipleculturesandrootedinGod’sverynature,sotoois

entrepreneurism.Godisentrepreneurial—justlookatcreation!Therearemanydefinitions

of‘entrepreneurship’,but‘[a]titscore,itisamind-set—awayofthinkingandacting.Itis

aboutimaginingnewwaystosolveproblemsandcreatevalue’,or‘seeinganopportunity

andgatheringtheresourcestoturnapossibilityintoareality’.37Thissoundsdistinctlylike

GodinGenesis1and2.Equally,itsoundsverymuchlikewhatAdamandEvewere

mandatedtodointhoseverychapters.Mankind,formedinhisimage,weremeanttoreflect

thecharacteristicsoftheirMaker,includinghiscreativityandentrepreneurialism.

God(asallsufficient)isnaturallyaself-helpagentinawaywehumanssimplycannotbe.But

heretoowereflectourCreator,evenifnottotheextentofhisself-sufficiency.Oneseesit,

forinstance,inthepre-Fallmandatetoworkandprovideforoneself(Gen2:5,15).Adam

wasnottosimplysitinreposeandwaitforGodtodropgrapesinhismouth.Ontheother

hand,Adamwasalsoprovidedwitha‘Helper’—Eve.Goodidea!Goingitalonewasnotthe

way.Self-helpactuallymeant‘self-responsibility’,andthatmightbeamorebiblicalwayto

expressit.

TheissuewiththethreevaluesAndolinachallengesmaynotbesomuchtheirbiblical

validityintheabstract;rathertheissuemaybetheirvalidityasconcretelyapplied.Inother

words,thepreceptitselfmaybeclear;therealchallengemaycome,aswithSolomonfacing

twomothersclamoringforasurvivingbaby(1Kings3:16-28),inapplyingittotheparticular

situationathand.

Take,forinstance,thevalueof‘efficiency’.Surely‘efficiency’isgodly.Godis‘efficient’;he

makesthingsworkperfectly—whichisanaspectofefficiency.Butinapplyingour

evaluationsofefficiencytoconcretesituations,ourassessmentmaybeheavilycoloredby

non-biblicalvalues.Thatis,onecannotevenbegintoassesswhethersomethingis‘working’

21

(isbeing‘efficient’)withoutfirsthavinginmindcertaingoals.Efficiencyismeasuredonlyby

firstidentifyingourgoalsandthen,secondly,consideringwhetheroureffortsarereaching

thosegoals.Butherecomestheproblem:Ifourgoalsarenotbiblical,thenneitherareour

attainmentefforts—nomatterhow‘efficiently’theyattainourgoals.Insuchacase,the

biblicalvalueof‘efficiency’hasbeenmisusedfornon-biblicalpurposes.Soyes,the

measuresmaybe‘efficient’inonesense,butnotinabiblicalsenseof‘efficiency’.Thisisthe

difficultyinembracing‘efficiency’asaclearlybiblicalnorm.

Thatsaid,Andolina’scritiqueisweakenedbyatroublingoversight:Andolinaonlybriefly

mentionsthewiderEcuadorianfactualcontext—thefactofCañarprovinceemigration¾and

thencompletelyignoresitswiderimplications.Thatis,hewritesthatdevelopmentprojects

‘reinforcedmarketsocietywithoutstemmingemigrationofindigenouspeoplefromCañar

Province’,adding,‘by2007,morethan80percentoffamiliesaffiliatedwithTucayta[the

indigenousorganizationcontrollingtheirrigationprojectheisstudying]hadrelatives

workingabroad.’38Surelythefactofsuchmassemigrationissignificant.Indeed,ithasthree

implications,allchallenginghisclaims:

• First,ifindigenouspeoplesrejectedallchange(astheauthorsuggests)thenwhy

wouldtheyembracetheradicalchangeofemigration?

• Second,ifmarket/economicthinkingweresoforeigntothem,whywouldadverse

economicconditionstriggertheirmigration,asthearticlesuggestsitdoes?

• Third,iftheseindigenouspeoplesfoundthemarketthinkingoftheneoliberal

economiessoantithetical,whywouldtheyheadfortheveryfreemarket,neo-liberal

capitaloftheworld,UnitedStates(theprimaryfocusofemigrationfrom1970–

1998),orfree-marketSpain(since1998)?39

(b)FamilybusinessesinAsiaand‘efficiency’Again,anunderlyingprinciplemaybecross-culturalbutitsapplicationlooksverydifferentin

differentcultures.So,forexample,inthefamily-orientationtypicalofmanybusinessesin

Asia,wherepreservationoffamilyinvolvementinthebusinessisasimportantasthe

business’economicbottomline,whetherthebusinessis‘efficient’wouldbejudgedbyhow

muchfamilyinvolvementtherewere,notsimplybyhowmuchmoneyprofittheannual

reportrevealed.Hereis‘efficiency’withadifferentface!

(c)Solidarity/individualismand‘self-help(responsibility)’Yetanotherfactorinconsideringwhether‘efficiency,entrepreneurship,andself-help’are

biblical,ishowthesevaluesstandinrelationshiptoothervalues.Dotheyneedtobe

complementedbyothervalues,evenas,forinstance,justiceneedstobecomplementedby

mercy.Withoutsuchacomplementing,theymightbeoutofbalance.So,canself-

responsibilityreallystandalonewithout‘others-responsibility’inordertofullyreflectthe

biblicalpictureofman?

Moreover,inansweringthesequestions,howmuchroomdoestheBiblegiveusforavariety

ofculturalapproaches?Isitlegitimate,forinstance,forScandinavian‘solidarity’toanswer

22

differentlyfromAmerican‘ruggedindividualism’(toputitstereotypically)?Itwouldseem,

fromourearlierconsiderationsregardingthevaluetheBibleputsonculture,thattheredoes

existcultural‘wiggle-room’inapplyingthesevalues.

(d)StewardshipWeconclude,then,thatthesethreeprinciplesof‘efficiency,entrepreneurship,andself-

help’areclearlybiblical.Theyarenotmerely‘cultural’—specifictooneculture—buthuman-

universal.Theyaremorethansimplyabstract‘principles’;theyarerather‘values’that

reflecttheverybeingofGod.

Again,however,itiskeythatthesetermsbefilledwithbiblicalcontentandpropercontext

byensuringthattheydonotstandalone.Theymustfindtheircomplementinotherbiblical

values.Whilethebiblicalmeaningforeach—efficiency,self-help/responsibility,

entrepreneurship—willoftenmatchtheircommonlyacceptedmeaning,onecontrolling

biblicalvaluemustalwaysaccompany(andsometimeschallenge)them:thatof

‘stewardship’.

Thisisclearwhenwelookatthecreationaccountwhereeachofthethreevaluesof

efficiency,self-help/responsibility,andentrepreneurshipfindexpression.So,whenGod

directedmaninGenesis1:26to‘ruleover...alltheearth’healsoinstructedthemhowthey

weretodoso:creatively(Gen2:19),productively(Gen1:28),andresponsibly(Gen2:15).

Thislast—wheremanwasinstructedto‘takecareofit’—isthestewardshipprinciple.

‘Efficiency,entrepreneurship,andself-help’mustbeinterpretedandappliedinawaythat

embodiesthismandateto‘takecare’ofGod’screation,boththenaturalworldandthe

humanworld.

Now,whatitmeansto‘takecare’oftheworldanditspeople—aswecreateandseektobe

efficient—willhavearichvarietyofexpressions.Therecanbelittledoubt,however,thatit

willcertainlyimpactandmodifywhat,forinstance,‘efficiency’means.Onecannotbe

‘ruthlesslyefficient’whilesimultaneously‘takingcare’ofpeople.Beingastewardwillentail

empathyandkindnessinourdealingswithpeople,becausewearemeantto‘takecare’of

them.Itdoesnot,ofcourse,meanthathardchoicesthatnegativelyimpactpeoplecan

alwaysbeavoided;itsimplymeansthesewillnotbetakenwithoutseriouslyconsidering

theirimpactonpeople.Itwas,perhaps,thelackofthisstewardshipprinciplebyallparties,

indigenousandforeign,thatwasatissueintheHawaiistorypresentedbelow.

4.2Question2:Developingbusinesscross-culturallycanbeculturallydangerous—howdowelimitthedanger?

Hawaiiwasanationwhichafternearly600yearsofisolation(fromitsownTahitianroots)

leapedfromitsstone-agestage,when‘discovered’byEngland’sCaptainCookin1778,into

ever-increasingeconomicdevelopment.Whilethereweremanybenefits,wewillseebelow

thatitwaslargelythroughtheunsuccessfulintegrationofglobalbusinesspracticesintothe

indigenousHawaiianculturethatHawaii’speopleeventuallylosttheirsovereigntybythe

latenineteenthcentury.

23

Ofcourse,Hawaiiasa‘type’issomewhatraretodayinourglobalizedworld.Thatis,in1778

itwasstillanisolated,stone-ageculturewithoutwriting,withoutmoney,andwithouteven

verydevelopedinternalmarkets.Nevertheless,Hawaii’scasecanbeusefulinpresenting

moresharplytherealityofculturaldifferencesandtheirchallengethatbusinessthatseeks

tobless.CouldHawaii’stroubleshavebeenavoided,and,ifso,how?

(a)TheHawaiicasestudy,1778–1893/1898Thestoryofnineteenth-centuryHawaiiisparticularlyrelevanttogospelpeoplekeento

engagein‘wealthcreationforholistictransformation’.ThisispreciselywhattheNew

Englandmissionariessetouttodo—withlargesuccessesandlargefailures—whenthey

cametoHawaiiin1820.Whatwentrightandwhatwentwrongandwhy?

(1) SuccessesandfailuresAmongstthepositives,especiallyafterthemissionaries’arrivalin1820

40:

• Christianitybecamedeeplyrootedwithinthenation—withmanyhealthychurches

establishedandHawaiisendingoutitsownmissionariesintoPolynesiaalreadyby

1853(JamesKekalaswasthefirst,senttotheMarquesas).

• Literacybecamenearuniversal,Hawaiihavingby‘thesecondhalfofthe

nineteenthcentury...ahigherliteracyratethantheUnitedStates’!41

• Tradeandbusinessintroducedincreasingprosperityforbothcommoners42

(patchily)andchiefs(mightily,atleastforthefirstdecades43)whilepolitical

development(enablingHawaiitoretainitsindependencefromcolonizingWestern

powersinthePacific)sawpoliticalrightsextendedeventothecommoners.Hawaii

exercisedavibrantiftroubleddemocracyrightuptothe1890s.

Amongstthenegatives:

• Theindigenouspopulationplummetedalarmingly.

• Thelandreformof1848didnotextendlandownershiptomostcommoners.

• Businessdevelopment,especiallyafter1860,begantoexacerbatenational

tensions,insteadofhealingthem.

• Hawaiianslosttheirpoliticalsovereigntyin1893,largelyduetotheclashbetweenthepoliticalleadershipandthebusinessinterests.

Here,then,isboththegloryandtheshame.

(2) FourdifferentelementsTobetterunderstandtheHawaiistory—whatwentrightandwhatwentwrong—one

needstokeepinmind:a)fourdifferentelements,b)threeparticularsourcesof

dangers,andc)theinternaltensionsatwork.First,then,thefourdifferentelements

toconsider:

1.Thefourdifferentpartiesinvolved:TherulingHawaiians(kingandali’i[chiefs]),

thecommoners,themissionaries,andtheoutsidebusinessparties;eachhad

differinginterestsandneeds,sometimesworkingharmoniously,sometimesatwar

withoneanother.ThesedifferentpartiesneedtobekeptfirmlyinviewifHawaii’s

24

struggleistobeunderstood.Notonlydidthesedifferentpartiessetupconflicts

betweenethnicHawaiiansandforeigners,butequallysetupconflictsbetweenthe

Hawaiiansthemselves.

2.Hawaii’stwoverydifferenteras:themissionaryerafrom1820toroughly1855,

followedbythepost-missionaryerawithverydifferentdrivers.Inthemissionaryera,

theindigenouspopulation’sbestinterestswereapredominatedriver;inthepost-

missionaryeratheirinterestsweresimplyoneofseveralvariouslyweightedfactors.

3.Thewants,needs,andabilitiesofeachofthefourdifferentpartiesdrovewhat

happened.Theseneedidentifyingandweighing.Itisthesewants,needs,and

abilities—sodifferentforeachoftheparties—whichsetuptheboilingtensions

whicheventuallyboiledoverintotheultimatelytragicdevelopmentsofthe

overthrowofQueenLiliuokalaniin1893andHawaii’sannexationin1898.

4.Lastly,thewildcardofindividualpersonalities:differentpeoplewithdifferent

reactionscouldwellhaveresultedindifferentoutcomesforHawaii.Nothingwas

fixedinexorably.Differentpeoplemanageproblemsdifferently.

(3) ThreesourcesofdangerPeoplearecentraltothisnarrative,abletobothhelpandendanger.Astothe

dangers,threeproblemareasemergedinHawaii’sstory.

1.Thecross-culture(foreign)businessagentscouldnotorwouldnotwaitforthe

culturetochangeandabsorbbusinesspractices.Theverysurvivaloftheirown

economicendeavorshunginthebalanceandtheyhadnottheluxuryoftime.So,for

instance,ifplantationworkdidnotattracttheHawaiians,thentheyimportedthe

ChineseandJapanese.Increasingly,theywentintoconflictmodewiththelocal

culture.

2.Thereceivingculture’selite—economicandpolitical—couldnotorwouldnot

masterthebusinessculture/institutions.Afterthelanddivisionof1848,theali’i

(rulingchiefs)increasinglysoldmoreandmoreoftheirlandstotheHaole

(foreigners),therebylosingcontrolofit.Thissplitpoliticalcontrol(stilllargelyin

Hawaiianhands)44fromeconomiccontrol:abreedinggroundforconflict.

3.Thereceivingculture’scommonerscouldnotorwouldnotmastertheeconomic

practicesnecessaryforsuccess,andthereforedidnotsucceedeconomically.Again,

thiswasabreedinggroundforconflict.

(4) InternaltensionsTherewerebothexternalpressures(thecomingoftheforeigners)andinternal

pressurescontributingtoHawaii’sdownfall.Theseinternalpressures—whatKirch

andSahlinscall‘thecontributionoftheHawaiiansystemtoitsowndemise’45—were

thefollowing:

• Lackofexposuretotheinternationalcapitalsystem

• Populationdecline46• Familyimplosion

47

25

• Afalteringnobilityunabletomakeproductivetheirlands,andincreasingly

alienatingthecommoners48

• A‘productionforuse’workethicwhichundercutHawaiians’successinentrepreneurialbusinessventures

49

Itwastheseinternaltensionsthat,incombinationwiththepost-missionaryera

characteristics—anerainwhichforeignbusinessmenwerelesswillingandable(astheir

businessesoftenfailed),toforegobusinesssuccessforthesakeofopeningparticipationto

indigenousHawaiians—andincombinationwithHawaiians’owndemandsforthebenefits

ofbusiness,thatthenresultedinthecombustibleoutcomeofthe1890s.Thisvolatilebrew,

withbusinessatitsheart,blewupintorevolutionin1893andannexationbytheUnited

Statesin1898.

ThesuccessesandfailuresofholisticmissionhopesinHawaiiremindusthatthereareno

patsolutionswhenitcomestointroducingwealthcreationpractices.Goodintentionsare

notenough.Eachculturehasitsownuniquechallengesand,hence,itsuniquesolutions.We

cannotsimplyassumeourbackgroundsandtraining,nomatterhowrich,equipustomaster

thecross-culturalchallengebeforeus.Realityiscomplex,andwemustprayforwisdom,

listeningbothtoGod,whograntswisdomliberally,andtopeople—especiallypeoplewho

understandthecultureinwhichwearebringingwealthcreationpractices.

(b)Note:PaulPolak...leapcomplexities/justdoit!DavidBronkema,realizingthecomplexityofintroducingbusinesscross-culturally,

disparages,inChristianMissionandEconomicSystems,simplebusinesssolutionsas‘the

economizationofsocialjustice’50—toosimplebyhalf,hesays.Hearguesinsteadforpolitical

advocacy.Atthesametime,hecannothelpbutexpresshisgrudgingrespectforagriculturist

‘povertyfighter’PaulPolak’ssimplebusinessapproach,writing

Nevertheless,this‘business’approachisimportanttoexplore,sincethematerial

impactcanbesignificant.OneneedlooknofurtherthanPaulPolakandhis

InternationalDevelopmentEnterprise,inexistencesince1981,andtheirstrategyof

jumpingoverthecomplexityoftheproblemscausingpovertytofocussimplyon

helpingsmallfarmersmakemoremoneyofftheirfarms.Theimprovementsin

appropriatetechnologyandmarketingofproductsthattheysupportincrease

income,whichbyitselfcanleadtomoreopportunitiesforthefarmersandtheir

families.51

PaulPolakclaimstohave‘effectivelyendedthepovertyof17milliondollar-a-dayrural

people’52throughsimplebusinesssolutionswhichhelpedtheruralpoorhelpthemselves.

Polakrejectswhathecallsthe‘threegreatpovertyeradicationmyths’that,first,‘wecan

donatepeopleoutofpoverty’,secondthat‘urban-centeredindustrialgrowth’andnational

GDPwillsolveruralpoverty,and,third,that‘bigbusinesswillendpoverty.’53Doingthelittle

things,gettinginvolvedon-the-grounddirectlywiththelocals,andhelpingthemthenturna

profitiswhatheisallabout.

26

Isthis,then,perhapsawaytobypasstheproblemsofmacro-culturalrisksseenintheHawaii

scenario?

4.3 Question3:Businesssuccess—isitskeycultureorisitlegal-politicalstructures?Questionsoneandtwoofthissectionaddressedthequestionofthecultural

appropriatenessofcertainbusinessvaluesandpractices.Questionthreeherestepsback

andaskswhichismoreimportantforshapingaculture’seconomicprogress—itscultural

values/practicesoritspolitical/economicstructuresandpolicies?

Thisquestionhasbeenthesubjectofaveryactivedebateinthescholarlyworld.Two

advocatesofbusinesssolutionshavecomeupwithverydifferentanswers:forLawrence

Harrison,formerUSAIDdirectorinLatinAmericaanddirectorofTuftUniversity’sCultural

ChangeUnit,itcomesdownto‘culture’;whereasforPeruvianeconomistHernandodeSoto

itcomesdownto‘legalstructures’.54Outerstructuresorinnervalues?Perhapsitisalittle

likesaying:‘Whichismoreimportant—theskeletonorthebody’ssoftorgans?And,whatis

moreimportantfortheomelet—theeggsorthepan?’Onecannotchoose;bothare

important.Alongtheselines,Harrison,co-laboringwithSamuelHuntington(ofTheClashof

Civilizationsprominence)noted:

PerhapsthewisestwordsontheplaceofcultureinhumanaffairsarethoseofDaniel

PatrickMoynihan:‘Thecentralconservativetruthisthatitisculture,notpolitics,that

determinesthesuccessofasociety.Thecentralliberaltruthisthatpoliticscan

changeacultureandsaveitfromitself.’...Thekeyissuethusiswhetherpolitical

leadershipcansubstitutefordisasterinstimulatingculturalchange.Thatpolitical

leadershipcanaccomplishthisinsomecircumstancesisexemplifiedinSingapore.55

Theseseemsagewords,andaretheapproachadoptedbythispaper.

5.0SomeWaysForward

Thematerialabovesetsthebig-picturecontextforhowChristiansshouldthinkbiblically

aboutwealthcreationinrelationtoculture.Thisnextsectionbuildsonthisfoundationby

suggestingmorespecificattitudesandattributesweneedaswemovefromthinkingabout

cross-culturalwealthcreationtoactuallyengaginginit.Thisdemandswisdom.Christians

believeGodisthesourceofallwisdom,andthatwecanaccesshiswisdomthroughhis

Word,hisSpirit,andthroughthewisdomhehasimpartedtoothers.LookingtohisWord—

andtopractitionerswhohavesoughttoapplythisWord—severalitemsemergevery

strongly.

5.1KingdomValuesTrumpMereCulturalValuesAlltheparticipantsandallthecasestudiesusedinthispapershowaverystrongadherence

tothesupremacyofKingdomvaluesoverculture.Biblicalwealthcreationdemanded,even

inchallengingcross-culturalsituations,thatwheneveraculturalvaluecameintoconflict

27

withaculturalnorm,thentheculturalnormmustbow.Biblicalvaluesweretranscendent

anduniversal.

Unsurprisingly,empiricalresearchbysecularsourceshasechoedthisinsistenceonthe

realityofuniversalvalues.RushworthKidder’sresearchwiththeInstituteforGlobalEthics,

forinstance,showsfivecorevaluesshareduniversally:honesty(ortruthorintegrity),

responsibility,respect,fairness,andcompassion.56

Amongstthepractitionersweinterviewed,57themostcommonlynotedbiblicalvalues

relevanttothetaskofwealthcreationwerethefollowing:

(a)IntegrityTheissueof‘corruption’isfrequentlymentionedasachiefconcern.Itsrealitywasclear,and

numerousbusinessleadersexpressedtheirdeterminationtofightit,evenatthecostof

significantlyendangeringtheofficialpermissionsnecessaryfortheirprojects.Encouragingly,

despitetherisks,therewerenumeroustestimoniesoftheeventualsuccessofthesesame

projects.Moreover,theirstanceforintegrityearnedthemtheaddedadvantageofthegood

reputation,bothfortheirbusinessesandtheGodtheyrepresented.

(b)HardworkHardworkwasequallycitedasabiblicalvaluekeytosuccessfulwealthcreation.Asone

cross-culturalstart-upentrepreneurputit:

AkeyfindinghasbeenthatChristianemployeeseitherreallyexcelandworkhardor

theydonotfitwiththecompanyworkethicandexpectations.Thesolutionhasbeen

tointroduceatrialperiodfornewworkersthatistakenseriously.Inthepastthey

haveneededtofiremanyworkers,particularlywhohavecomefromministry

backgrounds,becausetheirworkethicandprofessionalgrowthdidnotmeet

companystandards.58

Itisashametohearthatsomefrom‘ministrybackgrounds’donotalwayshaveagoodwork

ethic,despitebiblicaladmonitionslike,‘Alittlesleep,alittleslumber,alittlefoldingofthe

handstorest—andpovertywillcomeonyoulikeathiefandscarcitylikeanarmedman’

(Prov24:33).

(c)ProfitItalmostgoeswithoutsayinginthecontextof‘wealthcreation’thatmakinga‘profit’isa

biblicalvalue.Itisbothnecessaryandlegitimate.Profitisnotadirtyword.Profitisthe

surplusremainingafterthetotalcostsaredeductedfromtotalrevenue.59Profithastodo

with‘surplus’—thatwhichisoverandaboveourbareconsumptionneeds—andwithout

surplusthereisnothingavailableforfutureinvestment.Itisthe‘seed’whichcanbesowed,

ratherthanconsumed(see2Cor9:10-1160).Itisthissurplus,thisincreasedreturnoninitial

investment,whichChristapplaudedwitha‘welldone’whenseeingonewhoseapproach

was,‘Master,youdeliveredtomefivetalents;hereIhavemadefivetalentsmore’(Matt

25:20).

28

Withoutaprofitthereisnowealth,andwithoutwealththereisnocounteractingpoverty.

Energeticeffortstorollbackpovertyentailtheequallyenergeticembraceoftheprofit

motive.

(d)RelationshipsBiblicalwealthcreationnotonlyprioritizesprofit;equally,itprioritizesrelationships.Biblical

wealthcreationhasmultiplebottomlines;itsonlyconcernisnotmoney.Numerouscase

studiesevincedthisrelationalcomponentthroughtheirconcernfor‘servantleadership’,for

‘employeeempowermentanddevelopment’,forteam-building,forbuildinga‘flat’

organizationthatgaveemployeeseasieraccesstotopleadership.‘Wedonotwanttomake

robotsbutlife-longfriends,’saidoneentrepreneur.

Atthesametime,thiscombiningofthepriorityofprofitwithapriorityonrelationships

provedtobeoneofthemostdifficultchallenges—specificallywhenitcametothepointof

needingtofiresomeone.Strikingly,thischallenge,wasnotbasicallyacross-culturalissue;

ratheritwasabasichumanissue.Itprovednoeasierforacaringandconscientiousbossto

fireanemployeeinhisownculturethanitwasfiringsomeonecross-culturally.Thecross-

culturalsituationaddedafewmorelayersofcomplexity,butthebasichumanpainand

strugglewasthesame.

Itisapainthatcannotbeavoided.Businessleadershavebeenentrustedwiththewell-being

ofanorganizationandthelivelihoodoftheemployeeswhodependonthesurvivalofthat

organization.Theycannot,then,avoidthedifficultdecisionofdismissingemployeeswhodo

notfitthedemandsofthatorganizationandevenendangeritswell-being.

Whilemanyspeakofsomeculturesbeing‘task-oriented’andothers‘relationship-

oriented’,61biblicalwealthcreatorsmusthavebothgoalsinview.Godisboth.Wealth

creationhasataskinview;itistheretotakeGod’smaterialworldinorder,andmakeit

produce—allinlinewithGod’soriginalcommandto,‘Befruitfulandincreaseinnumber;fill

theearthandsubdueit.Ruleover...everylivingcreaturethatmovesontheground....

TheLordGodtookthemanandputhimintheGardenofEdentoworkitandtakecareofit’

(Gen1:28;2:15).Butthepointofthismaterialworldistoservepeople,andthe

relationshipstheyengagein.Neithercanbeforgotten.

(e)CulturalchangeImplicitinsomeofthepointsabove,isthatculturesdonotremainfrozen;theyneedto

changeandgrowevenasindividualsdo.WhattheBiblesaysaboutindividuals—‘Donotbe

conformedtotheworld,butbetransformedbytherenewalofyourmind’(Rom12:2)—also

appliestowholecultures.ChangingthewaywethinkisamustforChristians.Itis

unavoidable,anditisdemanded.Wemustnotbeafraid,then,ofchallengingculturalnorms.

Thisistruegenerally,butitisalsotruewhenitcomestothevaluesandattitudesrequired

forwealthcreation.Changecomesatmanylevels:sometimesatthesimpler,narrowerlevel

ofmeretechniques.Onedevelopmentspecialist—himselfaFilipino—inthePhilippines

29

helpinglocalfarmerstoimprovetheircashcropsandaccesstomarketsinsistedthey‘hadto

changeandlearnmoderntechniques’.Traditionsneedtoberespected,butwhenthey

becomeironfetterspreventinghumandevelopment,theyneedtobeoverthrown.Bruce

Olson’sagriculturalandmedicaladvanceswiththestone-ageMotilonesstory(seeearlierin

thisarticle)illustratedhowthiscouldbedonewithoutdestroyingthecultureitself.Without

changethereisnoprogress.

Sometimestheneedforculturalchangecomesatafardeeper,rootworldviewlevelthan

merelytheleveloftechniques.So,forinstance,severalcasestudiesinthePhilippinesand

Cambodiaremarkonthenecessityofoverthrowingthe‘fatalism’entrenchedinaculture.

‘Povertyisinthemind’onedevelopmentexpertnoted.Anotherentrepreneur,reflectingon

hisyearsinBuddhistCambodia,observedthatthepeopletheretendedtobeextremely

creativeandentrepreneurialatthelevelof‘survival’.Thatiswhereitstoppedhowever.Any

hopeorplansforeconomicbettermentbeyondmeresurvivalwerevirtuallynon-existent.

Therecouldbemanyreasonsforthis:aBuddhisticfatalism,Cambodia’srecentandhorrific

internalwars,along-standinginequalitybuiltintosocietysuchthat‘ordinarypeople...felt

theyshouldnothaveaspirationsbeyondtheirrank.’62

Whateverthecause,itseemedclearthatliberationfromthis‘thrivingversusmeresurviving’

mentalitycamefarmorereadilywhentheirfatalisticworldviewwasshakenandreversedby

aChristianworldviewrootedina)acreativeGodwhoruledboththenaturaland

supernaturalworld,b)anall-powerfulGodwholovedthempersonally,andc)aGodwho

hadapersonalplanfortheirlifewhichhewasactivelyimplementingincooperationwith

eachbeliever.Preachingthegospelisapracticaltoolforempoweringnations!

5.2CultureComplicates/EnrichesTheseValuesTheattributeslistedaboveapplytoeveryculture.However,thewaytheyworkoutcanbe

quitedifferentindifferentcultures.Culturebothenrichesandcomplicatestheseuniversal

values;howtheyexpressthemselvescanbedifferentindifferentcultures.Wealthcreators

needtobesensitivetothis.

(a)IntegrityandguanxiForinstance,balancingtherelationship-with-integrityvaluescanlookquitedifferentina

WesterncontextthaninaChinesecontextwhereguanxi(roughlytranslated‘relationships’)

issocentral.Guanxiisalmostuniversallyconsideredavitalcomponentofbusiness

relationshipsinChina.63ButgiventhatGuanxifunctionsbytheinterchangeof‘smallfavors

backandforth,leadingtolargerfavors’,64itcanbeperplexingtocombinethisculturalvalue

withthedemandforintegrity—understoodintheWesttobethesideliningofaffective

relationshipsforthesakeofimpersonal,objectivetaskevaluations.SoNoraHughes,when

workingwithIntelinChinawiththeirstandardof‘zerotoleranceforcorruption’,taught

theirsitemanagersthat‘nothingcouldbereceivedfromavendor,notevenamooncake’.

Soundslikeahigh-mindedinsistenceonintegrity,butitsoutworkingwasdifferent:

30

Ifmydriver’smotherbakedmemooncakesattheAutumnfestivalIcouldnotaccept

thembecausetherewasazerotoleranceforbriberyandthedriverwasavendor.

ButfromtheChinesepointofview,Iwasrude.65

Rude!ThisinterpretationofintegrityrandirectlycountertotheChineseunderstandingof

goodrelationshipsandtranslatedintoadisrespectingofpersons.Nowthatdoesnotsound

veryChristian.

(b)RelationalandtaskinterweavingAndwhilebiblicalwealthcreationwillstressbothtaskandrelationships,thewaytheywill

workoutcanbequitedifferent.WeareremindedofthiswhenSeniorAffiliateProfessorErin

Meyerillustratesthefamiliardistinctionbetweentask-basedandrelational-basedcultures

withacasestudyfromintervieweeReninChina:

InRen’sculture,personaltrustfundamentallyshiftsthewaythetwopartiesconduct

business.Bycontrast,Americanmanagersmakeaconcertedefforttoensurethat

personalrelationshipsdonotcloudthewaytheyapproachbusinessinteractions—in

fact,theyoftendeliberatelyrestrictaffectiveclosenesswithpeopletheydependon

foreconomicresources,suchasbudgetingorfinancing.Afterall,incountrieslikethe

UnitedStatesorSwitzerland,‘businessisbusiness’.IncountrieslikeChinaorBrazil,

‘businessispersonal’.66

(c)OldandnewwithinthesamecultureAfurthercomplexitytoculture’simpactisthatitisalwayschanging.Moreover,withinthe

sameculturecanbedifferingvaluesaccordingtoone’srural-urbanidentityorone’sage

group,andallthesechangingatdifferentrates.NoraHughes’experienceinChinalargely

echoedtheresearchofShuangLiu,totheeffectthat:

LiuexaminedtwoStateOwnedEnterprises(SOEs)andfoundthattherewere

generationaldifferencesbetweenthosewhohadbelongedtotheSOEpriortothe

reformsandthosewhojoinedafterthereformsbegan(S.Liu,2003).Sheexamined

thethemesofhierarchy,familyandequalityandfoundtheywerethesameinboth

generations.However,Bureaucracy,harmony,security,loyaltyandstabilitywere

different.Forthemostparttheyoungergroupfoundbureaucracyawasteoftime,

valuedhigherperformanceratherthanharmony,trustedmoreintheirownabilityin

themarketplacethantheSOEsecuritysystem,waslessloyaltotheSOE,andfeltthat

changewasgood.67

(d)Global/localtogetherWithinchangingculturesoneseestheinterweavingoftheglobalandthelocal.Recentlywe

hadaconversationwithamissionleadertellingusofhisSamoancolleagueraisinghisfamily

intheUnitedStates.ThisSamoanhadbeencontactedbyhistribaleldersbackinSamoa

uponthedeathoftheirchief,askinghimtotakeupthechieftainshipofthetribe.Heagreed,

butononecondition:thathebeabletoremainintheUnitedStates.Thetribeagreed.

Today,theinterweavingofthelocalwiththeglobalisafact.Themodernismixingwiththe

31

traditional,theWestwiththeEastandtheNorthwiththeSouth.Introducingculturalchange

isareality,abenefit,andachallenge.“Culturalpurity”isnolongerthegoldstandarditused

tobeforsomanyanthropologists.

(e)ThreesensitiveissuesButthismixingofculturescommonlyinvolvesthreesensitiveissues:

• communication:directversusindirect

• identity:groupversusindividual• leadership:hierarchicalversusinformal

Someculturesarecomfortablewithextremelydirecttalkaboutweaknesses,failuresand

performancethatneedstochange,interruptionsareaccepted,disagreementsare

welcomed;otherculturesapproachthesesubjectsonlyslowlyandinferentially.Some

researchersidentifythesepreferencecharacteristicofan‘information-oriented’culture

(wherethefocusisonthenon-relationalfactspertinenttoatask)incontrasttoa

‘relationship-oriented’culture(wherewhoisrelatedtowhominwhatwayisakeyfactorin

communicationstyles).68Clearly,thiscontrasthaslargeimplicationsforthecommunications

sonecessarytowealthcreation—negotiationsconductedbetweenbusinessaswellinternal

communicationswithinabusiness.

Aculture’sindividualisticversuscollectivistorientationisalsorelevant:

‘Individualism...pertainstosocietiesinwhichthetiesbetweenindividualsare

loose:everyoneisexpectedtolookafterhimselforherselfandhisorherimmediate

family.’(Hofstede,1991).Itsoppositeiscollectivism,wheregroupmembershipand

cooperationareparamount.69

Hofstedeexplains:

Inacollectivistculture,anemployerneverhiresjustanindividual,butrathera

personwhobelongstoanin-group.Theemployeewillactaccordingtotheinterest

ofthisin-group,whichmaynotalwayscoincidewithhisorherindividualinterest....

Thehiringprocessinacollectivistsocietyalwaystakesthein-groupintoaccount.

Usually,preferenceisgiventohiringrelatives,firstofalloftheemployer.70

ThisstancehelpsexplainoneincidentNoraHughesinitiallyfoundpuzzlingwhilewithIntelin

China:

IhadhiredaFilipinawomanintheODdepartmentandhadtheopportunitytohire

another,whomIknewwasqualified.TheChinesewerenothappywiththatprospect

becausetheyfeltwewouldendupwiththeFilipinosstickingtogethertothe

Chinese’downfall,astheHRmanagerwasalsoaFilipina.71

32

Innavigatingthisrelationalminefield,NoraHugheshadtobalanceseverallegitimatevalues:

thetask-effectivenessforIntelasanorganization,relationshipswithherChineseworkers,

andrespectnotonlyfortherelationshipswithbutthegiftingofherFilipinajob-applicants.

Thehierarchicalversusformalnatureofaculture’sleadershipexpectationsarealso

relevant.Hofstedeexplains:

Insmall-power-distancecountries,thereislimiteddependenceofsubordinateson

bosses,andthereisapreferenceforconsultation....Theemotionaldistance

betweenthemisrelativelysmall:subordinateswillrathereasilyapproachand

contradicttheirbosses....Inlarge-power-distancecountries,thereisconsiderable

dependenceofsubordinatesonbosses....Inthesecasestheemotionaldistance...

islarge;subordinatesareunlikelytoapproachandcontradicttheirbossesdirectly.72

Thisclearlyimpactshowonedoesemployeeworkreviews:thefearfactoronthepartofthe

employeecouldbecripplingifnotapproachedcorrectly.Italsoimpactstheextentandway

onetriestomovetowarda‘flatorganization’.

Culture,then,doesnotnegatetheuniversalityofbiblicalstandards,butitdoesaffecthow

theyareimplemented.

5.3FindingaLocalMentor

Infindingourwayforwardthroughthisculturemaze,findingtherightmentorisatreasure.

Weoftenneedsomeonewhoknowstheculturalsensitivitiesandisalerttocommunication

signalstowhichwe,asforeigners,maybedeaf.Wemustacknowledgeourneedforhelp

here.Humilityandlisteningtoothersareourbestwayforward:‘Thewayoffoolsseems

righttothem,butthewiselistentoadvice’(Prov12:5).

Godhasrichlysupplieduswithsourcesofwisdom,ifwewillbutlisten.InMatthew23:34we

read:‘ThereforeIamsendingyouprophetsandwisemenandteachers.’Similarly,inEzekiel

7:26itiswritten,‘Theywilltrytogetavisionfromtheprophet;theteachingofthelawby

thepriestwillbelost,aswillthecounseloftheelders.’Bothpassagessummarizethe

differentwaysGodguidesus:1)theprophet’svision(Spiritthefocus),2)thepriest’s

teaching(God’sWordthefocus),and3)elders’counsel(common-senseexperiencethe

focus).Ifwewilllistentoallofthese,wewillbemuchbetterequippedtotacklethecultural

challengesinvolvedinaddressingoneofthemanypurposesofGod’sheart:wealthcreation

fortheholistictransformationofpeoplesandnations.

33

Appendix

ConsultationonWealthCreation(CWC):BackgroundandContextTheCWCwasnotjustanevent.TheConsultationheldinThailand,inMarch2017,wasapart

ofaconsultativeprocess,whichinturnispartofbroader,longer,andon-going

conversationsrelatedtoissueslikethechurch,business,poverty,wealthcreation,and

missions.

Therefore,itisimportanttounderstandthebackgroundandcontextofeachCWCreport.

Theyareimportantpiecesofabiggerpuzzle.Tounderstandthepicturethatisemerging,as

weputthepiecestogether,oneneedstoseesomeoftheotherkeypieces.

TheCWCisyetanotheroutcomeofthehistoriccommitmentsadoptedintheLausanne

Covenantof1974.Here,whilecommittingthemselvestotheimportanceofevangelism,

evangelicalsalsoexpressedrepentancefor‘havingsometimesregardedevangelismand

socialconcernasmutuallyexclusive’.Wealthcreationfortheeconomicbettermentofour

worldisoneofthoseneglectedsocialconcerns;anditisthisthattheCWCaddresses.

AllCWCparticipantswerepresentedwithalistofrequiredreading.Thesereadingsall

relatedtotheCWCassignmentofexploringtheRoleofWealthCreationinHolistic

TransformationofPeopleandSocieties.

TheCWCwaspartlyafollowupoftheLausanneGlobalConsultationonProsperityTheology,

PovertyandtheGospelheldinApril2014.Thus,allneededtobefamiliarwiththeAtibaiaStatement:https://www.lausanne.org/content/statement/atibaia-statement(more

informationbelow).

TheLausanneGlobalConsultationonWealthCreationwasincollaborationwithBAMGlobal,andthussomeofitsworkandreportswereincludedintherequiredreading.

‘WhyBotherwithBusinessasMission’,byMatsTunehaghttp://matstunehag.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Why-Bother-with-Business-as-

Mission-v-18-April-2017.pdf

TheexecutivesummariesofthreeBAMThinkTankReports

• BiblicalFoundationsforBusinessasMission

http://bamglobal.org/report-biblical/

• BusinessasMissionandtheendofPoverty

http://bamglobal.org/report-bop/

• BusinessasMissioninHaiti

http://bamglobal.org/report-haiti/

34

CWCislinkedwiththreeotherglobalconsultationsthatdealtwithsimilarissues,held2004,

2009,and2014.

TheLausanneBAMIssueGroup

ThefirstBAMGlobalThinkTankwasheldundertheauspicesofLausanne.TheBusinessas

MissionIssueGroupworkedforayear,addressingissuesrelatingtoGod’spurposesforwork

andbusiness,theroleofbusinesspeopleinchurchandmissions,theneedsoftheworldand

thepotentialresponseofbusiness.ItsummarizeditsfindingsintheBAMManifesto(2004).Hereareafewexcerpts,toillustrateagrowingconsensusamongleadersthatwealth

creatorsarecalledbyGodtoserveinbusiness.

• WebelievethatGodhascreatedallmenandwomeninHisimagewiththeabilityto

becreative,creatinggoodthingsforthemselvesandforothers—thisincludes

business.

• WebelieveinfollowinginthefootstepsofJesus,whoconstantlyandconsistentlymet

theneedsofthepeopleheencountered,thusdemonstratingtheloveofGodandthe

ruleofHiskingdom.

• WebelievethattheHolySpiritempowersallmembersoftheBodyofChristtoserve,tomeettherealspiritualandphysicalneedsofothers,demonstratingthekingdomof

God.

• WebelievethatGodhascalledandequippedbusinesspeopletomake

aKingdomdifferenceinandthroughtheirbusinesses.

• WebelievethattheGospelhasthepowertotransformindividuals,communitiesand

societies.Christiansinbusinessshouldthereforebeapartofthisholistic

transformationthroughbusiness.

• Werecognisethefactthatpovertyandunemploymentareoftenrampantinareas

wherethenameofJesusisrarelyheardandunderstood.

• Werecognisethatthereisaneedforjobcreationandformultiplicationof

businessesallovertheworld,aimingatthequadruplebottomline:spiritual,

economical,socialandenvironmentaltransformation.

• Werecognisethefactthatthechurchhasahugeandlargelyuntappedresourcein

theChristianbusinesscommunitytomeetneedsoftheworld—inandthrough

business—andbringglorytoGodinthemarketplaceandbeyond.

• SeealsoBAMManifesto:http://matstunehag.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/BAM-MANIFESTO-2.pdf.

WheatonConsultation

AglobalconsultationonBusinessasIntegralCallingwasheldinWheaton,IllinoisinOctober

2009.Itbroughttogetherleadersfromtherealmsofbusiness,non-profitorganizations,and

Christianministrywiththeologiansandacademicleadersinbusiness,economics,and

missions.ExcerptsfromtheDeclaration:

35

• Lamentations

• Welamentthatthechurchandbusinessitselfhaveundervaluedbusinessasavehicle

forlivingoutChrist’scalling,andhavereliedexcessivelyonnon-profitapproaches

thathaveresultedindependence,waste,andanunnecessarylossofhumandignity.

• CelebrationofFaithandHope

• WecelebratethegrowingmovementofpeopleseekingtobeusedbyGodandto

deploybusinesseconomicactivityforGod’sKingdom.

• Businesscancreatevalue,providethedignityofwork,andtransformcommunitiesby

improvinglivelihoods.

• BusinesscanbeanintegralcallingtoproclaimanddemonstratetheKingdomofGod

byhonoringGod,lovingpeople,andservingtheworld.

• Businesscanalsoprovideapowerfulopportunityforthetransformationofindividuals

toachievetheirfullpotentialforcreativityandproductivityandtoflourishand

experiencealifeofabundanceasenvisionedbytheKingdomofGod.

• BusinesscanbeusedtohelprestoreGod’screationfromitsdegradedstate.

• ItisourdeepconvictionthatbusinessesthatfunctioninalignmentwiththecorevaluesoftheKingdomofGodareplayingandincreasinglyshouldplayanimportantroleinholistictransformationofindividuals,communitiesandsocieties.

• SeealsoWheatonDeclaration:http://matstunehag.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Wheaton-Declaration.pdf.

AtibaiaConsultation

WealthcreationanddistributionwerediscussedaspartoftheLausanneGlobalConsultationonProsperityTheology,PovertyandtheGospelheldinAtibaia,Brazilin2014.Theconsultationaffirmedthatsharingwealthisgoodandbiblical,butwealthdistributionis

toooftenourmainresponsetomeetingpeoples’needs.Itidentifiedtheneedtoseek

increasinglytounderstandhowbusinessescanbringsolutionstoglobalissues,including

povertyandhumantrafficking.Thenotionofsimplicityasauniversalvaluewasalso

challenged,andneededtobeaddressedfurther.

TheAtibaiaStatementisquitelong,buthereareafewexcerptsrelatedtowealthcreation,businessandthepoor.

• Christiansarecallednotonlytogiveandsharegenerously,buttoworkforthe

alleviationofpoverty.Thisshouldincludeofferingalternative,ethicalways,forthe

creationofwealthandthemaintenanceofsocially-responsiblebusinessesthat

empowerthepoorandprovidematerialbenefit,andindividualandcommunal

dignity.Thismustalwaysbedonewiththeunderstandingthatallwealthandall

creationbelongfirstandforemosttoGod.

36

• Weacknowledgethat,intheglobalmarketeconomy,oneofthemosteffectivetools

fortheeliminationofpovertyiseconomicdevelopment,andyetevangelicalshave

oftenfailedtopromotevalue-drivenbusinesssolutionstopoverty.

• Howcanwemoreeffectivelyworkfortheestablishmentofcreative,ethical,and

sustainablebusinessendeavorsinthefightagainstpoverty?

• SeealsoAtibaiaStatement:https://www.lausanne.org/content/statement/atibaia-

statement.

37

Endnotes

1

Editor’sNote:IntheManifesto,‘Church’(withuppercase)and‘church’(withlowercase)areused

intentionally,theformerdenotingtheglobalChurchandthelatterthelocalchurch.

2

Otherpapersinthisseriesexplorethebiblicalrootsandmeaningofwealthcreation.Thispaperwillsimply

assumebothitslegitimacyandimportance.

3

DonRichardson,‘DoMissionariesDestroyCultures?’inR.D.WinterandS.C.Hawthorne(eds.),Perspectiveson

theWorldChristianMovement,3rd

ed.(Pasadena,CA:Wm.CareyLibrary1999),460-68.

4

GeertHofstede,GertJ.HofstedeandMichaelMinkov,CulturesandOrganizations:SoftwareoftheMind(New

York:McGrawHill,2010),5.AndseeR.WinterandS.Hawthorne,eds.,PerspectivesontheWorldChristian

Movement:aReader,RevisedEdition(Pasadena,CA:WilliamCareyLibrary,1992),C-163(citingtheWillowbank

Report).5

LawrenceHarrisonandSamuelHuntington,eds.,CultureMatters:HowValuesShapeHumanProgress(New

York:BasicBooks,2000),xiii-vi.

6

MarshallSahlins,ApologiestoThucydides:UnderstandingHistoryasCultureandViceVersa(Chicago:

UniversityofChicago,2004),116-21.

7

PeterBerger,TheCapitalistRevolution:FiftyPropositionsAboutProsperity,EqualityandLiberty(Aldershot,

Hants:WildwoodHouse,1987),7.

8

MissiologistAndrewWallsidentifiedthetensionbetweentheembraceofbothheavenandearthasthe

tensionbetweenthegospel’s‘indigenizingprinciple’andits‘pilgrimprinciple’.AndrewF.Walls,TheMissionary

MovementinChristianHistory:StudiesintheTransmissionofFaith(NewYork:Orbis,1996),7-9.9

JamesWilson,AMissionaryVoyage(London:T.Chapman,1799),3-4,xciii-iv.

10

HiramBingham,AResidenceofTwenty-OneYearsintheSandwichIslands:OftheCivil,Religious,andPolitical

HistoryofThoseIslands(Clarendon,VT:TuttlePublishing,2013),Kindleedition,loc.3719-20.11

Walls,MissionaryMovement,106.12

Manyofthebestmissionarieswereawareofthisdanger,andsoughttoavoidit.SoWilliamCareywroteto

hissonFelixwho,from1807,hadbeguntotransferhismissionfocusfromIndiatoBurma:‘Bemeekandgentle

amongthepeople.Cultivatetheutmostcordialitywiththemasyourequals.NeverletEuropeanprideand

superiorityappearattheMissionHouse,Rangoon.’BasilMiller,WilliamCarey:theFatherofModernMissions

(Minneapolis:Bethany,1980),107.

13

BrianStanley,TheBibleandtheFlag(Leicester:Apollos,1990),165-67.14

Walls,MissionaryMovement,110.15

Walls,MissionaryMovement,109.16

TimothyRichard,Forty-FiveYearsinChina:Reminiscences(NewYork:StokesCo.,1916)(ReprintedBiblioLife),

7.Ontherisingconflictbetweena‘churchmission’anda‘kingdomvision’duringthisseconderaofevangelical

missions,seeRalphD.Winter,‘ThreeMissionEras:AndtheLossandRecoveryofKingdomMission,1800–

2000’,inPerspectivesontheWorldChristianMovement:AReader,4th

ed.,ed.RalphD.WinterandStephenC.

Hawthorne(Pasadena,CA:Wm.CareyLibrary,2009),263-78.

17

RalphWinter,‘TheStoryofTwoVeryDifferentMissionariestoChina’,MissionFrontiers(Nov.-Dec.2008):12-

13.

18

BruceOlson,ForThisCrossI’llKillYou(CarolStream,IL:CreationHouse,1973),155.19

Hofstede,CulturesandOrganizations,25.20

MarshallSahlins,‘Hunter-Gatherers:Insightfromagoldenaffluentage’,PacificEcologist,Winter(2009):3-8,

3(thearticleisanabridgementfromhis1972bookStoneAgeEconomics).21

Sahlins2009:5.

22

AllquotationsabovetakenfromDavidKaplan,‘TheDarkerSideofthe‘OriginalAffluentSociety’,Journalof

AnthropologicalResearch,Vol.56,No.3(Autumn,2000):301-24,305-7,310,314:http://kk.org/mt-

files/reCCearch-mt/kaplan-darker.pdf.23

RalphKuykendall,TheHawaiianKingdom:1778-1854,FoundationandTransformation,vol.I.(Honolulu,

UniversityofHawaiiPressKuykendall,1938),179-81.

38

24

BruceOlson,BruchkoandtheMotiloneMiracle:HowBruceOlsonBroughtaStoneAgeTribeintothe21st

Century(LakeMary,FL.:CharismaHouse,2006),53.25

Olson,BruchkoandtheMotiloneMiracle,38,16-17.26

Olson,BruchkoandtheMotiloneMiracle,181-83.27

Kaplan,‘TheDarkerSideofthe“OriginalAffluentSociety”’,315-17.

28

DouglasWilson,‘WesternMission-establishedChurchesandMinistryinMali’sCollectivistEconomy’,inJohn

CheongandEloiseMeneses,eds.,ChristianMissionsandEconomicSystems:aCriticalSurveyoftheCultural

andReligiousDimensionsofEconomies(Pasadena,CA:WilliamCareyLibrary,2015),Kindleedition,loc.3048-

51(italicsadded).29

‘CrossroadsWorkinMali’,CrossroadsInternational,availableat:

https://www.cintl.org/sslpage.aspx?pid=296.EventhemoreoptimisticWorldBankarticleof2013pointsout

Mali’spoorperformancecomparedtotherestofAfrica:inMali,‘Accesstoserviceshasimprovedsubstantially

…butisstillwellbelowSub-SaharanAfricaaverages’,andeducationallyit‘remainedwellbelowAfrican

standards.’(R.Swinkel,‘PovertyinMaliinthe2000’saSuccessStory?’(May2013).Availableat:https://www.

researchgate.net/publication/265054447_POVERTY_IN_MALI_IN_THE_2000'S_A_SUCCESS_STORY.

30

Wilson,‘WesternMission’,loc.3054-57,citingMaranz,AfricanFriends,2.31

DavidMaranz,AfricanFriendsandEconomicMatters(Dallas:SILInternational,2001),2.32

NotallinourconsultationagreedthatthisIsaiahportionwasrelevant,suggestingitwasusedoutofcontext.

Thiswriter,however,judgedthatthoughitwasindeedusedforanotherpurposebyIsaiah,theuseinthis

paperisstillrelevantasthebaseprinciplestillstands,nomatterhowitisapplied:thata)economicreality

mustberecognizedandb)thatunderstandingtheseeconomicrealitiescancomefromGodhimself.

33

RobertAndolina,‘Thevaluesofwater:DevelopmentculturesandindigenousculturesinhighlandEcuador’,

inLatinAmericanResearchReview47,(2012)no.2:3-26,5-6,12.34

PatrickV.Kirch,ASharkGoingInlandisMyChief(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2012),125.35

JonathanK.Osorio,DismemberingLāhui:AHistoryoftheHawaiianNationto1887(Honolulu:Universityof

Hawai’iPress,2002),150.Ontheprimacyof‘birth-orderstatus’,seeKirch,ASharkGoingIndland,228-29.36

GeorgeKanahele,KūKanaka,StandTall:ASearchforHawaiianValues(Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress,

1992),42-43.Kanahelenoted,‘Chiefswhoweredefeatedinbattle...couldlosetheirmanaandposition....

Thus,anunmistakableandruthlessefficiencyenteredintothewayHawaiiansofolddealtwiththeworldofthe

sacred.’Kanahele,KūKanaka,42-43.37

See‘Whatisentrepreneurship?’BusinessNewsDaily,url:http://www.businessnewsdaily.com/2642-

entrepreneurship.htmlandhttp://www.businessnewsdaily.com/7275-entrepreneurship-defined.html

38

Andolina,‘Thevaluesofwater’,16-17.

39

Seehttp://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/ecuador-diversity-migration.Thissitealsoexplains,‘Likemany

countriesinLatinAmerica,Ecuadorinthe1970sexperiencedeconomicgrowthandimprovedlivingconditions.

Butintheearly1980s,oilpricescollapsed,causingadebtcrisis,anincreaseininflation,andadramatic

decreaseinwages.Thecrisis,Ecuador'sfirstsince1960,wasparticularlyonerousonsubsistencefarmers,

thousandsofwhomoptedtoemigrateasaresult.’CentralAmericarevealsasimilarmigrationpattern.10%of

Guatemala’grossdomesticproductcomesfromthe$7.1billionannuallyremittedtoGuatemalabyitsmigrants

mostlylivingintheU.S.SeeMaryO’Grady,‘CentralAmericatoObama:GoodRiddance’,WallStreetJournal,

Jan.23,2017,url:http://www.wsj.com/articles/central-america-to-obama-good-riddance-1485122975.

40

EvenDr.Bushnell,nogreatfriendtothemissionaries,writesoftheircoming:‘AlreadythisShelteredHaven

[Honolulu]wasgainingareputationasthemostdebauchedplacebetweenCantonandValparaiso....

Hawaiiansneededhelp,iftheyweretosurvive….In1819,neitherinHawai’inorinanyotherpartofthegreat

world,nooneknew,orbothered,orcaredaboutthedyingoftheHawaiianpeople.Then,justintime,from

acrosstheseas,thehelperscame.’O.Bushnell,TheGiftsofCivilization:GermsandGenocideinHawaii

(Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress,1993),264-5.

41

Kirch,ASharkGoingInland,17.42

See,forinstance,KirchandSahlinsonthe‘comingofthewhalersgavethe‘lower’socialsphereof

commonerexchangeaconsiderablestimulus.’PatrickKirchandMarshallSahlins,Anahulu:TheAnthropologyof

HistoryintheKingdomofHawaii,vol.1.(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1992),108.Seetoothe

observationoflong-servingmissionaryBondofKohalain1860,aftersteppinginattherequestofthe

governmentasalandsurveyortoensurethattheland,aftertheGreatMahele,fairlywenttothecommoners:

39

‘ForthefirsttenyearsofourMissionarylife,Iborethebruntofalltheirbattleswiththeirchiefishoppressors,

andtheywerelegion.Ineverforsookthemeanestofthemall,tillthebattleforfreedomhadbeenfoughtand

won....Thegrossoppressionslikewisepracticedbylandlordsuponthepeople,snatchingtheirfoodfromtheir

mouthsandseizingindiscriminatelyandalmostwithimpunityanythingandeverythingpossessedbythose

underthem,these...havegone.’EthelDamon,FatherBondofKohala:AChronicleofaPioneerLifeinHawaii

(Honolulu:TheFriend,1927),156,160.

43

KirchandSahlinsnotethatfromtheearly1850s,thechiefs’prosperitybegantobewipedout,eventhough

inthelandreform(theMahele)of1848‘thekingandthechiefswerethebigwinners’,while‘thecommoners

gotlessthanonepercent.’KirchandSahlins,Anahulu,9.TheHaolereceivednothing.44

ThisisnottodenytheHaole’spoliticalpower;notonlywereHaoleselectedtothelegislaturebutitwasthey

whomadeuptheking’scabinet.However,itwasthekinghimselfwhofreelychosehisadvisers,anddismissed

them.KingKamehamehaVflexedhispoliticalmuscleswhen,contrarytothewishesofmosthaole,hein1864

abolishedtheexistentmore-democraticconstitution,settinginitsplaceoneaccordinghimasmonarchfar

morepower.EvenDr.JonathanOsorio,whoarguesthatdespiteallappearancesthe‘realpower’waswiththe

haole,admits:‘Theking[KamehamehaV]in1864,though,wasquitepowerfulandthecabinet,including

Wyllie,wasdeferentialtohiswill....TheevidentinabilityoftheHawaiianizedhaoletodeterminetheoutcome

ofthe[constitutional]convention...reflectedtheiractualweaknessinconfrontingadeterminedandeffective

monarch...[possessing]thesupportandloyaltyofthekanaka[native-bornHawaiian]citizens.’Osorio,

DismemberingLāhui,129-30.45

KirchandSahlins,Anahulu,57-8.46

Thepopulationnotonlydeclined,itplummeted.Westerndiseasesintroduced—including,significantly,

venerealdisease—toaculturewithfewsexualinhibitions,(TheanthropologistMarshallSahlins,nofriendto

puritanicalmissionaries,commentsinhisIslandsofHistoryonthesexualizationofHawaiian,commentingon

their‘preoccupationwithsex’andnoting,‘Sexwaseverything:rank,power,wealth,land,andthesecurityof

allthese.’MarshallSahlins,IslandsofHistory(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1987),10,26)in

combinationwithHawaii’sfamilialstructureledtoadisastrousplummetingpopulation.Conservatively

reckoned,thepopulationofHawaiiwasc.300,000in1778,andbythetimeofitsfirstofficialcensusin1832,it

hadalreadyshrunkto130,313.OswaldBushnell,TheGiftsofCivilization:GermsandGenocideinHawaii

(Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress,1993)266.By1853thisnumberhadfallenyetfurtherto171,015;by

1890thefigurewasamere37,656.SumnerLaCroixandJamesRoumasset,‘TheEvolutionofPrivateProperty

inNineteenth-CenturyHawaii’,TheJournalofEconomicHistory,vol.50,no.4(Dec.1990):829-52.47

Thecombinationofcustomaryrestrictionsonchildbearingandasuddenriseofthedeathratefrom

introduceddiseases...immediatelysetoffadownwardcycle....[D]elayedmarriageorpostponementof

settlingdown...wereamongawholepanoplyofcustomarypracticesthatinhibitedchildbearingandrearing,

includingabortion,infanticide,celibacy,andcontraception....[T]hefamilystructurefellinuponitself.’Kirch

andSahlins,Anahulu,200-03.48

KirchandSahlinswrite:‘Thechiefsystemwasdecadent,inaclassicway....[T]hechiefsfinallymanagedto

disaffectthecommonpeoplewhomtheyhadobligedtobearthecosts.Bythemid-1850s,thechiefswere

finishedasarulingclass.Theforcedlaborsystemfinallydidtheminbyempoweringaparasiticthrongof

konohiki[undermanagers],thusimpoverishingandalienatingtheproducingpeople….[T]herulingchiefs,their

wealthandauthoritythusundermined,couldnotthenwithstandtheHaole[whiteforeigners]....[L]ocal

chiefstriedtomakeagoofranching....Butthechiefsfounditevenmoreadvantageoustolease—orafterthe

Mahele,tosell—grazinglandstoHaole,whoweredevelopingherds,tenandtwentytimesthesizeofali’i

cattleholdings.’KirchandSahlins,Anahulu,112-14,134.49

KirchandSahlinsexplainthe‘productionforuse’mentalitybycitinganold-timerHawaiian’sobservationof

1871that,‘IfthenativeHawaiianissuppliedwithfoodandclothing,heissatisfied...theheavenisabove,the

earthisbelow....Thereisnoneedofseekingfurther.’Theyexplainthisas‘workingtoaclassicpatternof

productionforuse.’KirchandSahlins,Anahulu,29-30.Itwasnotlaziness—theunwillingnesstoputinthework

necessarytoreachone’saspirations—butratheranexpressionofsimplifiedandratcheteddownaspirations.

‘Productionforuse’aimsmerelyforsubsistenceneeds,incontrastto‘productionforexchange’,whichaimsfor

generationofsurplus(tobeusedtheninexchange).SeePaulRobbins,ed.,EncyclopediaofEnvironmentand

Society,s.v.‘Commodification’,(LosAngeles:SagePublications,2007).

40

50

DavidBronkema‘FlyingBlind?ChristianNGOsandPoliticalEconomy’,inJamesCheongandEloiseMeneses,

eds.,ChristianMissionandEconomicSystems(Pasadena:WilliamCareyLibrary,2015),Kindleedition,loc.

4423-24.

51

Bronkema,‘FlyingBlind?”,loc.4423-25.Emphasisadded.

52

PaulPolak,OutofPoverty:WhatWorksWhenTraditionalApproachesFail(SanFrancisco:Berrett-Koehler

Publishers,2008),21.

53

Polak,OutofPoverty,34-41.54

SeeLawrenceE.Harrison,UnderdevelopmentisaStateofMind:TheLatinAmericanCase(Boston:Madison

Books,1985),andseeHernanddeSoto,TheMysteryofCapital:WhyCapitalismTriumphsintheWestandFails

EverywhereElse(NewYork:BasicBooks,2000).55

SamuelP.Huntington,‘CulturesCount’,inCultureMatters:HowValuesShapeHumanProgress,eds.

LawrenceE.HarrisonandSamuelP.Huntington(NewYork:BasicBooks,2000),xiii-vi.

56

RushworthKidder,‘MoralCourage,DigitalDistrust:EthicsinaTroubledWorld,’CenterforBusinessEthics,

February7,2005,url:http://www.bentley.edu/sites/www.bentley.edu.centers/files/centers/cbe/kidder-

monograph.pdf.

57

Theinterviewandreview-of-case-studieswasrelevantbutnotwide-ranging.Thatisanumberofthe

practitioner-participantsinthe2017ChiangMaiconsultationwerepersonallyinterviewed.Additionally,

numerouscasestudiesintheBusinessasMissionnetworkwereread.

58

Thesourceofthisquoteiskeptdeliberatelyanonymous.

59

‘Profit–Definition.’BD–BusinessDictionary,http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/profit.html.

60

TheapostlePaulwriteshere,‘Nowhewhosuppliesseedtothesowerandbreadforfoodwillalsosupplyand

increaseyourstoreofseedandwillenlargetheharvestofyourrighteousness.’Implicitinthisverseisthe

assumptionthatthepurposeofGod’sprovisionofseedis‘surplus’;thatis,thattheharvestwhichhehas

blessedisnotalltobeconsumedasbreadbutsomeistobe‘extra’,reservedforfuturesowing.61

RichardGestland,Cross-CulturalBusinessBehavior,rev.ed.(Copenhagen:CopenhagenBusinessSchool

Press,2012).

62

Hofstede,CulturesandOrganizations,63.63

Languatics,‘WanttoCapitalizeonChina?YouBetterHaveGoodQuanxi.’Forbes,March15,2012,url:

https://www.forbes.com/sites/languatica/2012/03/15/want-to-capitalize-on-china-you-better-have-good-

guanxi/#77a258db53ca;AnthonyGohandMatthewSullivan,‘TheMostMisunderstoodConceptinChina,’

BusinessInsider,Feb.24,2011,url:http://www.businessinsider.com/the-most-misunderstood-business-

concept-in-china-2011-2?IR=T.

64

NoraHughes,‘ChineseSocialNetworks:GuanxiandWesternManagement’,DepthPapers,(paperpresented

asbackgroundresearchtoPhD),2007,FieldingUniversity,15.

65

NoraHughes,emailmessagetoauthor,March22,2017.

66

ErinMeyer,TheCultureMap:BreakingThroughtheCulturalBoundariesofGlobalBusiness(NewYork:

PublicAffairs,2014),170.

67

NoraHughes,‘ChineseSocialNetworks’,4,citingShuangLiu,CultureswithinCulture:Unityanddiversityof

twogenerationsofemployeesinstate-ownedenterprises,HumanRelations,56(4),2003,387-417.68

AlanM.Rugman,TheOxfordHandbookofInternationalBusiness,2nd

ed.(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,

2009),510;JenniferChandlerandJohnGraham,‘Relationship-OrientedCultures,Corruption,andInternational

MarketingSuccess’,JournalofBusinessEthics,February2010,doi:10.1007/s10551-009-0152-7,url:

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225723011_Relationship-Oriented_Cultures_Corruption_and_

International_Marketing_Success.

69

ChandlerandGraham,‘Relationship-OrientedCultures’.

70

Hofstede,CulturesandOrganizations,119-20.71

Hughes,‘ChineseSocialNetworks’,15.

72

Hofstede,CulturesandOrganizations,61.