WEB Humanitarianism in the Network Age vF Single

8/13/2019 WEB Humanitarianism in the Network Age vF Single

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CHAPTER 3

Adaptation and change

The previous chapters focused on thechanges that characterize the networkage, and how new ideas and technologiescan improve communications amongthe increasing array of humanitarian

actors. Against this backdrop of change,humanitarian action is already adapting.Three forms of adaptation outlined belowcan help humanitarian organizations takeadvantage of the opportunities available.

First, humanitarian aid organizations mustadapt to work with new data sources . Withsophisticated analysis layered over big opendata, and techniques such as crowdsourcingand crowdseeding, they could access moreaccurate, relevant, timely and reliableinformation. To do so, they must embracethese sources and lose the fear of beingoverwhelmed. They must understand how toincorporate these sources into decisions andinvest in building analytic capacity across theentire humanitarian network.

Second, humanitarians must adapt to workwith new partners and new techniques .This is an ongoing process, and theethos of this report is that the adaptation

should take place based on open two-way communications between traditionalhumanitarians and a wider array of actors—including those communities they aim toassist. This will play out over the next decadeand beyond, but there are many basic steps

that can be taken today that empowervulnerable and crisis-affected people tomanage their risks and shape their recoveri

Third, humanitarians must adapt to the

idea of information as a basic need inhumanitarian response . This may requirereordering of priorities and a revision of roparticularly by international humanitarianorganizations. The evidence in this reportsuggests that in the network age, accessto accurate, consistent information by awide range of response actors provides thefoundation for life-saving interventions andhelping people recover from a crisis.

These adaptations are not optional.Communities and Governments aredemanding more information transparencyand more effective performance fromhumanitarian actors. The network age creavalue when information is shared. The fail

“Never has it been so easyto expose an error, check afact, crowdsource and bring

technology to bear in serviceof verication.”Craig Silverman, Truth in Social Media


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to share is no longer a matter of institutionalrecalcitrance: it can cost lives.

1. Adapting to newdata sources, toolsand techniquesImproving the quality of humanitariandecisions requires the effective use of data.To exploit the opportunity of the networkage, humanitarians must understand how touse the new range of available data sourcesand have the capacity to transform this datainto useful information.

The case of the Ushahidi platform inHaiti, which has been extensively studiedelsewhere, demonstrates that there is areadiness to adapt, but also a need to betterunderstand the nature of new data sourcesand collection techniques. 90 This includes theadoption of better and faster tools to verifythe accuracy of real-time data.

The evidence suggests that new informationsources are no less representative or reliablethan more traditional sources, which are alsoimperfect in crisis settings. But there is a needto develop shared principles and guidelinesto ensure new partners have a better

understanding of how decisions are madeand what information is useful to improvehumanitarian action.

How an intern galvanised action in West Africa

After the devastating 2007 oods in West Africa, IFRC developed a partnership with ColumbiaUniversity’s International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI) to interpret weather forecasts.The May 2008 Seasonal Climate Outlook Forum for West Africa forecast oods for the July-to-September rainy season. The initial map, however, was incomprehensible to IFRC regional disastermanagers because of the “technical language used, the absence of detailed and clear commentary,and the lack of clarity on how the forecast information might be relevant to their humanitarian work.”Fortunately, through the IRI partnership, an intern who had been placed with IFRC understood the mapand acted as an “in-house translator” of the forecast. That intern was asked to explain the map in abrieng to the IFRC West Africa ofce. This simple step—a face-to-face explanation by an individualwith a technical background—was enough to convince IFRC to act on the early warning signals. 92

A second source of guidance came from the Red Cross/Red Crescent Climate Centre, created in2002 to “integrate knowledge of climate risks into Red Cross/Red Crescent strategies, plans, andactivities.”93 The Climate Centre incorporated 14 national IFRC ofces in Africa into a programmedesigned to understand how to link climate forecasts with decision-making. 94

IFRC issued an emergency appeal for funding and increased staff numbers. It also warned potentiallyaffected communities of the danger. Although donors did not make external funding available untilthe crisis was under way in August, internal funding enabled bottles, tents, blankets, mosquito netsand soap to be pre-positioned in three countries, ready to help up to 9,500 people. Twelve RegionalDisaster Response team leaders were trained to be deployable within 24 hours of a ood, enabling aswifter and better response. 95


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To adapt to the network age,humanitarians need to work togetherand with new partners to develop clearand shared standards, best practices andguidance to help analysts verify raw dataand transform it into useful informationfor decision-making.

New technologies are providing accessto new data sources and new methods ofinteraction that did not previously exist.Humanitarians have engaged seriouslywith crowdsourcing, but the appreciationfor how to use big data and the technicalcapacity required to transform data into

useful information exist only in smallpockets. This is not only a humanitarianproblem: The McKinsey Global Instituteestimates that the US private sectorrequires 140,000 to 190,000 more dataanalysts and 1.5 million more “data-savvy”managers in order to take advantage ofthe potential gains of big data. But the gapis even more acute for humanitarian anddonor-funded organizations that have notprioritized these disciplines. If given the

attention it deserves, the potential to savelives is signicant, as illustrated by the caseon page 44 from West Africa.

Number of “data-savvy”

managers the US private sector needs to take advantageof big data

1.5million

How decentralized decision-makingsaved lives in Japan

The key actors during the March 2011Fukushima nuclear crisis were technicalexperts, national agencies, the plant’sprivate management rm and thePrime Minister’s ofce, where ultimateauthority lay. On the evening of 12March, the Prime Minister’s ofce arguethat TEPCO, the plant-managementrm, should stop pumping salt waterinto the nuclear reactors. Plant ManagerMasao Yoshida publicly avowedcompliance, but secretly disobeyed the

instruction. During the videoconference, Yoshida whispered to another employeethat he would loudly order a haltto the seawater injections, but thateveryone on the site should ignore thatorder. Experts agree that this decisionalmost certainly averted a more seriousmeltdown. 96

Two days later, according to thenPrime Minister Kan, TEPCO’s Presidentproposed a withdrawal from the plant,raising the spectre of an uncontainedmeltdown. According to multiplereports, a senior ofcial contacted

Yoshida, the Plant Manager, whodemurred, saying: “We can still holdon, but we need weapons, like a high-pressure water pump.” 98 Accordingto TEPCO, their intent was only towithdraw non-essential workers. Becausof this confusion, many valuable hourswere spent debating a non-decision.

Information owing from the on-sitetechnical experts to decision makers canhelp to ensure the right decisions arebeing discussed. The Fukushima casehighlights that the lack of such links canincrease the risk of a grave disaster. 99


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Perhaps most striking about this exampleis the inuence of an intern. Translatingreal-time, sophisticated analysis into actionrequires technical capacity, which may notalways be present at the managerial level. Toadapt, organizations must recognize, valueand nurture the capacity to translate datainto actionable information. It is all too easyto see a scenario where the intern would havebeen ignored.

The review of the decision-making process forthe 2011 tsunami and nuclear crisis in Japanfurther underlines the value of enablingdecentralized, technical leadership.

A. Ethical issues aroundnew sources of information

Traditional forms of data collection, suchas surveys, can be managed to make sureinformation cannot be linked to individuals.New data sources may make it easier fordata points to be traced to their origin. Evenif anonymity is preserved in publication,the possibility exists that data points canbe linked to personal details through socialmedia, through pressure applied to dataholders or through technological means.

In conict situations or other highly polarizedenvironments, privacy concerns can becomeparamount. Information can be used byauthorities or non-state actors to targetthose who provide it, or other individuals.Governments often seek to monitor onlinedissent and information sharing.

Concern over the protection of informationand data is not a sufcient reason to avoidusing new communications technologiesin emergencies, but it must be taken intoaccount. To adapt to increased ethical risks,humanitarian responders and partners

need explicit guidelines and codes ofconduct for managing new data sources.Some of this work has begun (IFRC is issuingan update to its “Professional Standardsfor Protection Work on Data Managementand New Technologies”), but much moreattention is required. This is an area wherehumanitarian aid organizations could learnfrom private-sector organizations that areengaging with these issues.

2. Adapting tonew partnershipsand techniques inhumanitarian actionThe use of new technology by people incrises can help them to take a greater role inmaking decisions about their future. Muchof this happens within a community and canrange from the provision of a phone to callfor help, to using pre-arranged short codesto inform neighbours of ood risks. The casesbelow demonstrate the value of participatoryprocesses in risk reduction and early warning.

A. Participatory mappingfor preparedness and riskreduction

Satellite data and GIS systems can producea remarkably detailed picture of a specicarea, but the raw pictures can miss vitalpieces of contextual information. How well

maintained is a oodwall? Who lives in thathouse and how easily could they evacuatealong a particular route? Participatorymapping techniques blend technology andcommunity outreach to improve the quality ofinformation.


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Participatory Mapping in thePhilippines

In Masantol, Philippines, a 2008 projectused detailed topographic maps of aood-prone region, and then workedwith the community to construct athree-dimensional map identifyingvulnerable areas and people. Themap was made from cardboard,yarn, pushpins and inexpensivematerials. Different-coloured pushpinsrepresented key sites (churches, storesand health centres), and different paintcolours marked distinct topographical

features.

Using these maps, participantsidentied accessible local resourcesthat could help the community inan emergency, pinpoint safe housesfor use in evacuations and developaction plans. When complete, the mapwas printed on a tarpaulin sheet andhung in front of the village hall. Smalllaminated versions were distributedto a newly constituted village-disaster

coordination council. The projecthelped community leaders understandtheir role in ensuring people’s safety intimes of calamity.

The network age offers scope for a rapidincrease in participatory approaches,allowing humanitarian organizations to, ata minimum, incorporate more informationfrom people affected by crisis into theirdecisions and potentially enable communitiesto be true stakeholders. To adapt to moreparticipatory approaches, humanitarian aidorganizations need to blend the outputs oftechnology with processes that make senseto the communities they aim to assist.

B. Community early warningsystems

Community early warning systems (CEWScan buy time for people to implement planand reach safety during a crisis. The bestCEWS link to external sources of assistancand include the pre-positioning of essentialsupplies, as in the case of Malawi (page 48Communities on guard—ood warning inMalawi

Fifteen per cent of Malawi’s rural populatiolives on the fringes of high-ood-risk areas

The EU’s disaster preparedness programmeDIPECHO, worked with Italian NGO COOto support a community-driven ood earlywarning system. This programme serves36,000 people living along the banks of theKatchisa-Linthipe River. Upstream villagesmonitor the water levels and use cell phoneto call their downstream counterparts toreport their measurements. Villagers fund system themselves—through food processiand other small businesses—includingthe call costs, the rain gauges and annualexchange visits between the communities.The Malawi ood-warning system functionpartly because of personal relationshipsbetween monitors at different positions onthe river. It has helped deepen ties betweenvillages, and it reinforces the message thatwhat happens upstream in the river affectspeople downstream. This encourages bettestewardship of the river. 100

Similar stories are emerging in other

countries. One example is the JalinMerapi early warning network in centralIndonesia. Founded in 2006 following aneruption of Mount Merapi, three local radiostations partnered with local NGOs to givecommunities accurate information on volc


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activity. By the time the volcano eruptedagain in October 2010, the early warningnetwork had grown to 800 volunteers andhad a presence on Facebook and Twitter.After the October eruption, the system washeavily used. Volunteers sorted incominginformation, cross-referenced it and checkedfor veracity. In one example, cited by theBBC, a request for food for 6,000 displacedpeople was veried and re-tweeted by JalinMerapi followers. Within 30 minutes, localvolunteers conrmed that enough food hadbeen supplied, and the team shared thismessage widely. 101

Substantial work is being done to strengthenand expand these types of systems. TheSwedish Civil Contingencies Agency (MSB),in conjunction with IFRC, is launchinga Strategic Guide and Toolkit packagefor CEWS. This package brings to light

Communities on guard – oodwarning in Malawi

Fifteen per cent of Malawi’s ruralpopulation lives on the fringes ofhigh-ood-risk areas. The EU’s disasterpreparedness programme, DIPECHO,worked with Italian NGO COOPI tosupport a community-driven oodearly warning system. This programmeserves 36,000 people living alongthe banks of the Katchisa-LinthipeRiver. Upstream villages monitor thewater levels and use cell phones tocall their downstream counterparts to

report their measurements. Villagersfund the system themselves—throughfood processing and other smallbusinesses—including the call costs,the rain gauges and annual exchangevisits between the communities.

Figure 10The Jalin Merapi early warning network provides accurate information tocommunities on volcanic activities

MerapiEruption

2006

Merapi

Eruption+Lava Flow

2010Affected

population

Assessments JalinMerapi

Public

one waycommunication

unreliable

sensational journalism

more accurate

efffective

community-based

Radiocommunity

TwitterFacebook

WebSMS

validation

validationMedia Integration

x

x

x

Public

Affectedpopulation

Assessments

Mainstream media

RadioTv

Newspaper


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community-level experiences from across theglobe and offers a set of guiding principles.MSB aims to create a roster of trainedprofessionals from developing countries topromote CEWS.

The work on CEWS shows how communitiesdo not need to wait for information to comefrom outside sources, but they can monitorlocal hazards and vulnerabilities themselvesand then shape the response. To adapt,international humanitarian organizationsmust embrace the shift of warningsystems to the community level, and helpGovernments and communities to prepare

for, react and respond to emergenciesusing their own resources and networks.

C. Standards as a basis forcommunications

Investing in new partnerships to makeaid more effective is common sense.But partnerships can only work if thereare common standards that allowdata to be freely exchanged betweenparticipants. Currently, common standardsfor information exchange within theinternational humanitarian system have notseen widespread implementation. This isconcerning. If the division of informationinto institutional and sectoral silos continues,more actors will make more decisions basedon incomplete information. This wastesmoney and costs lives.

The private and public sectors have invested

considerably in common standards andtransparent, sharable, scalable informationows. Humanitarian organizations lag behind.To adapt, humanitarian organizations mustdevelop and implement common standardsfor information exchange.

3. Informationas a basic needin humanitarianresponseThe network age empowers people tomanage their own information and makedecisions accordingly. The cases abovehighlight techniques that help humanitarianorganizations to use a wider variety ofinformation and ensure that this informatiois shared. But to truly adapt to the network

age, humanitarians must recognize thatinformation and communications enablecommunities to act on their right to inuenshape and direct humanitarian assistance.

The freedom to seek, receive and impartinformation is enshrined in the UniversalDeclaration of Human Rights. This meansthat Governments and aid agencies,particularly well-resourced internationalactors, have an operational obligation to hecommunities, local authorities and NGOs tgenerate, access and use information. Thiselevates information to the level of a basicneed in humanitarian response. Informatiois not water, food or shelter, but in the list opriorities, it must come shortly after these.

To elevate information to this level requireinvestment in initiatives to build and suppothis capacity before, during and afteremergencies. Doing so would mandatethe restoration of ICT infrastructure as a

post-crisis priority and ensure its inclusionin preparedness and contingency plans.Adaptation also means recognizing thatinformation is a system-wide commodity tmust be shared and jointly owned and usedbefore, during and after a crisis. This is not


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Mobilizing communities in post-earthquake Haiti

Following the earthquake in 2010, Haitians used an innovative mix of technologies tomobilize communities. Radio One, a local radio station, set up a reunication servicethat blended social media, radio and face-to-face contact. Teams took messages frompeople who came to the station, monitored computers and catalogued requests. Onceveried, information was posted to Facebook and broadcast live, serving an audienceacross Haiti as well as in the diaspora. Radio One was only one of many stations thatprovided an ad hoc reunication service; all of these stations subsequently reportedtheir need for basic assistance, such as fuel and cell phone credits. 102

Figure 11Radio One reunication system

2010 earthquake in Haiti

RadioOne

verifiedinformation

Requestsandnamesloggedby RadioOne team

Diffusionof verifiedinforma-tion

People searchingfor missing familyor friends contactRadio One

Reunification

Information given toRadio’s motorbikecourier for groundverification

via Facebook

face-to-facecontact

via Twitter

via Facebook

radiobroadcast

via Twitter


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only about aid agencies. They are beginningto develop common needs assessments anddata standards to ensure that informationsharing becomes common humanitarianpractice. Rather, it is about Governments andcommunities, who must work together to ndways that work for their societies to ensureinformation can ow.

Effective support of community-driveninformation systems also recognizes the needto use appropriate levels of technology, asthe story below from the Philippines explains.

Despite increasing mobile phone and

Internet penetration, people do not alwayshave access to the same communicationstechnologies as the organizations helpingthem. In fact, the people most at risk areoften the least likely to have access to thattechnology. Systems for communicatingwith affected people have to be rooted in

technology they can use, and be sustainabland appropriate to the environment wherethey are being deployed. Hybrid approachecan blend high technology with morecommunity-friendly mechanisms, as in thecase below from the Central African Repub(CAR):

Internews and the Central AfricanRepublic – blending radio with onlinesolutions 104

Over the past decade, CAR hasexperienced a series of crises,causing hundreds of thousands ofpeople to seek help. But CAR’s weakcommunications infrastructure hasmade it difcult for humanitarianorganizations to nd out what ishappening. Internews, with localpartners, identied a network of localradio stations that could work withhumanitarian responders to improvethe quality of information. 105 Local

journalists acted as an intermediary,visiting communities, reporting on

needs and on humanitarian activities. 1Their stories were broadcast throughthe radio network and uploaded toa website run by Ushahidi, whichmapped and tracked the evolvingsituation.107 To cope with CAR’s limiteInternet connectivity, Ushahidi alsooffered low-bandwidth and ofineversions of the site and a more exibleinterface.108 This provided a full rangeof options for locals and humanitarianworkers with differing levels of Interne

access.

“I was not informed of last week’soods, nor [of] today’s oods. I donot know why they are letting uswade into dirty water when allthey need to do is, for example,put up a loud siren. Not all of us

have Internet…I have yet to hearfrom my wife and two sons.I hope they are safe.”Marcos Bonete, 49, from Manila in August 2012,as he jumped onto a truck that wouldtake him to safety. 103


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To adapt to the network age, programmingmust ensure that communities can accessinformation irrespective of their level oftechnological development. Those withaccess to advanced technology and accessto power need to work with crisis-affectedcommunities to understand what systemswork best for them. Older technologies,such as radio, can be used innovatively, as inthe CAR example on page 51. Cell phonesor other technologies can be provided aspart of crowdseeding initiatives, such asin the Voix des Kivus project, on page 32.The 3D-mapping exercise (page 47) in thePhilippines demonstrated that strings andpaint can work alongside satellite mapping.Communities know best what works for them;external actors need to listen and model theirresponse accordingly.

Early steps to improve communicationswith affected communities may not alwaysproduce an immediate transformation inhumanitarian decision-making. But effectivecommunication can also be seen as an enditself in promoting human dignity. More than

3,000 Somalis responded to the SomaliaSpeaks project, and they seemed to feel thatspeaking out was a worthwhile activity.

4. A holistic approachThe three sections above lay out demandingrequirements for humanitarian agencies toadapt to the network age. They describethe need to work with new data sourcesand address the ethical complexities they

generate; to use technical expertise thatcan help make better decisions; to blendmodern technology with effective outreachand ensure that communities can accessinformation; and to build standards that allowinformation to ow freely. Can this be done?

It can, according to the case study on page53 of the American Red Cross’s efforts toadapt to this new age.

Many humanitarian organizations—andindeed many Governments—can only dreamof the funding that ARC was able to bring tothis initiative, and having Dell as a technologypartner might be out of most agencies’ reach.But there are many steps they can take toadapt without signicant cost. The KenyanRed Cross, for example, has launched itsiVolunteer initiative, which uses social media

to increase outreach into communities,improve the speed of information ows to theKenyan Red Cross and thereby improve thesociety’s response time. 113

The next chapter offers a series of organizingprinciples that can help readers adapt to thenetwork age. These are linked to a series ofgoals with measurable targets and concreteoperational steps.

“They say that history is written bythe victors. But now, before the

victors win, there is a chance toscream out with a text message

that will not vanish.”Anand Giridharas, New York Times ,

14 March 2010 109


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The American Red Cross in thenetwork age

The American Red Cross (ARC)launched its Digital Operations Centrein March 2012, in partnership withDell. Based on its experiences in Haiti,ARC recognized that social media isbecoming an increasingly importanttool in emergency relief. The centrewas also a response to the growingdemands of its constituents: 80 percent of the American public believesthat emergency organizations shouldregularly monitor social media sites. 110

ARC responds to about 200 events perday and is mentioned in over 4,000tweets. The Digital Operations Centreaggregates, monitors and analysesmultiple data sources in real time andfeeds it to ARC staff for analysis. Digitvolunteers assist ARC staff remotely.

In early tests during tornadoes in theAmerican Midwest, the centre helpedARC to position workers on the groundin record time. 111 Referring to a schoocollapse in Indiana, the Director ofSocial Strategy, Wendy Harm, statedthat ARC “made a quick decision tosend our public affairs volunteers tothat location… much more quickly thanthis type of decision has ever beenmade before.” 112

Proportion of the Americanpublic that believes

emergency organizationsshould monitor social media

80%


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L kig t th f u A volunteer works at the Red Cross

Digital Operations Center monitoringSocial media in real time. In early testsduring tornadoes in the AmericanMidwest, the center helped ARC toposition workers on the ground inrecord time.


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CHAPTER 4

Conclusions andrecommendations

The previous chapter highlighted changesmade by Governments and humanitarianresponders to adapt to the network age. Butthere is a need for more concerted actionto build on these early ideas and to build

partnerships that deliver results.

Affected people’s needs must be the startingpoint. Everyone in the humanitarian systemexists to meet those needs. Ensuring thatresponders listen to affected people and ndways to respond to their priorities will requirea mindset change. But placing communitiesfront and centre, working together andsharing information will deliver a betterhumanitarian response.

Putting the vision into practice requires anunderstanding of three basic principles:

1. Information is a basic need.

2. Anyone can generate valuableinformation.

3. Information creates most value when itcan be shared widely and freely.

This report does not aim to be exhaustive.The terrain is continually shifting, and peopleare nding new and brilliant ways to copewith crises every day. But this vision and thesebasic principles can guide humanitariansthrough a changing landscape and help themadapt to a new way of doing business.

It will not be easy. While valuable informacan be generated anywhere, detectingthe value of a given piece of data requiresanalysis and understanding. Information cabe shared freely, but current systems are along way from being open and accessible.And while information can be used byanyone, power remains concentrated inthe hands of a limited number of decisionmakers. If they do not use this informationmake decisions in the interests of the peopthey serve, its value is lost.

By embracing the rst principle listedabove—that information is a basic need—humanitarian organizations can adapt to thnext two principles.

“People need informationas much as water, food,medicine or shelter.

Information can save lives,livelihoods and resources.Information bestowspower.” IFRC World Disaster Report, 2005


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The premise that information is a right,and therefore a basic need in humanitarianresponse, may continue to be debated. Itshould not be. Humanitarian organizationshave an operational and moral obligationto incorporate information into their work.It is demanded by the communities andindividuals that humanitarian organizationsserve. The freedom to seek, receive andimpart information is part of the UniversalDeclaration of Human Rights.

The recommendations below outline fouressential steps that, if implemented, will helpto make these principles a reality. They layout major objectives and propose trackingcriteria for monitoring progress. The majorobjectives are accompanied by specicoperational suggestions in annex A. Progressagainst these recommendations should bereviewed in two years’ time, by 2015.

These proposals are only a beginning. Tomove into the network age, humanitarianswill have to embrace constant adaptation.Much of this adaptation will occur outside

traditional humanitarian assistance forums.The most efcient ways to use technologyto support communities will be found intheir use of technology. If aid organizationsare willing to listen, learn and encourageinnovation on the front lines, they can play acritical role in building a more inclusive andmore effective humanitarian system.

“…organizations that make theirboundaries porous to external ideas

and human capital outperform thosethat rely solely on their internalresources and capabilities andoutmoded ways of working.”

Don Tapscott, author of Wikinomics:How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything


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RECOMMENDATION OBJECTIVE INDICATOR/S

1

Recognizeinformation and

communicationas a basic need inresponse

To ensure that informationand communication aretreated as basic needs,donors, Governments andhumanitarian agencies shouldformally endorse this as aprinciple by 2015 and developoperational plans to implementthis principle.

Number of actorsendorsing this principle

2Ensure thatinformationcan be freelyshared

All major humanitarian donors,responders and United Nationsfamily members shouldcommit to the adoption andimplementation of open-datapolicies by 2015, and committo investing in implementingthese standards in disaster-prone countries.

1 - Number of donors,responders and UN familywith open-data policies inplace;2 - Percentage of top-40countries by disaster-related deaths with open-data standards in place.

International standards forhumanitarian data sharingshould be in place andimplemented by 2015.

Progress on the use ofstandards-compliantdata in emergencies.

3 Build the capacityto use thisinformation

Ensure that Governments andmajor humanitarian respondershave standing capacities thatcan manage, analyse, shareand use new data sources toimprove decision-making.

Number of individualstrained in management,analysis and use ofopen-data sources forhumanitariandecision-making.

4

Develop robustethical guidelinesaround the use ofinformation

Develop an open charter,“The Principled Use ofHumanitarian Informationin the Network Age”, whichestablishes binding principles,standards and guidelinesagainst which signatoriesagree to be monitored.Ensure the charter is signedbefore the end of 2015.

Number of signatoriesto the charter


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1. Recognize information andcommunication as a basic need in responseSpecic operational recommendations:

Governments

• Incorporate in existing disaster management legislation, and/or other relevant guidelines,a commitment to restore and support communications networks as a humanitarian priority.

• Codify standard operating procedures for working with private-sector information andcommunications companies in emergencies.

Inter-Agency Standing Committee

• Develop guidelines and standards for the inclusion of information projects, includingcommunity early warning systems and other community-level projects, in the CentralEmergency Response Fund and all consolidated appeals by 2014.

• By 2014, clarify that support for restoring communications networks in a crisis is a criticaltask, particularly in sudden-onset emergencies. Ensure there is accountability for restoringand maintaining communications networks, when appropriate.

• Develop a Communications Marker, along the lines of the Gender Marker, to identify whichprojects fully incorporate two-way communications and other elements deemed critical.Ensure that CAP guidelines encourage the funding of projects that score a high mark, andactively lobby donors to do so.

• Commit to including evaluations of communication and information issues as a key pillar inall evaluations of humanitarian action. Ensure that such evaluations have begun by 2015.

Humanitarian organizations

• Include communication tools, such as wind-up radios, cell phones or other tools, in basicnon-food item kits and aid packages as appropriate.

• Fully incorporate information and communications needs into revised needs-assessmentmethodologies, including developing standards and best practices for communicationmapping in emergency response, no later than 2015.

ANNEX A

Further operationalrecommendations


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Donors

• Commit to including evaluations of communication and information issues in all fundedprojects and in any major review of humanitarian action.

• Commit to funding projects that score highly on the Communications Marker, and torapidly and adequately funding the restoration of communications in emergencies.

2. Ensure that informationcan be freely shared Specic operational recommendations:

Governments

• Ensure that national data essential for humanitarian response is accessible and usable,including through legislation to allow for limited release of restricted information, such ahigh-resolution maps, in emergencies.

• Ensure inter-operability between public networks and networks dedicated to emergencycommunications.

Inter-Agency Standing Committee

• Develop and agree on common data standards for sharing and collection by 2014.• Ensure full implementation by all members by 2016.


• Recognize that sharing information is a core task and part of the mandate of internationalhumanitarian organizations. Dene how information will be used in emergencies and howit will be shared with communities, Governments and other partners.

• Share data collected and generated by humanitarian organizations (surveys, assessments,reports) on open platforms for anyone to use and review, particularly where this can llgaps in national data.

Donors

• Provide resources to help Governments and humanitarian organizations to adopt shareddata standards and move to open-data systems.

• Withhold funding from organizations that do not comply with open-data standards.

Private sector

• Develop a charter or framework for the rapid release of anonymized proprietary data inhumanitarian emergencies, with transparent criteria for sharing data.


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3. Build the capacityto use this informationSpecic operational recommendations:

Governments/Inter-Agency Standing Committee

• Develop open-source and free training standards for the management and use ofinformation in emergencies.


• Develop standards for technical capacity; invest in training andupgrading of skills to meet these standards.

• Develop communications and outreach units with the goal ofsupporting community interaction.

4. Develop robust ethical guidelinesaround the use of informationSpecic operational recommendations:


•

No later than 2014, develop “Do No Harm” standards for the ethical use of new formsof data, including protocols for protecting privacy and guaranteeing informants’ safety,and develop frameworks to hold practitioners responsible for adherence to ethical andtechnical standards. Ensure that these clearly address the separate issues of liability,privacy and security.

• Adopt information management principles as a source of guidance for adapting to thenetwork age.

• Ensure that all projects include complaint and accountability mechanisms that can rapidlyrespond to issues of concern, abuse, exploitation, etc.


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3W (Who’s doing what where)/4W(Who’s doing what where when)Information collection and exchange matricesfor humanitarian agencies to report ontheir activities. This is intended to providehumanitarian actors with a clear picture ofwho’s doing what where (3W) and when (4W).

Crisis mappingA process of sourcing, visualizing andanalysing data from a humanitarian, political,ecological, nancial or other crisis, often inreal time, on a dynamic, interactive map.

Early warning systemsTools that predict the onset of a naturaldisaster or conict. Data is collected andanalysed ahead of a crisis to forecast eventsaccurately. Most often, a set of time-boundand geographically specic determinants areconsistently used for prediction (e.g. weatherpatterns, local inequality).

Geographic information systemsGeographic information systems (GIS)identify, store, manipulate, analyse andstructure geographical data, such as locationsof evacuation centres, food distributionpoints and violent incidents, to enableresponders to locate and map events andplaces during crises. GIS, combined with SMSand open-source data-sharing platforms,

have facilitated the phenomenon of crisismapping popularized by groups such asUshahidi.

GeolocatingIdentifying the geographic location of anobject or place. In disaster management,it often refers to sharing an online map ofcalamities that have taken place, or peopledistress at a certain location.

HashtagsA word or phrase preceded by a hash mark(#), used within a message to identify akeyword or topic of interest and facilitate asearch for it. Most commonly used on socinetworking platforms, such as Twitter.

Information communication technologyInformation communication technology (ICrefers to technologies that provide accessto information through telecommunicationIt is similar to Information technology (IT)but focuses primarily on communicationtechnologies. This includes the Internet,wireless networks, cell phones and othercommunication mediums.

Real-time evaluationAn evaluation in which the primary objectiis to provide feedback in a participatoryway in real time (i.e. during the evaluationeldwork) to people executing and managithe humanitarian response. The Inter-Agency Standing Committee conductsreal-time evaluations of major humanitaria

emergencies with the other objectivesof providing real-time feedback to theHumanitarian Country Teams, lesson learnfor the future and seeking out the

GLOSSARY


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views of affected people on the quality of ahumanitarian response.

Short codeSpecial telephone numbers that aresignicantly shorter than full telephonenumbers, and which can be used to addressSMS and MMS messages. Short codes can beused to organize incoming information, suchas the 4636 code that was used to collectinformation in Haiti for disaster response. Thisis distinct from pre-determined codes thatcan be sent as text messages (such as in the

Voix des Kivus project where different typesof events were identied by short numericcodes), often to help overcome illiteracy orlanguage barriers.

SMS (Short Message Service)The text-communication service componentof phone, web or mobile communicationsystems, using standardized communicationsprotocols that allow the exchange of shorttext messages between devices.

Social media

Social media platforms facilitate real-timeinteraction between individuals, communitiesand organizations on the web. Theseinclude Facebook, Twitter, blogs and uniqueinterfaces created for specic missions. Socialmedia allows information to be transmittedthrough networks, amplifying the depth thatinformation penetrates and the speed bywhich it travels between individuals.

TrendingWithin social media or other Internetplatforms that allow, when a word, phrase ortopic is tagged at a greater rate than othertags, indicating its increasing popularity.

TweetA 140-character message sent using the

online platform Twitter. Alternatively, a verbreferring to the act of posting a message onTwitter.

UN Cluster SystemClusters are groups of humanitarianorganizations, both UN and non-UN, ineach of the main sectors of humanitarianaction: Protection; Camp Coordinationand Management; Water, Sanitation andHygiene; Health; Emergency Shelter;Nutrition; Emergency Telecommunications;Logistics; Early Recovery; Education; andAgriculture. They are designated by theInter-Agency Standing Committee andhave clear responsibilities for coordination.The United Nations Resident Coordinatorand/or Humanitarian Coordinator and theHumanitarian Country Team manage ahumanitarian response through the clusters.The Cluster System was introduced in 2005following a major reform of humanitariancoordination.

Volunteer and Technical Community (V&TC)Individuals and groups outside the

humanitarian community who use theirexpertise to collect, collate and disseminateuseful information in a humanitarianresponse, for example in crisis mapping.

V&TCs can range from untrained volunteersparticipating in crowdsourced exercises, toprofessional organizations or companies thatdevote resources to supporting humanitarianaction or disaster response.


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1 TED Blog. Welcome to the open world: Don Tapscottat TEDGlobal. Available from http://blog.ted.com/2012/06/26/welcome-to-the-open-world-don-tapscott-at-tedglobal-2012/.

2 ITU. Key statistical highlights: ITU data release.Available from http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/statistics/material/pdf/2011%20Statistical%20highlights_June_2012.pdf.

3 ITU. The World in 2011 Facts and Figures.Available from http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/facts/2011/material/ICTFactsFigures2011.pdf. Aidrecipient data taken from the Global HumanitarianAssistance report 2012. Available from: http://

www.globalhumanitarianassistance.org/report/gha-report-2012.4 Statistic from the GSM, see http://www.ibm.com/

smarterplanet/global/share/19jan2012/mobile_africa/ orexample, http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20120906-how-tech-democratised-development.

5 World Economic Forum. The Global InformationTechnology Report 2012.Available from http://reports.weforum.org/global-information-technology-2012/.

6 ITU. The World in 2011 Facts and Figures. Availablefrom http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/facts/2011/material/ICTFactsFigures2011.pdf.

7 See http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml.

8 “SIDPABB - A community-based ood warning systemin the Buzi River Basin, Mozambique” – Video, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2oBqJ7csSO0; GIZ“Disaster Risk Management – Effective Early Warning”,http://www.giz.de/themen/en/21071.htm; WMO.Flood Management in Mozambique, WMO Case study,http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/dra/documents/CDSCaseStudy_Mozambique_V2_Withpictures.pdf;“Managing Floods In Mozambique : The Role OfRecent Institutional Reforms” and “Mozambique FloodManagement, The Buzi Warning System”, presentationsby Xavier Agostinho Chavana, Ministry of Planningand Development, Mozambique at the Regional PolicyWorkshop for Humanitarian Partnership - Southern andEastern Africa, Stellenbosch, South Africa.

9 See USIP Haiti: A Republic of NGOs? Available fromhttp://www.usip.org/events/haiti-republic-ngos.

Journalistic estimates range from 343 to 20,000, seehttp://www.esquire.com/blogs/politics/haiti-ngo-coordination-bill-clinton or http://www.hufngtonpost.com/vijaya-ramachandran/haiti-relief-ngos_b_1194923.html.

10 ALNAP (2012). The State of the Humanitarian System.Available from http://www.alnap.org/ourwork/current/sohs.aspx.

11 Group Speciale Mobile Association – a body thatrepresents the interests of mobile operators worldwid

12 See http://education.starafrica.com/en/detail-news/view/orange-launches-data-4-development-conte-254295.html.

13 Global Pulse. Data for Development. Available fromhttp://www.unglobalpulse.org/MobileD4DChallenge.

14 See http://www.itu.int/telecom-wt99/press_service/information_for_the_press/press_kit/speeches/annanceremony.html.

15 Infoasaid. Endline study preliminary ndings fromActionAid and infoasaid project in Isiolo, Kenya.Available from http://infoasaid.org/research/endline-study-preliminary-ndings-actionaid-and-infoasaid-project-isiolo-kenya.

16 Alertnet. World could have prevented Horn of Africfamine, aid groups say. Available from http://www.trorg/alertnet/news/world-could-have-prevented-hornafrica-famine-aid-groups/.

17 Webster, P.J., Toma, V.E., and Kim, H.-M. (2011). Wethe 2010 Pakistan Floods Predictable? GeophysicalResearch Letters, Vol. 38.

18 American Geophysical Union. Pakistan oods lastsummer could have been predicted. Availablefrom http://www.agu.org/news/press/pr_archives/2011/2011-04.shtml.

19 American Geophysical Union. Pakistan oods lastsummer could have been predicted. Availablefrom http://www.agu.org/news/press/pr_archives/2011/2011-04.shtml.

20 See http://ec2-46-51-135-144.eu-west-1.compute.amazonaws.com/reports/view/3098.


22 See http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/spotlight/somaliaconict/somaliaspeaks.html.


24 For more details on these issues, please see HarvardHumanitarian Initiative (HHI) (2011). Disaster Relie2.0: The Future of Information Sharing in Humanita

Emergencies. Washington, D.C. and Berkshire, UK:UN Foundation and Vodafone Foundation TechnologPartnership. Available from http://www.unfoundatioorg/assets/pdf/disaster-relief-20-report.pdf.

25 Inter-Agency Real Time Evaluation of the PakistanFloods/Cyclone Available from http://ochanet.unochorg/p/Documents/RTE11107nal.pdf

REFERENCES


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26 Inter-Agency Standing Committee. Real-TimeEvaluation of the Humanitarian Response to the Horn ofAfrica Drought Crisis – Ethiopia. Available from http://reliefweb.int/report/somalia/iasc-real-time-evaluation-humanitarian-response-horn-africa-drought-crisis-

somalia .27 Olafsson, Gisli. Program in Action: Emergency

Response. Available from http://nethope.org/blog/2011/08/program-in-action-emergency-response.

28 See http://www.unocha.org/what-we-do/coordination-tools/cluster-coordination.

29 HelpAge. International Humanitarian response for olderpeople in Haiti: three months on. Available from http://www.helpage.org/download/4cbec81f1ec4c/.

30 RTE of Pakistan, supra note 25; Inter-Agency Real TimeEvaluation of the Humanitarian Response to TyphoonsKetsana and Parma in the Philippines, at http://ochanet.unocha.org/p/Documents/IA_RTE_PHI_Final_Report.pdfp.; Inter-agency real-time evaluation of theresponse to the February 2007 oods and cyclone

in Mozambique, at http://ochanet.unocha.org/p/Documents/MZ_RTE_Report_Final[1].pdf 31 Alnap (2006), TEC Synthesis Report 2006, p. 48.

Available from http://www.alnap.org/ourwork/tec/synthesis.aspx.

32 World Economic Forum. Big Data, Big Impact: Newpossibilities for international development. Availablefrom http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TC_MFS_BigDataBigImpact_Brieng_2012.pdf.

33 Hirschfeld, D. Twitter data accurately tracked Haiticholera outbreak. Available from http://www.nature.com/news/twitter-data-accurately-tracked-haiti-cholera-outbreak-1.9770.

34 Bengtsson, L., Lu, X., Thorson, A., Gareld, R. and vonSchreeb, J. (2011). Improved Response to Disasters

and Outbreaks by Tracking Population Movementswith Mobile Phone Network Data: A Post-EarthquakeGeospatial Study in Haiti data sheet. Available fromhttp://www.mobileactive.org/research/improved-response-disasters-and-outbreaks-tracking-population-movements-mobile-phone-networ.

35 MSNBC. Cholera cases found in Haiti capital. Availablefrom http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/39787756/ns/health-infectious_diseases/#.UFjD-hh2BVU.

36 Center for Disease Control and Prevention. HaitiCholera Outbreak - Cholera in Haiti: One Year Later.Available from http://www.cdc.gov/haiticholera/.

37 Aljazeera. Haiti cholera protest turns violent.Available from http://www.aljazeera.com/newsamericas/2010/11/20101115165524154228.html.

38

New York Times . Haiti’s Needless Cholera Deaths.Available from http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/07/opinion/haitis-needless-cholera-deaths.html.

39 Department of the Interior Recovery Investments.U.S. Geological Survey: Twitter Earthquake Detector(TED). Available from http://recovery.doi.gov/press/us-geological-survey-twitter-earthquake-detector-ted.

40 USGS. PAGER–Rapid Assessment of an Earthquake’s

Impact. Available from http://earthquake.usgs.gov/research/pager.

41 See http://egsc.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/gis_poster/ or http://www.esri.com/what-is-gis/overview.html or http://www.nwgis.com/gisdefn.htm – which offer variants of thesame denition.

42 Irinnews. Philippines: Geo-hazard maps go public.Available from http://www.irinnews.org/Report/94761/PHILIPPINES-Geo-hazard-maps-go-public.

43 Kirkpatrick, R. Data Philanthropy: Public & Private SectorData Sharing for Global Resilience. Available fromhttp://www.unglobalpulse.org/blog/data-philanthropy-public-private-sector-data-sharing-global-resilience.

44 AidData. Mapping World Bank Project SuccessPatterns in Afghanistan: Does the Spatial Distributionof Violence Matter? Available from http://blog.aiddata.org/2011/12/mapping-world-bank-project-success.html.

45 See http://opendenition.org/.46 See http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/

poverty-matters/2011/jul/13/kenya-open-data-initiative,http://www.ihub.co.ke/blog/2012/07/increasing-the-consumption-of-open-data-in-kenya/ and http://www.socrata.com/.

47 See http://www.munlima.gob.pe/datos-abiertos.html.48 See http://zwgk.dl.gov.cn/default.jse.49 See http://data.gov.in/.50 See http://beta.dados.gov.br/.51 See http://www.aidtransparency.net/about/whos-

involved.52 DemocracySpot. Ushahidi in (Sobering) Numbers.

Available from http://democracyspot.net/2012/08/29/ushahidi-in-sobering-numbers/.

53 Aljazeera. Crowdsourcing Japan’s radiation levels.Available from http://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia/2011/04/201142317359479927.html.

54 SBTF. OCHA South Sudan Deployment: Curating Datafor Disaster Preparedness. Available from http://blog.standbytaskforce.com/ocha-south-sudan-deployment-curating-data-for-preparedness/.

55 USAID. Crowdsourcing to Geocode DevelopmentCredit Authority Data: A Case Study. Available fromhttp://transition.usaid.gov/our_work/economic_growth_and_trade/development_credit/pdfs/2012/USAIDCrowdsourcingCaseStudy.pdf.

56 USAID. Crowdsourcing to Geocode DevelopmentCredit Authority Data: A Case Study. Available fromhttp://transition.usaid.gov/our_work/economic_growth_and_trade/development_credit/pdfs/2012/USAIDCrowdsourcingCaseStudy.pdf.

57 Columbia Center for the Study of DevelopmentStrategies. Event Mapping in the Congo. Available fromhttp://cu-csds.org/projects/event-mapping-in-congo/.

58 Bott, M., Gigler, B. and Young, G. (2010). The Role ofCrowdsourcing for Better Governance in Fragile StateContexts, KfW Entwicklungsbank, Open Development


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Technology Alliance. Wigger, A. (2011) ‘Protection ofCivilian Populations in Conicts and Other Situations of

Violence: The Challenges of Using ICTs’ in Stauffacher,D., Weekes, B., Gasser, U., Maclay, C., and Best, M.(ed.) Peacebuilding in the Information Age: Sifting hype

from reality, ICT4Peace Foundation.59 Voix des Kivus Leaet. Use cell phones to obtain

high-quality, veriable, and real-time information aboutevents that take place in hard-to-reach areas. Availablefrom http://cu-csds.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/10/

Voix-des-Kivus-Leaet.pdf.60 Van der Windt, P. International Conference

on Crisismapping 2009. Available from http://crisismappers.net/video/iccm-2009-voix-des-kivus.

61 Van der Windt, P. and Macartan, H. (2012). Voix desKivus: Reections on a Crowdseeding Approach toConict Event Data Gathering.Available from http://cu-csds.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Voix-des-Kivus-UBC.pdf.

62 The Economist . Press 1 for modernity. Available from

http://www.economist.com/node/21553510 .63 Telecompaper. Kenya mobile money transfers hit

KES 1.2 trillion in 2011. Available from http://www.telecompaper.com/news/kenya-mobile-money-transfers-hit-kes-12-trillion-in-2011--858478.

64 UN Global Pulse. Big Data for Development. Availablefrom http://www.unglobalpulse.org/sites/default/les/BigDataforDevelopment-UNGlobalPulseJune2012.pdf.

65 The Economist . The bank of SMS. Available from http://www.economist.com/blogs/graphicdetail/2012/04/daily-chart-12.

66 ALNAP INNOVATIONS. “Cash Transfers through MobilePhones: An Innovative Emergency Response in Kenya.”August 2009.

67 CALP. New Technologies in Cash Transfer Programmingand Humanitarian Assistance. Available from http://www.cashlearning.org/downloads/resources/calp/CaLP_New_Technologies.pdf.

68 UN Global Pulse. Big Data for Development. Availablefrom http://www.unglobalpulse.org/sites/default/les/BigDataforDevelopment-UNGlobalPulseJune2012.pdf.

69 See http://www.cashlearning.org/.70 Bott, M., Gigler, B. and Young, G. (2010). The Role of

Crowdsourcing for Better Governance in Fragile StateContexts, KfW Entwicklungsbank, Open DevelopmentTechnology Alliance.

71 Ibid.72 ITU. Measuring the Information Society. Available from

http://www.itu.int/net/pressofce/backgrounders/general/pdf/5.pdf.

73 World Economic Forum. The Global IT Report 2012.Available from http://www3.weforum.org/docs/Global_IT_Report_2012.pdf.

74 World Bank. Media (R)evolutions: Global Internet Use.Available from blogs.worldbank.org/publicsphere/media-revolutions-global-internet-use.

75 Humanitarian Practice Network. Local perspectives the Haiti earthquake response. Available from http://www.odihpn.org/humanitarian-exchange-magazine/issue-52/local-perspectives-of-the-haiti-earthquake-response.

76 See http://www.freedomhouse.org/sites/default/les/resources/FOTN%202012%20-%20Full%20Report.p

77 New York Times . Egypt Cuts Off Most Internet andCell. Available from www.nytimes.com/2011/01/29/technology/internet/29cutoff.html?_r=0.

78 See http://www.freedomhouse.org/sites/default/les/resources/FOTN%202012%20-%20Full%20Report.p

79 Castells, M. (2003). The Internet galaxy: Reectionthe Internet, business, and society, p. 171 Oxford [uOxford Univ. Pr.

80 Helbing, D., and Balietti, S. (2011). From Social DaMining to Forecasting Socio-Economic Crises. EuroPhysical Journal Special Topics, 195, pp. 3-68. Avaifrom http://arxiv.org/pdf/1012.0178v5.pdf.

81 Manyika, J., Chui, M., Brown, B., Bughin, J., DobbR., Roxburgh, R. and Hung Byers, A. (2011). Big daThe next frontier for innovation, competition, andproductivity. McKinsey Global Institute, p. vi. Availfrom http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/mgi/researctechnology_and_innovation/big_data_the_next_frontier_for_innovation.

82 Gujer, E. (2011) ‘Intelligence of the Masses or Stupiof the Herd?’, in Stauffacher, D., Weekes, B., GasserU., Maclay, C., and Best, M. (ed.) Peacebuilding in tInformation Age: Sifting hype from reality, ICT4PeaFoundation.

83 Harvard Humanitarian Initiative (HHI) (2011). DisaRelief 2.0: The Future of Information Sharing inHumanitarian Emergencies. Washington, D.C.and Berkshire, UK: UN Foundation and Vodafone

Foundation Technology Partnership. Available fromhttp://www.unfoundation.org/assets/pdf/disaster-relie20-report.pdf.

84 American Red Cross. More Americans Using MobilApps in Emergencies. Available from http://www.redcross.org/news/press-release/More-Americans-Using-Mobile-Apps-in-Emergencies.

85 Electronic Frontier Foundation. Pro-Syrian GovernmHackers Target Activists With Fake Anti-Hacking ToAvailable from https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/0syrian-malware-post.

86 Beckhusen, R. Sudan’s Dictator Wants Satellites to SSpying on His Crimes. Available from http://www.wcom/dangerroom/2012/09/sudan-satellites/.

87 Raymond, N., Howarth, C. and Hutson, J.Crisis

Mapping Needs an Ethical Compass. Available fromhttp://globalbrief.ca/blog/2012/02/06/crisis-mappingneeds-an-ethical-compass/.

88 Raymond, N., Howarth, C. and Hutson, J.CrisisMapping Needs an Ethical Compass. Available fromhttp://globalbrief.ca/blog/2012/02/06/crisis-mappingneeds-an-ethical-compass/.

89 All Africa. Sudan: The Man On the Inside. Available


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from http://allafrica.com/stories/201110050782.html.90 Harvard Humanitarian Initiative (HHI) (2011). Disaster

Relief 2.0: The Future of Information Sharing inHumanitarian Emergencies. Washington, D.C.and Berkshire, UK: UN Foundation and VodafoneFoundation Technology Partnership. Available from

http://www.unfoundation.org/assets/pdf/disaster-relief-20-report.pdf.91 The Nieman Foundation. A New Age for Truth.

Available from http://nieman.harvard.edu/reportsitem.aspx?id=102762.

92 Tall, A., Mason, S., van Aalst, M., Suarez, P., Ait-Chellouche, Y., Diallo, A. and Braman, L (2012).Using Seasonal Climate Forecasts to Guide DisasterManagement: The Red Cross Experience During the2008 West African Floods, p.6.

93 Tall, A., Mason, S., van Aalst, M., Suarez, P., Ait-Chellouche, Y., Diallo, A. and Braman, L (2012).Using Seasonal Climate Forecasts to Guide DisasterManagement: The Red Cross Experience During the2008 West African Floods, p. 5.



96 New York Times . In Nuclear Crisis, Crippling Mistrust.Available from http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/13/world/asia/13japan.html?pagewanted=all&_moc.semityn.www.

97 See http://tech.fortune.cnn.com/2012/04/20/fukushima-daiichi/. According to the nal report ofthe Investigation Committee on the Accident at theFukushima Nuclear Power Station, the TEPCO Presidenthad not clearly stated that essential personnel for plantcontrol would remain at the NPS. Therefore, the cabinetwas under the impression that the TEPCO Presidentwas calling for a complete evacuation of all personnelfrom the plant. See the nal report of the InvestigationCommittee on the Accident at the Fukushima NuclearPower Stations , English version, pp. 230-237 found athttp://icanps.go.jp/eng/04IIInal.pdf.

98 See http://tech.fortune.cnn.com/2012/04/20/fukushima-daiichi/. According to the nal report ofthe Investigation Committee on the Accident at theFukushima Nuclear Power Station, the TEPCO Presidenthad not clearly stated that essential personnel for plantcontrol would remain at the NPS. Therefore the cabinetwas under the impression that the TEPCO Presidentwas calling for a complete evacuation of all personnelfrom the plant. See the nal report of the InvestigationCommittee on the Accident at the Fukushima NuclearPower Stations , English version, pp. 230-237 found athttp://icanps.go.jp/eng/04IIInal.pdf.

99 CNNMoney. Fukushima Daiichi: Inside the debacle.Available from http://tech.fortune.cnn.com/2012/04/20/fukushima-daiichi/.

100 For basic information, please see http://high-reliability.org/pages/hro-models.

101 De Ville de Goyet, Claude, Lezlie Morinière, PeterNgoma, Ginna Rakotoarimanana, and Paulo Sithoe (withHelio Moises). 20 Dec 2011. “Evaluation of DG ECHO’sdisaster preparedness and DRR actions in Southern

Africa & Indian Ocean. Final Report.” EuropeanCommission Directorate General for Humanitarian Aidand Civil Protection. See also, Morinière, Lezlie. 2012.“Global Guide: Community Early Warning Systems(CEWS).” International Federation of the Red Cross.

102 BBC Media Action. Still left in the dark? Available fromdownloads.bbc.co.uk/mediaaction/policybrieng/bbc_media_action_still_left_in_the_dark_policy_brieng.pdf.

103 Ann Kite Yo Pale (Let Them Speak) – best practiceand lessons learned in communication with affectedcommunities, Haiti 2010. Chery, Y-G and Wall, I forinfoasaid. infoasaid.org/research/ann-kite-yo-pale-best-practice-and-lessons-learned-communication-disaster-affected-communit.

104 PHILIPPINES: Storms test early warning system, IRIN.Available from http://www.irinnews.org/printreport.aspx?reportid=96042.

105 Internews. Humanitarian Innovations Fund LargeGrants. Integrating Local Media and ICTs intoHumanitarian Response in CAR. Available from http://www.humanitarianinnovation.org/projects/large-grants/internews.

106 This is referred to as “bounded crowdsourcing”.107 Internews Blog. This is How the Crisis Map Car Works.

Available from http://www.humanitarianinnovation.org/blog/internews/how-our-map-works.

108 Internews. Crisis Map of the Central African Republic.Available from https://www.cartehumanitaire-rca.org/.

109 Lacucci, Anahi Ayala. Integrating Local Media and ICTsinto Humanitarian Response in Central African Republic.Available from http://www.cdacnetwork.org/public/resource/internews-integrating-local-media-and-icts-humanitarian-response-central-african-republic/.

110 New York Times . Africa’s Gift to Silicon Valley: Howto Track a Crisis. Available from http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/14/weekinreview/14giridharadas.html.

111 Forbes. How Social Media is shaping disasterresponse. Available from http://www.forbes.com/sites/dell/2012/03/07/how-social-media-is-shaping-disaster-response/.

112 Dell. Dell and the American Red Cross Launch DigitalOperations Center. Available from http://content.dell.com/us/en/corp/d/corp-comm/red-cross-digital-operations.

113 Dell. The American Red Cross and Dell collaborateon rst-ever digital operations centre focused onhumanitarian efforts. Available from i.dell.com/sites/doccontent/corporate/case-studies/en/Documents/2012-red-cross-10011336.pdf.

114 Standard Digital. Twitter rescue: Red Cross iVolunteersaves lives. Available from http://www.standardmedia.co.ke/?articleID=2000058407.


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HUMANITARIANDATA AND TRENDS2012


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IntroductionWorld Humanitarian Data and Trends presents globaland country-level data and trend analysis relevant tohumanitarian assistance. Its purpose is to bring thisinformation together in one place and present it in anaccessible way. It is intended to establish a common

baseline of humanitarian data that can be built on in futureyears and allow for comparisons across time. This data canbe used to help support humanitarian policy decisions andprovide country-level context that can support operationaldecision-making.

The information presented covers three main areas: 1)humanitarian needs in 2011; 2) humanitarian responsein 2011; 3) humanitarian trends. It is intended to provideas comprehensive a picture as possible of globalhumanitarian needs and response and to highlight major,indicative trends in the nature of humanitarian crises, theirdrivers and the actors that participate in crisis prevention,response and recovery.

There are many gaps in the information available. Thesearise from the inherent complexity of humanitarian crisesand the chaotic environment in which humanitarianassistance is provided. Even what constitute humanitarianneeds and assistance are exible concepts that varyfrom place to place. There are also inherent biases inthe information available. For example, humanitarianassistance provided by communities and by local and

national governments is less likely to be reported orcomparable. Funding data is more likely to be reportedthan other types of information. Therefore, informationcollected by international organizations and informationon funding is over-represented in this report. There arealso limitations on the availability and quality of data,including insufcient sharing of data by humanitarianorganizations and other actors, as well as problemsconcerning common data standards and protocols.Further information on limitations is provided in the User’sguide (page 106).

The data presented comes from a variety of sourceorganizations with the mandate, resources and expertiseto collect and compile relevant data, as well as processesand tools facilitated or managed by OCHA, such as theinter-agency appeal process and the Financial TrackingService (FTS). Further information on data sources isprovided in the User’s guide.

Interpreting thevisuals and dataA number of different visual representations ofhumanitarian data and trends are used in this report.There is also some limited narrative text, which is intendedto provide basic orientation to the reader and guideindividual interpretation. The User’s guide contains moredetailed methodological information and any specictechnical notes for each gure. A reference table showingselected humanitarian indicators by country is provided onpages 100-105. Together, these indicators are intendedto provide a minimum set of country-level information onhumanitarian needs and response, as well as the country-level context for humanitarian assistance.

A number of country groupings are used in this report.Selected humanitarian indicators are presented for a

group of 79 ‘Focus Countries’. Countries meeting at leastone of the following criteria since 2005 are included in thisgroup: 1) inter-agency appeal issued; 2) cluster approachimplemented; 3) OCHA presence. See the User’s guide forfurther information.

The most recent year for which complete data isavailable at the time of publication is 2011. For the latestinformation on needs and funding requirements forcurrent inter-agency appeals see www.unocha.org/cap/ orfts.unocha.org/.

Accessing the dataThe data presented in this report is available for downloadat http://www.unocha.org/about-us/publications/policy-studies.

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ContentsHumanitarian needs in 2011 70Figure 1 Humanitarian needs in 2011 70Figure 2 Key indicators for countries with Consolidated Appeals and 71 similar concerted humanitarian action plans in 2011Humanitarian response in 2011 72Figure 3 Humanitarian response in 2011 73Figure 4 Distribution of total humanitarian aid by country 2011 74Figure 5 Humanitarian funding within and outside inter-agency appeals in 2011 75Figure 6 Proportion of funding requirements met in inter-agency appeals in 2011 76Figure 7 Proportion of funding requirements met in inter-agency appeals by sector in 2011 77Figure 8 Quantifying humanitarian response 78Trends – appeals 80Figure 9 Funding requirements of selected Consolidated Appeals 2005-2012 80Trends – disasters 82Figure 10 Total number of natural disasters reported and number of people affected by region 1990-2011 82Figure 11 Total number of people killed by disaster type 1990-2011 83Figure 12 Total number of people affected by disaster type 1990-2011 83Trends – conict and refugees 84

Figure 13 Number of active conicts 1990-2011 84Figure 14 Number of active conicts by region 1990-2011 84Figure 15 Population of concern to UNHCR by category 2011 85Figure 16 Population of concern to UNHCR by region 2000-2011 85Trends – drivers of vulnerability 86Figure 17 Global food and energy price indices 1990-2011 86Figure 18 Number of undernourished people by region 1991-2011 86Figure 19 Proportion of population using improved drinking water sources 1990-2010 87Figure 20 Proportion of population living below US$1.25 per day 1990-2025 87Figure 21 Number of people living below US$1.25 per day by region 2005-2015 88Figure 22 Number of people living below US$2 per day in fragile and non-fragile states 1990-2025 88Figure 23 Population growth by region 1990-2025 89

Figure 24 Global population growth by economic and geographic context 1990-2020 89Trends – funding 90Figure 25 Humanitarian funding ows in 2011 90Figure 26 Amount of funding requested and received in inter-agency appeals 2000-2011 91Figure 27 Proportion of funding requirements met in inter-agency appeals 2000-2011 91Figure 28 Progression of funding of inter-agency appeals for selected crises 92Figure 29 Concentration of humanitarian aid among recipient countries 2001-2010 92Figure 30 Humanitarian aid nancing from government donors 2001-2011 93Figure 31 Humanitarian aid nancing from governments outside of OECD DAC 2000-2011 93Figure 32 Reported private voluntary humanitarian aid nancing by rst level recipient 2006-2011 94Figure 33 Reported private voluntary humanitarian aid nancing by source 2006-2010 94Figure 34 Reported funding for humanitarian response channelled via foreign military actors 2007-2011 95Figure 35 Global remittance inows by income group 1990-2011 96Trends – prevention 97Figure 36 Proportion of global Ofcial Development Assistance spent 97 on disaster preparedness and risk reduction 2006-2010Figure 37 Global Ofcial Development Assistance investments in food aid, 98 agriculture and basic nutrition 2002-2010Figure 38 Global Ofcial Development Assistance investments in state- and peacebuilding 2002-2010 98Selected humanitarian indicators 100User’s guide 106


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Number of people targeted forhumanitarian assistance by internationalhumanitarian organizations, eitherthrough the inter-agency appeal processor (for countries with no inter-agencyappeal) by World Food Programmeemergency and protracted reliefoperations.

ASIA

LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN

SUB SAHARAN AFRICA

OTHER REGIONS

2010 2011 2012

100%

90%

80%

60%

70%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

Affected by naturaldisasters

Targeted byWFP

Targeted byinter-agency

appeals

Population ofconcern

to UNHCR

Chronicallyundernourished

Living in fragile states

Living below US$1.25 per day

Possible indications of the number of people vulnerable to humanitarian crises in 2011

WORLD POPULATION:7 BILLION

106million

112million

105million

209million

35million

69million

62million

870million

1.2billion

1.3billion

0

Humanitarian needs in 2011

Source: CRED EM-DAT, FAO, OECD DAC INCAF, UNDESA, UNHCR, WFP and inter-agency appeal documents

FIGURE

In each of the last three years, international humanitarian organizations have targeted over 100 million people forhumanitarian assistance, most in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. But there is no comprehensive, global picture of the numberof people affected by humanitarian crises. There may be many more whose needs are neither counted nor addressed.


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The number of people targeted for humanitarian assistance in inter-agency appeals provides one measurement ofhumanitarian needs. Current or recent conict and high levels of absolute poverty and child malnutrition are commonfeatures of countries that had Consolidated Appeals or similar concerted action plans in 2011.

4.1

1.6

3.9

7.5

0.1

3.0 3.6

4.3

2.53.2 3.3

11.5

2.5

Country

A f g h a n

i s t a n

C e n

t r a

l A f r i c a n

R e p u

b l i c

C h a

d

D e m o c r a t

i c R e p u

b l i c

o f t h e

C o n g o

D j i b o u

t i

H a i

t i

K e n y a

N i g e r

o c c u p

i e d P a

l e s t

i n i a n

t e r r

i t o r y

S o m a

l i a

S o u

t h S u

d a n

S u

d a n

Y e m e n

Number of peopleaffected by naturaldisasters (thousands)

2 0 1 1

E M - D

A T

1,753 4.9 18.1 34.8 0 6.93 4,396 3,015 - 2.8 - - - 1

Proportion of the

population affectedannually by naturaldisasters (10 yr average %)

2 0 0 2 -

2 0 1 1

E M - D

A T

1.5 0.1 2.4 0.1 9.2 4.8 3.7 8.9 0.0 8.6 - 1.3 0.0 3

Number of last 10 yearsexperiencing activeconict

2 0 0 2

-

2 0 1 1

U C D P

10 6 7 10 1 2 7 2 10 10 10 10 3

Total population ofconcern to UNHCR(millions)

2 0 1 1

U N H C R

1.5 0.2 0.5 2.7 0.0 0.0 0.9 0.0 -* 1.4 0.7 2.9 0.6 0

Malnutrition prevalence,weight for age(% of children under 5) L a

t e s t y e a r

2 0 0 0

- 2 0 1 0

W H O

32.9 - 33.9 28.2 29.6 18.9 16.4 39.9 2.2 32.8 - 31.7 43.1 14

Number of people livingbelow US$1.25 per day(millions) L

a t e s t

y e a r

W o r

l d B a n k - 2.8 7.0 57.9 0.2 6.2 17.6 6.8 0.002 - - 8.6 4.2

Humanitarian aid percrisis-affected persontargeted in inter-agencyappeal (US$)

2 0 1 1

O C H A

F T S

221 52 97 73 350 165 180 41 176 419 144 77 117 2

Number of peopletargeted for humanitarianassistance in inter-agencyappeal (millions) I n t e

r - a g e n c y

a p p e a l

d o c u m e n

t s

2 0 1 1

Source: CRED EM-DAT, UCDP, UNHCR, UN OCHA FTS, World Bank, WHO and inter-agency appeal documents. Note: The ConsolidatedAppeal for West Africa is not included. * See technical notes.

Key indicators for countries with Consolidated Appeals and similar concerted humanitarian action plans in 2011Figur

Humanitarian needs in 20


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Domesticgovernments

Domesticcivil society

and private sector

PROTECTION

MATERIALASSISTANCE

INFORMATION COORDINATIONCOMMUNICATIONS LOGISTICS

PREVENTIONPREPAREDNESSRECOVERY

Affectedcommunitiesand diaspora

Internationalhumanitarian

aid

Humanitarian response in 2011

2

Humanitarian response is the sum of actions by communities, civil society, the private sector and governments. Sometimes,it also involves international humanitarian aid and actors. It can include material assistance (e.g. food, water, shelter, health),as well as efforts to protect people’s welfare and rights and to promote crisis prevention and recovery.


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Governmentdonors

US$12.5billion

U S $1 7 . 1 b i l l i o n

i n 2 0 1 1

i n i n t e r n a t io n a l h u m a n i t a r i a n a i d

Privatedonors

US$4.6billion

FIGU


Source: Based on OECD DAC and UN OCHA FTS

The contributions of different actors to humanitarian response are difcult to quantify. International humanitarian aid, whichincludes nancial contributions from governments and private donors, is much more likely to be consistently reported thanassistance from national and local sources. International humanitarian aid was US$17.1 billion in 2011.


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4

Distribution of total humanitarian aid by country 2011Figure 4

Somalia

Afghanistan

8%

Sudan8%

Ethiopia

8%

Japan

7%

Kenya

6%

DemocraticRepublicof the Congo

Haiti

5%Pakistan

4%South Sudan

4%

119 other recipient countries

33%

12%

5%

Source: UN OCHA FTS

International humanitarian aid is concentrated in just a few countries. Two thirds of humanitarian aid provided by ofcial andprivate international donors in 2011 went to 10 countries. However, communities and local and national governments in theaffected country are often the main providers of humanitarian assistance.



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Afghanistan 103 221

Haiti 70 165

Kenya 148 180

Libya Regional Crisis 168 311

El Salvador 20 49

Democratic Republic of the Congo 65 73

Djibouti 161 350

Central African Republic 41 52

Chad 81 97

271 419 Somalia

66 77 Sudan

21 130 Sri Lanka

78 117 Yemen

24 26 Zimbabwe

27 41 Niger

29 89 Pakistan

122 176 occupied Palestinian territory

114 144 South Sudan

13 23 Namibia

33 56 Nicaragua

FUNDING PER PERSON WITHININTER AGENCY APPEAL

TOTAL FUNDING PER P

Humanitarian funding within and outside inter-agency appeals in 2011Figur

Source: UN OCHA FTS and inter-agency appealdocuments. Note: Total humanitarian funding guresare based on funds reported within a calendar year.


Funding per affected person varies considerably between crises. This may be due to differences in international prole,domestic response capacity and response cost. There is also wide variation in how much funding ows through appeals.Approximately US$5.7 billion (or 33%) of international humanitarian aid owed through inter-agency appeals in 2011.


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6

Proportion of funding requirements met in inter-agency appeals in 2011

K e n y a

g a n s t a n

C e n t r a l A f r i c

a n R e p u b l i c

C h a

d

D e m o

c r a t i c

R e p u b

l i c

o f t h

e C o n g

o

D j i b o u t i

El Sal vador Flash Appeal

H a i t i

N a m i b i a F l a s h A p p e a