Addressing Sea Level Rise through Natural Capital:

Practices, Planning, and Policy in Small East Coast Municipalities

Jordan Garrett

Ethan Letourneau

Alison Eagan

Kate Morrissey

SUST 750

Spring 2020

Professor: Vanessa Levesque

Mentor: Cameron Wake

Introduction

As carbon emissions increase, global sea levels will continue to rise. The recent National Climate Assessment chapter on sea level rise (Sweet et al., 2017) concludes that global mean sea

levels have risen about 8 inches since 1900, with three inches of that sea-level rise occurring since 1993, This rise is driven primarily by two factors: thermal expansion of the ocean and melting of large ice sheets and glaciers (IPCC, 2019). Higher sea levels are expected to continue to impact coastal communities economically, environmentally, and socially, worldwide. For example, sea level rise will alter coastal ecosystems. This will not only impact the environment in that community but will also impact the people that rely on that ecosystem for their livelihood and sustenance (Spaulding et al 2013).

Natural capital, or the “living and nonliving components of ecosystems,” include basic components such as soil, air, and water (Guerry et al, 2015). Natural capital relates to sea level rise in two ways. First, natural capital can be altered by sea level rise. This is a problem because natural capital provides benefits to both humans and wildlife. For instance, wetlands help reduce pollution in waterways from runoff and wetlands provide habitat and nursing areas for fish and wildlife (“Conserving Coastal Wetlands for Sea Level Rise Adaptation, NOAA”). Second, natural capital can help mitigate the impacts of sea level rise though ecosystem services (Guerry et al 2015). Ecosystem services are benefits that the natural world provides to humans. For instance, wetland vegetation (a type of natural capital) provides an ecosystem service to humans by reducing the impacts of sea level rise. Wetland vegetation does this by stabilizing shorelines with their root systems and absorbing wave damage that could potentially damage houses and other human infrastructure (“Conserving Coastal Wetlands for Sea Level Rise Adaptation, NOAA). Natural capital also mitigates sea level rise by providing flood storage, acting as a buffer for storm surge, and controlling erosion (“Conserving Coastal Wetlands for Sea Level Rise Adaptation, NOAA”). For any particular location, the different types of natural capital that contribute to coastal resilience should be assessed based on the community’s natural landscape. Natural resources differ depending on the community’s location and historical land use. Careful consideration should be used before implementing natural capital solutions that are not “native” to the region.

Over the last few decades there has been increasing evidence that coastal towns and cities should start preparing adaptation plans for climate change (Spalding et al, 2013). Due to a lack of authority and structure in these small communities there is a significant barrier to producing natural capital policy (Hamin, Gurran, and Emlinger, 2014). Limited financial and human resources are also a concern. Research suggests small coastal communities will suffer the effects of sea-level rise which will alter natural capital, risking millions of dollars in built infrastructure . Because of this, many of these coastal communities are just now beginning to look at the vulnerabilities of their towns from climate change which in turn has them planning for adaptation (NOAA, 2009).

Financial capital provides funding to invest in adaptation practices and projects. There are several approaches smaller communities can consider to identify sources of funding for coastal resilience projects. For any resilience project, it is important to have a budget plan set in place to determine if the project is financially feasible for the community (Funding for Nature Based Solutions, 2019). Most budget plans are created by the local government to determine if they can afford a natural capital project. It is important for a community to have a budget plan

for a reference especially if it is a long-term project with operation and maintenance costs (Funding for Nature Based Solutions, 2019).

Many municipalities along the U.S. east coast have received funding for natural capital solutions through local taxes and fees, or federal programs (Funding for Nature Based Solutions, 2019). Local taxes can be used to help municipalities fund a coastal resilience project’s implementation costs as well as the operation and maintenance costs. There have been several types of taxes state and local governments have used over the years to fund flood specific strategies (Funding for Nature Based Solutions, 2019). Fees are another source of funding for coastal resilience projects. It is common for fees to be charged for flood management as well through incentivized programs. Municipalities have also turned to federally administered programs and grant opportunities for funding (Funding for Nature Based Solutions, 2019). These programs are great opportunities for municipalities to fund natural capital based flood projects.

This study will focus on natural capital related strategies that southern Maine coastal communities could use to build resilience to sea level rise and coastal flooding based on what similar small coastal communities are doing along the east coast of the United States. The question our research set out to answer was, how are small communities along the U.S. east coast addressing the challenges of sea level rise with natural capital? And which of those strategies would be most successfully implemented in southern Maine communities? While southern Maine coastal communities like Wells, York, and Kennebunk may be aware of forbearing impacts of climate change, these towns, as of yet, have no definitive climate adaptation plan in place. These coastal communities are underprepared to adapt to the effects of sea level rise. Southern coastal Maine has a diversity of coastal ecosystems that could provide another level of resilience to sea-level rise like salt marshes, wetlands, and beaches and dunes. Starting the adaptation planning process will be crucial in protecting these ecosystems as well as the built environment that is home and leisure to many.

Methods

This research examined the policies, practices, and planning methods used by small U.S. east coast municipalities under 50,000 residents to address sea level rise. Additionally, we interviewed members of southern Maine communities regarding their local sea level rise vulnerability and resilience.We researched which coastal municipalities along the east coast are working on to become resilient to sea level rise. We chose which municipalities to research by google searching coastal towns in each state on the U.S. east coast that have a population under 50,000. For each town we collected and examined master plans, hazard mitigation plans, sea level rise project websites, ordinances, GIS maps, and organized the data about each town in an excel spreadsheet. We organized the resiliency practices into three categories: planning, practices, and policy. Planning deals with the plans communities have made to address rising seas and increased flooding, like hazard mitigation plans, up to date flood mapping, and beach renourishment plans. Practices are what communities are already doing to address problems. For instance, a town doesn’t need to

write a legal policy to plow when it snows, but established protocols are in place for plowing snow and including the costs in the annual budget. Policies are ordinances and laws, such zoning regulations and flood prevention ordinances.

We also conducted semi-structured interviews with the southern Maine community members (interviews questions located in Appendix). In total we conducted 9 interviews from a list of individuals active in addressing gteh adaptation challenges of climate change in the southern Maine area. They averaged around 30 minutes in length and were recorded via Zoom or on phone recording software. We asked them questions pertaining to what they’re involvement is in responding to climate change in their town, and also ways that their town is already resilient to climate change. With a virtual face-to-face interview we were able to obtain local knowledge directly from people who live and work in these towns. We analyzed the interview transcripts for qualitative interview data by conducting focused coding on the interviews to search for common themes across the interviews, including people or places that are building resiliency and challenges in building resiliency. (St. Pierre, and Jackson, 2014)

Results

Small East Coast Towns Resiliency Data

The research conducted on small east coast municipalities (Figure 1) focused on what those communities are doing to build coastal resilience through practices (Table 1), types of planning, and policies related to natural capital. In terms of practices, towns invested in actions that involve dune restoration, salt marsh restoration, and installing a living shoreline. The towns that enacted these practices varied all along the east coast and were not concentrated in one specific state or county. When planning for resilience, types of plans varied across different towns but it appeared that towns in New Hampshire and Massachusetts are good examples of municipalities that are incorporating coastal resilience in their master and hazard mitigation plans. The town of Nantucket has addressed the issue of sea level rise in both their hazard mitigation plan and a separate coastal resilience plan. Our research also revealed that the state of Delaware is particularly active in implementing policies surrounding sea level rise. These policies include floodplain ordinances that require infrastructure built in the floodplain to be one-two feet above the base level established by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA).

Figure 1: Municipalities addressing sea level rise as listed in our result Table 1: Practices towns are undertaking to address sea level rise.

Practices Towns

Dune Restoration Seabrook, NH, Nantucket, MA, Madison, CT, Cape May, NJ, South Seaside Park, NJ, Nags Head, NC

Salt Marsh Restoration

North Hampton, NH, Middletown, RI, Cape May, NJ

Road Raising Salisbury, MA, Madison, CT

Living Shoreline Installation

Nantucket, MA, Old Saybrook, CT, East Lyme, CT, Nags Head, NC, Kitty Hawk, NC Topsail Beach, NC, Ocracoke, NC

Resilience / Hazard Workshops

Gloucester, MA, Madison, CT

Information Page on Town Website

Newburyport, MA, Nags Head, NC, Kitty Hawks, NC

Removal of Invasive Species

Madison, CT

Table 2: Planning efforts towns are taking to address sea level rise

Planning Towns

Master Plan Seabrook, NH, Rye, NH, Portsmouth, NH, North Kingstown, RI, New Castle, DE

Hazard Mitigation Plan

Nantucket, MA, Middletown, RI, Jamestown, RI, Alexandria, VA

Coastal Resilience Plan

Provincetown, MA, Madison, CT, Groton, CT, Old Saybrook, CT

Flood Mapping Gloucester, MA

Environmental/ Conservation Depts.

Newburyport, MA, Provincetown, MA, Suffolk County, NY, Topsail Beach, NC

Sea Level rise Plan Nantucket, MA

Table 3: Policies enacted by towns to address sea level rise

Policy Towns

Wetlands Ordinance

Newburyport, MA

Tax Breaks for Property Easements

North Kingstown, RI

Floodplain Ordinance

Lewes, DE, Milton, DE

East Coast Towns The following is a list of the east coast towns that we researched that include the best examples of building coastal resilience through natural capital practices, policies, and planning. New Hampshire:Seabrook, NHPopulation: 9,000To address sea level rise, Seabrook has been completing dune restoration projects in the Hampton-Seabrook estuary. This project was started by the NH Coastal Adaptation Workgroup and the NH Sea Grant. The project includes doing things like revegetation and also limiting pathways for beach access. The project also includes many parts of the community (like local school groups) who help in the dune restoration process. Funding for this project came from the NH Dept of Environmental Services Coastal Program at $73,656. The Town of Seabrook is also acquiring at risk properties, maintaining notable ecosystems like salt marshes or wetlands and looking into preserving open spaces. Seabrook has also provided recommendations and incentives to remove structures that prevent tidal flow and habitat migration. They are specifically working with the Nature Conservancy on this and have received NOAA funding. These projects were in the master plan but have not yet been implemented. https://www.nhcaw.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/ws12_Eberhardt_DuneWksp7Oct2015.pdf North Hampton, NHPopulation 4,400North Hampton is listed on the Coastal Risks and Hazards Final Report which lists adaptation strategies for most coastal NH towns. In North Hampton’s 2011 Master Plan they started to work on the Little Rivers Salt Marsh Restoration Project, which helps restore the marsh as well as reduce mosquitos. The project is 75% state and federally funded.

https://www.northhampton-nh.gov/sites/northhamptonnh/files/uploads/environmental_conservation_and_preservation.pdf Rye, NHPopulation: 5,000Rye discusses addressing sea level rise in their 2017 Master Plan. Rye is discussing options for long term management and regulation of land use, development and natural resources in areas at high risk of flooding, and erosion. Rye is also looking at improving management of coastal shoreline protection structures and natural features such as shale, sea walls, beaches, wetlands, and marshes. In addition, they are looking at dune restoration/maintenance, revising land conservation priorities to incorporate value and benefits of protecting critical ecosystems and flood storage areas, and plan to prioritize nature based approaches for erosion and shoreline instability. They hope to use federal and state grant programs to fund these projects.https://www.town.rye.nh.us/sites/ryenh/files/uploads/ch_3.pdf Portsmouth, NHPopulation: 20,000In Portsmouth’s 2013 Coastal Adaptation Report they looked at implementing structural setbacks for land, stricter standards for wetland buffers, marsh restoration projects, and providing nourishment for salt marshes. In their 2025 master plan they are looking at funding a living shorelines project. https://www.cityofportsmouth.com/planportsmouth/master-plan Massachusetts:Salisbury, MAPopulation: 9,489Salisbury is a coastal community located along the northeastern coast of Massachusetts and is currently working on becoming adaptive to sea level rise. One project that is in the works is the Resilient Ring’s Island Road Improvement Project. The Town of Salisbury was awarded a Municipal Vulnerability Preparedness (MVP) Grant to improve the area of Ring Island. The project aims to decrease the impacts of floods in the area and increase public safety by raising the roads and using culvert replacements. The project will be a collaborative effort with Weston & Sampson Engineers and environmental data that will be provided by Woods Hole Group. Phase I of this project has been completed and Phase II is set to take off in March 2020.https://www.salisburyma.gov/planning-and-development/pages/resilient-ring%E2%80%99s-island-road-project Nantucket, MAPopulation: 11,327

Nantucket is an island off the coast of Cape Cod, Massachusetts. Nantucket has many resources set in place to ensure they are prepared for future changes due to climate change. Nantucket currently has three strategies for all members of the community to follow in order to adapt. Those adaptive strategies are to accommodate, protect, and retreat. The Town of Nantucket has a developed Hazards Mitigation Plan from 2019, and from that they are now developing a Coastal Resilience Plan. They are also hoping to find a Coastal Resilience Coordinator to be in charge of the Coastal Resilience Advisory Committee. There are two projects that Nantucket is currently working on. One is the Sesachacha Pond Living Shoreline and Breakwater project that consists of gray infrastructure. And the Dune Stabilization Project on Millie’s Pond that consists of green infrastructure. https://www.nantucket-ma.gov/1522/Coastal-Resilience-Library Gloucester, MAPopulation: 30,172Gloucester is located on the North Shore of Massachusetts and is working on creating a resilient community after being awarded the Municipal Vulnerability Preparedness (MVP) Grant. Starting in 2018 MVP funded a $20,000 grant for Community Resilience Building Workshops. The workshops were held to help the City better understand the risks and hazards that the area is going to face in the future. The City of Gloucester has also been working with the Massachusetts Office of Coastal Zone Management to better understand the current and future risks of coastal floods and what the city must do to better prepare the community. The City of Gloucester has also developed maps that show flood scenarios from present day to year 2070.https://gloucester-ma.gov/index.aspx?nid=763 Newburyport, MAPopulation: 18,060Newburyport is located in the Northeastern region of Massachusetts. The City of Newburyport has a Conservation Commission that provides resources to community members to maintain resiliency. The City website allows community members to learn how they can contribute to coastal management whether it's through coastal landscaping, or advice on how to elevate coastal structures. Also, Newburyport has many ordinances set in place. They adopted the Newburyport Wetlands Ordinance, with a list of regulations. And there is a set of City guidelines that must be followed with the management and conservation of Plum Islands natural environment.https://www.cityofnewburyport.com/conservation-commission/pages/policies-guidelines Provincetown, MAPopulation: 2,992Provincetown is located in the Cape Cod region of Massachusetts. Although it is a smaller coastal community there is a large Environmental Planning and Conservation Department. This department focuses on managing all natural resources such as land, water, soil, plants, and animals. In 2014, Provincetown was awarded a $100,000 grant from the Executive Office of

Energy and Environmental Affairs Coastal Community Resilience Grant Program. The Town was awarded this grant to complete an analysis of sand volumes from Wellfleet to Provincetown and develop a management plan for Provincetown Harbor that pinpoints potential areas for dune restoration, beach stabilization and other natural approaches to mitigate coastal erosion and flooding. It also directly supports the Town’s goal of generating a beach management plan that will address beach nourishment and protection of the entire community from storm surge and climate change.https://www.provincetown-ma.gov/DocumentCenter/View/4024/Coastal_Resilience_Grant_Press_Release_2014?bidId= Rhode Island:Middletown, RIPopulation: 16,000In 2016, the USFW along with the Nature Conservancy worked on restoring and strengthening salt marsh habitat at Sachuest Point Refuge. They are doing this as an adaptation strategy for sea level rise and storm surge. This project is a $1.98 million cooperative agreement between the Nature Conservancy and USFW and is supported by funding from a Hurricane Sandy Recovery program. In addition, the 2019 Hazard Mitigation plan from Middletown looked at tree trimming to prevent damage from severe weather and is looking into regulating development in the Maidford River watershed. The town does discuss climate change in their town documents but seem to have few actions really addressing sea level rise. https://www.ecori.org/natural-resources/2016/2/26/marsh-restoration-underway-at-sachuest-point-wildlife-refuge Jamestown, RIPopulation: 5,000Jamestown received grant funding in 2017 to restore dunes as a barrier against flooding in it’s bay. However “a shortage of beach grass forced the town to abort near term planning initiatives.” In addition, Jamestown is looking at road debris management and has purchased 1,700 acres of permanently protected land including inland salt marsh. They are currently (as of the 2017 Hazard Mitigation Plan) seeking a grant to install rip rap (loose stone) along shorelines to prevent erosion. http://www.jamestownri.gov/Home/ShowDocument?id=40806https://www.sustainablejamestown.com/resources-for-climate-change-and-sea-level-rise North Kingstown, RIPopulation: 22,000

In 2015, North Kingstown was exploring purchasing developmental rights to reduce density in flood prone areas. They explored the following ideas

1. Developers would have to present designs that accounted for sea level2. Providing property owners with incentives such as tax breaks for establishing voluntary

easements on their property to dedicate land as coastal wetland migration areas3. Evaluating all vacant and underdeveloped properties to be merged with adjacent parts to

be preserved4. Creating a master plan for coastal adaptation for high risk regions, and exploring long

term retreat options.https://www.northkingstown.org/193/Climate-Change-Adaptation Connecticut:Madison, CTPopulation: 18,000Madison has conducted hazards resilience workshops with the Nature Conservancy and has prepared a coastal resilience plan through the Community Development Block Grant Recovery Program. They have also looked at installing breakwaters, artificial wetlands, and at the removal of invasive species. In 2016 the Coastal Resilience Plan was created. In this plan they are looking at increasing town wide tree limb maintenance, the elevation of roads, dune restoration projects (with a timeline of 2022-2125) as well as the removal of invasive species that interfere with sediment transport and drainage.https://www.madisonct.org/981/Coastal-Resiliency-Commission Groton, CTPopulation: 39,000In 2011, Groton worked with ICLEI to create a model process for Northeast communities on coastal adaptation. Some things they suggested for Groton were the conversion of land upriver to wetlands, purchasing vulnerable lands that will act as a buffer for Groton and beach nourishment. In 2019, they drafted a plan to initiate a Coastal Resilience Plan. They (received?) a grant from the USNFW LISFF Grant and will also be helped by the Nature Conservancy. The planning draft was due Jan 2020.http://www.groton-ct.gov/depts/plandev/docs/Final%20Report_Groton%20Coastal%20Climate%20Change%20ProjectJP.pdf Old Saybrook/Fenwick, CTPopulation: 10,000In 2016, Old Saybrook was awarded a $125,000 planning grant from the CT Department of Housing to fund a coastal resilience study and to complete infrastructure evaluation. Their coastal resilience and adaptation study looked at protecting, accommodating, and doing managed retreat of sea level rise. Long Term strategies included creating and maintaining a natural buffer at marsh edges and allowing natural coastal processes to occur along beaches and within marshes

as well as returning these areas to public use. More short term plans included a living shoreline project in Fenwick, beach nourishment, and constructing dunes and beams. Now the living shorelines project in Fenwick is said to be completed by 2020. The living shorelines project was funded by the CT River Conservancy and the Lynde Point Land Trust. It is the second living shoreline project in CT and was mainly funded by a $150,000 grant from John T and Jane A Wiederhold Foundation. The project includes restoring breached barrier spits as well as dunes and underwater rock spills. It also will restore cobble beaches and tidal marshes.https://www.oldsaybrookct.gov/conservation-commission/pages/coastal-resilience East Lyme, CTPopulation: 18,000A coastal resilience, climate adaption, and sustainability study was completed for East Lyme CT in 2018. The study suggested implementing living shorelines by restoring native plants, enhancing marshes, and beaches, as well as changing land use and acquiring land. They also did a really good job researching funding opportunities and found multiple grants they may apply for. These include the Northeast REgional Ocean Council Grant, NOAA grants, FEMA, US Army Corp of Engineers, Natural Resources Conservation Services, US Department of Housing Grant, and the CT Institute Resilience to Climate Change Adaptation among others. https://eltownhall.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/FINAL-REPORT-CRCASS-2018-12-10.pdf New York:Suffolk County, NYPopulation: 1.493 millionSuffolk County is home to many smaller coastal communities such as the Hamptons, Stony Brook, Smithtown, and many more. Suffolk County has an Economic Development and Planning Department that has an Environmental Planning Division. This division works to provide programs, develop policies, and provide information to incorporate environmental protection throughout all of Suffolk County. As of right now the only aspects of this department that are related to coastal resiliency are the GIS maps they have updated regularly, and their Comprehensive Plan. Lastly, the State of New York is working on developing a plan to incorporate living shorelines in the Suffolk County area because the State wants to try to resolve coastal erosion by only using green or natural infrastructure.https://www.suffolkcountyny.gov/Departments/Economic-Development-and-Planning/Planning-and-Environmenthttps://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/fish_marine_pdf/dmrlivingshoreguide.pdf New Jersey:South Cape May Meadows, Cape May Point, NJPopulation: 229

The area of South Cape May Meadows, Cape May Point is a small area with a high risk of flooding due to its flat terrain and location to the coast. In the area of South Cape May Meadows there has been an ongoing coastal resiliency project. Cape May is a community that has a history of facing major damages when storms hit. In 2007, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, The Nature Conservancy, and the local governments, created and accomplished an ecological restoration project. In this specific area the project focussed on strategies such as beach and dune restoration, wetland restoration, and habitat improvement. Since this project was accomplished there has been an improvement in flood damage and less destroyed habitat. Although it was a costly project, costing around $11 million. And since the project was finished in 2007 there have also been many maintenance costs.http://nrcsolutions.org/south-cape-may-meadows-cape-may-point-new-jersey/ South Seaside Park, NJPopulation: 1,579This small community in New Jersey decided to take the matter of coastal resilience into their own hands. South Seaside Park once had no dunes to protect the shoreline from tidal flooding because all dunes were removed to improve ocean views for residents and homeowners. Once flooding started to get out of hand community members came together to pay for new dunes and the planting of seagrass. It was a completely volnteer based project, and once the project was done the Department of Public Works continued to maintain it every year. By the time Hurricane Sandy hit in 2012, the once non existent dunes were about 25 feet tall. Although they were mildly damaged the dunes that were created by volunteers saved many homes and properties from facing any severe damages.http://nrcsolutions.org/dune-restoration-south-seaside-park-nj/ Delaware:Lewes, DEPopulation: 3,038In response to questions from the community on how Lewes is preparing for climate change and sea-level rise, the town implemented a Floodplain Ordinance in March of 2015. The ordinance outlines the requirements and restrictions against building in flood-prone areas. The restrictions are land filing, new requirements for future buildings and renovations, like considering sea-level rise, using elevation data to determine which roads may flood, and the risk of these roads as potential evacuation routes. https://www.ci.lewes.de.us/DocumentCenter/View/1974/SLR-proposed-ordinance- New Castle, DEPopulation: 5,348The city of New Castle has contrived a “New Castle Resilient Community Partnership Plan,” that maps out vulnerable areas, the prioritized areas, how to engage the public on building

resiliency, and the recommended actions that the town should take moving forward. The city completed its own vulnerability assessment to gauge how they should respond and react to sea-level rise. The city is already initiating mitigation measures that include routine cleaning of storm drains to prevent flood waste during significant storms, frequent communication with residents on city efforts to build resiliency, making use of FEMA’s Community Rating System, and collaborating with two property owners on floodproofing their building during construction.https://www.dropbox.com/s/cuklwavsxrfnyz2/City%20of%20New%20Castle%20Resilient%20Community%20Partnership%20Plan.pdf?dl=0 Milton, DEPopulation: 2,621The town of Milton, DE has established a sustainability committee. Also, in their effort to build coastal resiliency, they have adopted a floodplain ordinance. In accordance with the State of Delaware preservation requirements, the town of Milton is obligated to protect its wetland areas and prohibit construction less than 50 feet away from these areas.https://milton.delaware.gov/sustainability-in-milton/ Virginia:Alexandria, VAPopulation: 160,530The city of Alexandria adopted a Flood Mitigation Implementation Project to build coastal resiliency and mitigate the large flooding events that occur every day, during high tide, and during storm surges in what’s known as their “Core Area,” which is the central social hub of the city. This area is otherwise known as The Gateway to the city and frequently floods. The project is aimed at revitalizing the waterfront area to make it more sustainable and adapt it to the changing climate. The project was approved and executed in February of 2016 and work on the project started in March of 2016. More information about the work in progress can be found here:https://www.alexandriava.gov/special/waterfront/default.aspx?id=85880 North Carolina:Nags Head, NCPopulation: 2,916The town of Nags Head, in partnership with Dare County, has installed 10 miles of sand fencing and beach grass on its coastline in an effort to limit beach erosion. The town also has a page on it’s website educating residents on the benefits of natural floodplains, and what coastal properties can do to help limit erosion. At Jockey Ridge State Park in Nags Head, nearly 2 acres of marsh grass were restored in the building of a living shoreline. The upper edge of the grass is protected by sand fencing to keep residents from trampling the grass and to protect the dune system.https://livingshorelinesacademy.org/index.php/highlighted-projects/item/jockey-s-ridge-state-park

Kitty Hawk, NCPopulation: 3,473The town of Kitty Hawk has a page on its town website dedicated to educating the residents about the value of sand dunes on their coastline because the town is built on a barrier island. The site also specifies steps residents can take to protect the dunes, including dune grass and sand fencing. The town has also begun building a living shoreline on the Kitty Hawk Bay on the inner coastline of the island. It will consist of seven vertical sills that slow down the waves' impact on the shoreline. The next phase of the project will be planting marsh grass on the shoreline to improve water quality and create more habitat for organisms.https://www.nccoast.org/2019/01/moor-shore-road-living-shoreline-construction-begins-in-kitty-hawk/ Topsail Beach, NCPopulation: 419The town of Topsail Beach made a group called the Shoreline Protection Commission for the town. The role of the committee is to educate property owners about the town's plans for keeping the island’s plans for erosion control, dune maintenance, and vegetation installations. Off the coast in Topsail’s jurisdiction is the Permuda Island Reserve. A living shoreline constructed here is made up of 700 oyster shell bags and marsh grasses to create a more resilient coastline for the reserve.https://deq.nc.gov/about/divisions/coastal-management/nc-coastal-reserve/reserve-sites/permuda-island-reserve Ocracoke, NCPopulation: 948The small town of Ocracoke has 2 different living shoreline projects on its coastline. One near the mouth of Silver Lake is 1.2 acres of restored marsh, including a 750 foot sill made of granite rip-rap and several thousand marsh plants. On the Southern end of town is Springer's Point, a project consisting of a new sill made of bagged oyster shells and maintenance of existing rip-rap has worked to stabilize the town's marshes. https://www.nccoast.org/project/springers-point/ Southern Maine Interview Data

Our interviews with residents of southern Maine towns explored what social institutions and towns are actively doing to build resilience, what types of practices are being done to promote resilience, if towns are planning ways to address sea level rise, and what problems they currently face when it comes to sea level rise. We found that the answers from the 9 individuals we interviewed varied, but three major topics stood out:

· towns need financial support and dedicated resilience leadership to address sea level rise

· social institutions are important in creating cohesive communities and in addressing climate related problems and · towns are addressing sea level rise by creating policies, plans, and practices.

Our first theme, “towns need financial support and dedicated resilience leadership to

address sea level rise” was evident in all of the interviews. For instance, one interviewee stated that “right now our main focus is to generate a sufficient amount of revenue in order to be able to carry out these projects. Unfortunately, without money we really can’t get the project started.” Meanwhile another interviewee stated that “One way we are resilient and probably more resilient than other communities is the financial wealth of our community,” this interviewee later stated that this wealth may not always be available as a large part of their tax base derives from seasonal ocean front properties who (due to sea level rise) may not always be there. While it was evident that having the financial resources to address sea level rise was important, other interviewees mentioned that leadership and staffing to support projects was also important. One interviewee mentioned they needed “somebody who can effectively communicate the science in a way that’s geared toward informing action on a municipal level.” Meanwhile another mentioned that once they lose their summer intern they no longer have anyone to work on projects. Both of these show that financial resources and leadership are important in a municipality's ability to address sea level rise.

Our second theme, “social institutions are important in creating cohesive communities and addressing climate related problems” was one of the most common themes in our interviews. Residents clearly identify the importance of social institutions to help educate communities, to act as meeting spots, and to help adapt to sea level rise. For instance, two of the people that we interviewed mentioned that they either have a social institution working on educating the community on climate change (varying from youth to adults) or that they are looking at creating a “youth climate group to get more people educated and involved.” In addition, social institutions are important in helping adapt to sea level rise. One interviewee mentioned that one land trust had purchased land a long time ago and the town is now hoping they can use that land as a location for wetland to migrate into. In another interview, it was mentioned that social institutions are also helpful in being meeting spaces for groups of people looking to act on sea level rise. In addition, one interviewee said they help bring communities together which is an important aspect of addressing resilience.

Lastly, our third theme addresses the topic that all towns are facing problems when it comes to sea level rise and they are taking action to solve them. They are addressing these problems in three forms: policies, practices, and plans. For instance, one town has created “an ordinance that they require structures to be elevated to 2 feet above base flood elevation.” Meanwhile other towns have created policies that address floodplain management and the development of shorelines. In addition, towns are addressing problems by developing plans to directly address sea level rise. For instance, “A lot of them are already undertaking planning efforts related to climate change. Some of them have chapters in their comprehensive plans related to climate change or various aspects of climate change.” Meanwhile another town started

to engage in the practice of having a yearly meeting to talk about climate change and how it affects their community. Overall towns are addressing sea level rise in a myriad of ways. Table 4: This table displays the towns interviewed and the major themes that were addressed in each interview. Each tally mark within the table represents the town's participation in building coastal resilience.

Towns/Commissions

Groups/ Places that are Creating Resilience

Practices that Promote Resilience

Plans into Action

Have Started Building Resiliency

Hypothetical Resiliency Planning

Problems Hindering Resiliency

Kennebunkport, ME

IIII IIIII I II IIII IIIII IIIII IIIII II

Wells, ME IIIII II IIII I IIIII I II

Kittery, ME IIIII IIIII II II IIII IIII

Southern Maine Planning & Development Commission

IIIII IIIII II IIII

Discussion The overall purpose of our research was to identify what strategies small municipalities are using to adapt to sea level rise using natural resources, and identify which of those strategies are the most successful in creating coastal resiliency. CapacityGrants and funding:One common theme that was identified from the project’s desk research and interview data was town capacity. In order for a town to become resilient to coastal flooding, the town must acquire the proper staffing, planning, and funding. The most common source of funding that small U.S. East Coast municipalities rely on for resiliency planning is grant programs. The most efficient grant program that was found throughout the desk research was the Municipal Vulnerability Preparedness (MVP) Grant Program in the State of Massachusetts. The MVP Grant Program focuses on awarding funding to cities and towns within Massachusetts that are beginning climate change resiliency planning and projects. Grant programs, similar to the MVP, would be very useful for the southern Maine communities because of the limited resources. Throughout the interview process there was discussion about southern Maine towns being denied from coastal

resiliency grant programs. However, it is also important for towns to have a long term resiliency plan in place, prior to applying for grant programs in order to improve their chances of obtaining funding. Staffing:While grant programs are important, equally important to consider are staff positions that address coastal resiliency. This could be accomplished in multiple ways. Ideally, an individual would be hired for a year round and full time resiliency position where addressing coastal resilience would be their expertise and priority. Other options include adding resilience work to a current position or hiring a regional resilience manager for multiple towns. Designating a person to accomplish these tasks is important to make sure plans are developed and action is taken. Without these positions in place, many towns lack the time and resources to fully address coastal resiliency challenges.. For instance, one interviewee mentioned that their town only has a summer intern so once the intern goes back to school they lose the work she does to get the projects done. This is significant because it shows that even if you have a plan and the financial resources to move forward with the project, you still need a designated person to implement them, for without them it is difficult to get anything accomplished. However, while we believe staffing is important we do acknowledge that funding and training is needed in order to adequately implement these positions. One way communities are solving this problem is through climate adaption committees. This could be one way to address a lack of project staffing. We do not have other recommendations for how to solve these problems. Natural CapitalFloodplain Ordinances:Several U.S. east coast towns have adopted a floodplain ordinance which shows that these communities are actively trying to build resilience within the coastal floodplain, which is the most vulnerable area to sea level rise. Adopting a floodplain ordinance is a strong policy to have in place so that residents along the floodplain can start taking the necessary steps to incorporate resilience into their households and surrounding community. Kennebunkport, for example, has already implemented a floodplain ordinance and is on track to building natural resiliency. It is suggested that the southern Maine towns of Wells and Kennebunk adopt a floodplain ordinance to ensure residents and businesses will be safe from storm surges, high tide flooding, and general sea level rise. Conservation groups and land trusts:An important part of building coastal resilience is the work that local conservation groups do to restore and preserve natural resources. In southern Maine,(for example, Kennebunkport, Kittery, and York) there are conservation groups that actively conserve crucial landscapes that contribute to natural resilience like wetlands, dunes, and salt marshes. These groups are not run by town governments, but they are important in not only restoring and preserving vulnerable areas, but also building community among its members and bringing awareness to issues that are relevant

to that town’s resilience efforts. In Kennebunkport, these groups have proven to be useful to building coastal resilience through active conservation and educating residents on climate change and how it will affect their town. These land trust and conservation groups are crucial for coastal towns. Dune restoration and shoreline renourishment:Many U.S. east coast towns were actively restoring natural resources like dunes and shorelines. These natural resources are on the front lines of protecting against sea level rise and if a town is looking to implement small steps, turning their attention to projects like these are crucial. While much of Maine’s coastline is rocky, the southern Maine communities have an advantage where they can focus their restoration and conservation efforts on dunes, living shorelines, and beach replenishment. The town of Kennebunkport has already begun dune restoration where dunes are present and beach replenishment, and we recommend that other southern Maine towns follow in their footsteps if they have not already. Community Involvement and AwarenessEngaging with Residents:Community involvement was another key theme . Many towns' websites had information for residents regarding sea level rise, the impacts of coastal flooding, and what residents in coastal areas can do to mitigate these risks with natural capital. Information being easily accessible is important. Residents shouldn’t have to attend specific meetings to get information pertaining to protecting their homes, it should be at their fingertips so that they can take matters into their own hands. During our interviews, towns also discussed educational initiatives to address sea level rise and other climate change related challenges. In one Maine town, the local Land Trust works to educate youth on climate change and the environment. With children, the program focuses on nature based environmental education. For high schoolers, a course is offered through the high school and a local university where they engage with the community, study threats facing coastal ecosystems, and design solutions. This project is important because it helps youth become more aware of climate change and other issues facing the environment. It also allows the town to engage with young people and understand their perspectives on climate change.

ChallengesThe one challenge we faced throughout the researching process was dealing with limitations from COVID-19, which meant we were unable to conduct interviews in person. Although we were able to still conduct some interviews over the phone and through Zoom, we were not able to interview as many individuals as we originally expected, and we were only able to receive data from three Southern Maine towns, instead of six Southern Maine towns. Luckily, we were able to speak with the Southern Maine Planning and Development Commission which allowed us to receive useful data that related to the entire Southern Maine Region.

Conclusion

Our research has shown that for small municipalities to adequately address sea-level rise using natural capital, multiple other steps need to be in place. We recommend that town's first find financial support. It would be beneficial for the state of Maine to focus on developing a state-based plan for funding coastal resilience projects, similar to the MVP Grant Program in the State of Massachusetts. After towns receive proper funding it is important to create implementation plans, and hire designated staff to support these initiatives. Once these steps are implemented, towns can move on to implementing natural capital projects. We found that the most popular natural capital projects included building living shorelines and restoring dunes. Other popular initiatives included designated sea level rise sections as part of a master plan or hazard mitigation plan. Lastly, policies like floodplain ordinances have also been implemented. While all of the previous things mentioned are important for building resilience to sea level rise in small coastal municipalities, the strongest municipalities have garnered community support for their sea level rise initiatives. In one interview an interviewee mentioned that their town's strongest support system for addressing sea level rise was the strength of Maine people. The communities that are addressing sea level rise together are the ones that are accomplishing the most. Annotated Bibliography:

Conserving Coastal Wetlands for Sea Level Rise Adaptation. (n.d.). Retrieved April 23, 2020, from https://coast.noaa.gov/applyit/wetlands/understand.html

This article provides information on what services wetlands provide. It was included to help explain why natural capital is important in addressing sea level rise.

Guerry, A. D., Polasky, S., Lubchenco, et al. (2015, June 16). Natural capital and ecosystem services informing decisions: From promise to practice. Retrieved February 2, 2020, fromhttps://www.pnas.org/content/112/24/7348.short

This scientific paper provides information on what natural capital is as well as examples of how natural capital can act as an ecosystem service. The article also provides definitions for both of these terms.

Hamin, E. M., Gurran, N., & Emlinger, A. M. (2014). Barriers to Municipal Climate Adaptation: Examples From Coastal Massachusetts’ Smaller Cities and Towns. Journal of the American Planning Association, 80(2), 110–122. doi: 10.1080/01944363.2014.949590

This journal from the Journal of the American Planning Association talks about the struggles smaller communities face when dealing with climate adaptation. This was useful because most coastal communities in the Northeast are relatively smaller towns with less resources at their disposal. IPCC, 2019: Summary for Policymakers. In: IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and

Cryosphere in a Changing Climate [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, M. Tignor, E. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, M. Nicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, B. Rama, N. Weyer (eds.)].

Provides information on the scientific background of sea level rise and climate change. It provides this information after careful consideration of new evidence for climate change from scientific analysis.

Natural Resilient Communities Partnership. (2019). Funding For Nature Based Solutions. What are Nature-Based Solutions? Retrieved February 4, 2020, from http://nrcsolutions.org/

This website provides useful information on nature based solutions for sea level rise. The source clearly identifies what nature based solutions are and how they can be useful. It then goes on to identify current nature based solution projects that have been successful throughout the United States. The source offers many solutions for different areas of the US by providing case studies. I chose to look at the project focused in Cape May, New Jersey because it is located on the East Coast. Focusing on projects on the East Coast will be beneficial to the overall project of coastal resilience in Southern Maine.

The source is also helpful because it identifies federal programs that fund coastal resilience projects, as well as other common funding approaches such as taxes and fees. This will be helpful for the overall project because it will provide programs that could possibly be helpful in funding projects for the Southern Maine Coastal Resiliency Programs.

Pierre, E. A. S., & Jackson, A. Y. (2014, June 2). Qualitative Data Analysis After Coding - Elizabeth A. St. Pierre, Alecia Y. Jackson, 2014. Retrieved April 29, 2020, from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/10778004145324 35?casa_token=P2tj06zdNlcAAAAA:IrA6ed8Ahf-O5CRP-K5YcXmBqW1h32iN5P75GfuTVGqom3RoWoo9KMyqqrX7jvmUBpUe25tRuS

This source provided great information on how to effectively extract qualitative data from interviews after coding. For our project we needed to code interview transcripts and extract common themes, and this article was a great source of knowledge.

Spalding, M. D., Ruffo, S., Lacambra, C., Meliane, I., Hale, L. Z., Shepard, C. C., & Beck, M. W. (2013, October 15). The role of ecosystems in coastal protection:

Adapting to climate change and coastal hazards. ScienceDirect. Retrieved February 3, 2020, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0964569113002147

This source provides information on the necessity of appropriate use of ecosystem services, aka, natural capital. Maine has many of these ecosystem services present along its coastline so preserving and protecting these ecosystems is crucial to building coastal resilience and factoring them into an adaptation plan.

Sweet, W.V., Horton, R., Kopp, R.E., LeGrande, A.N., & Romanou, A. (2017). Sea-Level Rise. In: Climate Science Special Report: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume I [Wuebbles, D.J., Fahey, D.W., Hibbard, K.A., Dokken, D.J., Stewart, B.C., & Maycock, T.K. (eds.)]. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington,DC, USA, pp. 333-363. doi: http://doi.org/10.7930/J0VM49F2

Identifies and discusses the impacts of global sea level rise on communities and looks at societal

response strategies to these impacts.

US Department of Commerce, & National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (2008, October 27). Is sea level rising? Retrieved February 2, 2020, from https://oceanservic e.noaa.gov/facts/sealevel.html

This website gives an overview of what sea level rise is. It goes into the differences between global and local sea level rise as well as many other things about sea level rise such as how they measure it, as well as the social impacts of sea level rise. This website is beneficial to our project because it discusses what causes sea level rise, provides data on how much sea level has changed over the last fifty years, and discusses how it threatens human infrastructure and coastal communities.

US Department of Commerce, & National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (2009, October 15). What threats do coastal communities face? Retrieved from https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coastalthreat.html

This short article gives us basic information for what’s at stake for rising seas. It details briefly the threats that face the Atlantic Coastline and also the critical need for small municipalities to start planning ahead for adaptation against climate change.

Appendix

Interview Questions:

1. In what way are you involved in understanding or responding to climate change impacts in your town?

2. Thinking broadly, in what ways is your town already resilient to climate change?

3. In what ways is your town most vulnerable to coastal flooding as it pertains to physical infrastructure like buildings, roads, and docks? (OR coastal flooding as it pertains to natural resources like wetlands, salt marshes, beaches and upland areas?)

a. Prompt 1 (if only 1 example is provided): Can you provide another example or two?

b. Do you have any ideas for how your community can build resilience to these specific vulnerabilities?

c. For you personally, what impacts related to coastal flooding are most important to address in your town?

4. What social institutions in your town (such as churches, non-profit groups, town committees, neighborhood associations, etc) do you participate in or do you know others involved in? Which are the strongest at bringing together to address important issues in our community?