Literary Reader 4TTA2020 – 2021

Mr Kessels

Ms Eagleton

Introduction

This booklet contains most of the language related to the topics of ‘textual analysis’ and ‘literature’ that we are going to discuss this year. Since the topics are so broad, and we offer you exploratory opportunities, there is room to complete these lists yourselves. If a word is discussed in class which is not in the reader, it is your responsibility to add it to the list. Moreover, the explanation and definitions will always be in shorthand writing, it is your responsibility to look up broader definition and details when they are not discussed in class.

Eventually, you will be tested on your knowledge of the terms in this reader (so yes, also the ones you need to fill in on your own):

You will have to able to:

- Recognize techniques and terms from examples- Give a full definition of the terms- Discuss their synonyms and antonyms- Discuss what kind of (general) effect they have- Apply terms to given scenarios

In short, this test (week 25) can be approached in multiple ways. The first is, of course, cram everything into your head and hope for the best. The second way is that you actively participate in the course and use this list as a point of reference while we have our discussion and assignments. That way you will know the majority of this reader and only need to study that which you don’t yet know. The goal of this reader is to provide you with the terms in a sort of reference book, something to fall back on. Our ultimate goal is that you get familiar with discussing these terms in your assignments both in and outside of class. They need to become a part of you vocabulary, and you must be able to use them, properly and all, during any textual discussion. This will not only be crucial in your IB years but also beyond that in your (academic) careers.

How to use:

- Use as a reference book to find terms and their definitions- Fill in examples on your own- Keep it up to date with terms you hear in class but don’t see in here- Have it checked regularly

This booklet is yours and, therefore, you can take it with you to year 5 and 6 in which it will be a vital part of the curriculum. The IB exams, all IB exams, will focus on some sort of textual analysis for which you need the general knowledge and terminology as given in this reader and our classes. In year 5 and 6, you will be given new vocabulary to add and to use as we dive into new text types during those years.

A useful site with definitions, examples and extra terms is https://literaryterms.net/, use it when you need it.

Language & Style

Term Definition Example Effect

Absence

Accumulation

Alliteration

Ambiguity

Analogy

Anaphora

Anthimeria

Anticipation

Antithesis

Assonance

Asyndeton

Bathos

Cacophony

Caesura

Connotation

Consonance

Denotation

Deus Ex MachinaDiction

Dramatic Irony

Ellipsis

Epigraph

Euphemism

Extended metaphorFlashback

Foreshadowing

Irony

Hyperbole

Hypophora

Juxtaposition

Litotes

Metaphor

Metonymy

Onomatopoeia

Oxymoron

Paradox

Parallel StructurePersonification

Polyptoton

Pun

Repetition

Rhetorical QuestionSatire

Semantic field

Simile

Situational Irony

Slang

Symbol

Synecdoche

Tone

Understatement

Verbal Irony

Textual Bias & Persuasive Language

Textual bias and persuasive language are about how people can use language within written texts and speeches to give it another meaning that is more conform their views and ideologies. Newspapers, although they should by nature be objective, are often quite biased. However, textual bias and persuasive language are not limited to the news and to political speeches, they can be found in any sort of media such as poetry, essays, novels and even films. You can see how bias works by looking at language and perspective taken. Often there is also use of propaganda and rhetoric techniques that can persuade uneducated and unsuspected audiences. We also look at advertising when discussing bias, as they are often meant to persuade the audience and are in nature biased towards their own product.

In order to become a critical thinker and an objective participant in the world. You must learn to recognize the techniques and negate their effects on you. In other words, you must educate yourself

to see through the lies (i.e. fake news) that certain types of media tend to present. Within the IB, this particular skill is crucial for the Paper 1 exam and your Individual Oral.

There are many types of bias in our daily lives. There is racial bias, gender bias and religious bias. Furthermore, there are more obscure types that you might be unaware of, but which can change your perspective and way of thinking once taken into consideration.

Survivorship Bias:

The logical error of looking at people or objects that passed certain selections and neglecting those that failed to pass these selections (typically because they are not visible). This can create a false optimistic view, and false conclusions, because the failures are ignored.

Confirmation Bias:

This refers to the tendency people have to only look for facts, opinions and examples that confirm their own findings, beliefs or values. This, in essence, undermines an evidence based society.

Correspondence Bias (Fundamental Attribution Error):

When people have the tendency to over-emphasize explanations that are personality based when observing behaviour. They consequently ignore/under-emphasize the power and influence a situation (the context) can have.

Self-serving Bias:

The opposite of FAE is the self-serving bias. This means that people tend to attribute positive events/actions to their own personality and behaviour, while they attribute negative events to situational circumstances.

Term Definition Example/EffectAllusionAntithesisAporiaAssertionAssociationBandwagonCard-StackingCelebritiesEthosFalse DilemmaGlittering GeneralitiesHypophoraImageryJuxtapositionLitotesLogical fallacyLogosName-calling (aka ‘Pinpointing the enemy’)ParallelismPathosPlain FolksPolysyndetonProblem and benefitRepetitionRhetorical QuestionSimplificationTestimonialsTransferTricolonVaried sentence length

Text: You are Either With US or You’re With the TERRORISTS!

Advertising is all around us, and marketers make clever use of techniques and stylistic effects to create as much as effect as they possibly can. If you consider the tell-sell channel, the technique ‘Assertion’ may come to mind. They are energetic, enthusiastic and overly positive. Furthermore, they also make clever use of celebrities. Thus, you can see devices normally put in the category of propaganda or rhetoric can be used in advertising, making it a sort of hybrid form. Advertising does have its own features to which you must pay attention when analyzing them.

Term Definition Example/EffectAnti-advertisingBrand Brand LoyaltyCopyFocus groupImageMarketingShock advertisingSignatureSlogan

Types of languages that can carry a persuasive nature (or not):

Type Definitions ExampleDirective LanguageExpressive languageInformative LanguagePerformative Language

Examples of how words can affect readers by appealing to emotions linked to the word.

Poetry

STANZASStanzas are a series of lines grouped together and separated by an empty line from other stanzas. They are the equivalent of a paragraph in an essay. One way to identify a stanza is to count the number of lines. Thus:

couplet (2 lines) tercet (3 lines) quatrain (4 lines) cinquain (5 lines)

sestet (6 lines) (sometimes it's called a sexain) septet (7 lines) octave (8 lines) 

FORMA poem may or may not have a specific number of lines, rhyme scheme and/or metrical pattern, but it can still be labeled according to its form or style. Here are the three most common types of poems according to form:

1. Lyric PoetryIt is any poem with one speaker (not necessarily the poet) who expresses strong thoughts and feelings. Most poems, especially modern ones, are lyric poems.

2. Narrative PoemIt is a poem that tells a story; its structure resembles the plot line of a story [i.e. the introduction of conflict and characters, rising action, climax and the denouement].

3. Descriptive PoemIt is a poem that describes the world that surrounds the speaker. It uses elaborate imagery and adjectives. While emotional, it is more "outward-focused" than lyric poetry, which is more personal and introspective.

In a sense, almost all poems, whether they have consistent patterns of sound and/or structure, or are free verse, are in one of the three categories above. Or, of course, they may be a combination of 2 or 3 of the above styles! Here are some more types of poems that are subtypes of the three styles above:

Ode It is usually a lyric poem of moderate length, with a serious subject, an elevated style, and an elaborate stanza pattern.

ElegyIt is a lyric poem that mourns the dead. [It's not to be confused with a eulogy.]It has no set metric or stanzaic pattern, but it usually begins by reminiscing about the dead person, then laments the reason for the death, and then resolves the grief by concluding that death leads to immortality. It often uses "apostrophe" (calling out to the dead person) as a literary technique. It can have a fairly formal style, and sound similar to an ode.

SonnetIt is a lyric poem consisting of 14 lines and, in the English version, is usually written in iambic pentameter: a succession of ten syllables in the ‘unstressed – stressed’ pattern. There are two basic kinds of sonnets: the Italian (or Petrarchan) sonnet and the Shakespearean (or Elizabethan/English) sonnet. They differ in the division of stanzas and placement of the volta: the turn/twist in the poem that signifies a change of topic, direction or perspective.

The Italian/Petrarchan sonnet is named after Petrarch, an Italian Renaissance poet. The Petrarchan sonnet consists of an octave (eight lines) and a sestet (six lines).

The Shakespearean sonnet consists of three quatrains (four lines each) and a concluding couplet (two lines). The Petrarchan sonnet tends to divide the thought into two parts (argument and conclusion; meaning the volta after 8 lines); the Shakespearean, into four (the final couplet is the summary; the volta after 12 lines).

BalladIt is a narrative poem that has a musical rhythm and can be sung. A ballad is usually organized into quatrains or cinquains, has a simple rhythm structure, and tells the tales of ordinary people.

EpicIt is a long narrative poem in elevated style recounting the deeds of a legendary or historical hero. Best known example: ‘Beowulf’  

Qualities of an Epic Poem:

narrative poem of great scope; dealing with the founding of a nation or some other heroic theme requires a dignified theme requires an organic unity requires orderly progress of the action always has a heroic figure or figures involves supernatural forces

written in deliberately ceremonial style often uses alliterative verse lines

Other types of poems include:

HaikuIt has an unrhymed verse form having three lines (a tercet) and usually 5,7,5 syllables, respectively. It's usually considered a lyric poem.

Limerick It has a very structured poem, usually humorous & composed of five lines (a cinquain), in an aabba rhyming pattern; beat must be anapestic (weak, weak, strong) with 3 feet in lines 1, 2, & 5 and 2 feet in lines 3 & 4. It's usually a narrative poem based upon a short and often ribald anecdote.

RHYME Rhyme is the repetition of similar sounds. In poetry, the most common kind of rhyme is the end rhyme, which occurs at the end of two or more lines. It is usually identified with lower case letters, and a new letter is used to identify each new end sound. Take a look at the rhyme scheme for the following poem :

I saw a fairy in the wood,He was dressed all in green.He drew his sword while I just stood,And realized I'd been seen.

The rhyme scheme of the poem is abab*.

Internal rhyme occurs in the middle of a line, as in these lines from Coleridge, "In mist or cloud, on mast or shroud" or "Whiles all the night through fog-smoke white" ("The Ancient Mariner"). Remember that most modern poems do not have rhyme.

*Every new rhyme sound receives a new letter; if the sound is repeated the letter is repeated.

Free Verse:

Line:

Sentence:

WORD SOUNDSAnother type of sound play (rhyme) is the emphasis on individual sounds and words:

Alliteration: the repetition of initial sounds on the same line or stanza - Big bad Bob bounced bravely.Assonance: the repetition of vowel sounds (anywhere in the middle or end of a line or stanza) - Tilting at windmillsConsonance: the repetition of consonant sounds (anywhere in the middle or end of a line or stanza) - And all the air a solemn stillness holds. (T. Gray)Onomatopoeia: words that sound like that which they describe - Boom! Crash! Pow! Quack! Moo! Caress...Repetition: the repetition of entire lines or phrases to emphasize key thematic ideas.

Parallel Stucture: a form of repetition where the order of verbs and nouns is repeated; it may involve exact words, but it more importantly repeats sentence structure - "I came, I saw, I conquered".

Short Stories

The short story is a literary genre. It is usually fictional narrative prose and tends to be more concise and to the point than longer works of fiction, such as novels. Short stories have their origins in oral story-telling traditions and prose anecdote (=a swiftly-sketched situation that comes rapidly to its point).

Short stories tend to be less complex than novels. Although there is no fixed amount set, it is generally agreed that a short story has a word count in the 7500 range, it can be more or less, but as a rule of thumb never more than 10,000. Usually, a short story will focus on only one incident, has a single plot, a single setting, a limited number of characters, and covers a short period of time. It is typical for a short story to have an abrupt beginning, with the story starting in the middle of the action.

As with longer stories, plots of short stories also have a climax, crisis or turning-point. However, the endings of many short stories are abrupt and open and may or may not have a moral or practical lesson.

There are six main elements of a short story:1. Narration

2. Setting3. Atmosphere4. Character(s)5. Plot6. Theme

Type Definition Wordcount (Literary) Sketch Approximately 250 – 500Short Story Around the 7500 Novelette 7500 – 17,499Novella 17,500 – 39,999Novel 40,000 or more

Note: the given wordcounts are approximations of which the literary world is in disagreement, to classify a work within a “type” one must also look at other aspects.

1. NARRATION

A writer can tell his story from different points of view. There are multiple points of view when telling a story. It is important to keep the terms author and narrator separated, an author doesn’t always become the narrator by writing the story.

Perspective Explanation Watch forFirst Person (personal) The character is in the story,

we see events through his/her eyes.

Bias / trustworthinessLimitations (gaps for interpretation via these limitations of knowledge. i.e. What can the character reasonably know and was that imply?).

Third person Omniscient “God” as narrator. We have a narrator who knows everything and can see everything (including people’s thoughts and emotions).

Does the narrator tell us everything that he sees/knows? What do the omissions tell us? What do the inclusions tell us?

Third person limited omniscient

A narrator who knows more than most character, but whose knowledge is always limited to certain characters and events. (e.g. a character retelling the story years later, only knows what he/she witnessed, or from characters he/she knows closely).

Trustworthiness / Bias? What are we, the readers, told by this narrator, and why/how?

Third person objective “Dehumanized” narrator who gives an unbiased account, leaving out thoughts and emotions of characters. It only gives an account of dialogue and actions.

How do we interpret events (what emotion do we assign?) and why? Choice of words is often revealing.

2. SETTING (background)

Every short story has a background or setting. This is where (and when) the story takes place. Setting is much more than which country and which decade of which century. Through setting we can learn much in terms of characters, cultural motivations and possibilities.

When looking at the setting for analysis, think of the following aspects:1) Place: where did the events take place.2) Time: when did the events happen.3) Placement of objects/time4) Emotional setting (atmosphere / mood)

3. ATMOSPHERE

This discusses the mood/tone or the spirit of the story. Atmosphere is usually established at the beginning of the story. It takes in characters, clothing, furniture, natural surroundings, light, darkness, shadows, weather. The atmosphere can change throughout the story.

In films/series, the atmosphere is often realized in two ways:

1) Lighting2) Music

4. CHARACTERS

The incidents and characters of a short story fit the background or setting. A short story has very few characters. It usually has one main character that is always in the spotlight. S/he is called the protagonist. The main character is always engaged in a struggle or conflict. This struggle or conflict takes place against the antagonist. An antagonist could be another person, or multiple people, but it could also be nature, environment, opinions, etc.

Term Definition ExampleAntagonistAnti-HeroCharacterCharacterizationDialogueDynamicFlatMonologueProtagonistRoundSoliloquy StaticTragic Flaw

The characters can be:1) Dynamic = one who grows or develops during the action.2) Static = one who remains the same throughout the action.And/or:3) Flat = have only one or two traits (= karaktereigenschappen): can be summed up in one

sentence.4) Round = complex and many-sided

There are four methods of characterization. To let the reader know what the character is going to be like, the author can use these methods:1) what the character says2) what the character does3) what another character says about that character, and4) what the character looks like, a physical description

5. PLOT

An author’s plan or pattern is called a plot. The plot is a series of closely related events that happen to the main character. A situation develops where the protagonist finds himself in a series of conflicts. These conflicts are with the antagonist who/that could be another person, nature, or various sources. The plot represents the storyline, not the narrative structure, these are two separate entities within the book, a plot is always chronological, the narrative structure does not have to be (i.e. the plot can be presented as achronological through the narrative structure. The plot, or story line, when analyzed will be placed chronologically along Freitag’s Pyramid:

Freytag’s pyramid: used to represent the dramatic structure of films and stories. This is only one of several ways to look at plot structure.

6. THEME

It is the focus of the story. It explains what happens and why it happens – it expresses the author’s belief about life. It is the general truth on life and people that underlie the story. It is left for you to figure out. It does not have to teach a moral, or a lesson, but should give you something to think about.

To find the theme of a story we have to ask ourselves, what was the purpose underlying the story, what view of life did it support, or what insight into life did it reveal. Not all stories have a theme. For example, the purpose of a horror story may be simply to scare the reader.

A theme is developed throughout the story and can only be found and explained once links between parts of the text have been made. The main theme, or subthemes, do not have to be in every major scene or event of the story, they can be spread out through the story with the reader forced to link passages after reading.

Genre and formGenre refers to structural elements used when telling stories. Genres tend to have a fixed set of requirements to fall within their category. Understanding the genre, and its implications,

Term Definition Example/effectAb OvoAd HominemAnachronismAnti-climaxChekov’s GunClimaxComplicationConflictDenouementEn Medias ResEpilogueExpositionFalling actionFlashbackFlashforward (prolepsis)ForeshadowingInciting incidentLeitmotifMotifNarrationPlotPlot twistPost RemPrologueProphecyRed Herring (Fallacy)ResolutionReversalRising actionTrope

will help to understand the story much better. Genres can also have subgenres which usually adds certain aspects or follows a specific form storytelling. \

Genres are not to be confused with literary movements (periods) (i.e. Romanticism is a period/movement and not a genre).

Term Definition ExampleAllegoryAutobiographyBildungsromanBiographyCatharsisComedyDramaDystopianEditorialEpistolaryEssayFableFairy taleFantasyFictionFolkloreGothicGraphic NovelHarlem RenaissanceHistorical (fiction)HorrorLegendMagical RealismModernismMythNaturalismNonfiction Post colonialismPost modernismRealismRealistic fictionRomanticismSatireScience fictionSocialist RealismStream of ConsciousnessTragedyTranscendentalism

A short overview of different genres and subgenres.

An abbreviated overview of the different periods in literature.

Story types & IntertextualityThere is a prevalent theory and supporter’s group that states there is a fixed list of story types and that all stories inevitably fall within one of these categories. This in turn offers an interesting perspective for intertextuality. Although there is still some discussion about the amount of archetypes, the best known seven are :

1) Overcoming the Monster2) Rags to Riches3) The Quest4) Voyage and Return5) Comedy6) Tragedy7) Rebirth

To create original stories, writers might mix up the story elements as discussed earlier or even combine several archetypes together. Yet, the questions remains if there really is such a thing as an original story in this day and age. Moreover, there are considerations to be made which make this discussion more difficult:

- You cannot possibly read every story.- Many different options to choose from in elements, such as characters (and traits),

setting and even genre.- Even with similarities in play, there are differences in appeal to different audiences.

Some authors choose, for whatever reason, the make a reference to an earlier work. This is called intertextuality, and it can have many purposes. However, intertextuality depends greatly on the level knowledge of the reader, since they are meant to understand it to give it meaning.

Term Definition Example/EffectAllusionCalqueEaster eggHomageIntertextuality Obligatory

Optional

Accidental

Fan fiction

ParaphraseParodyPastichePlagiarismPrequelQuotationSequelTranslation

Graphic Novel

Mechanics Definition Example/EffectBackground

Camera angleColourDirect narrationEmanataForegroundGraphic weightGutterIconIndirect narrationMidgroundPanelSpeech bubbleSplashTimeTransitions Moment to moment:

Action to action:

Subject to subject:

Scene to scene:

Aspect to aspect:

Non-sequitur:Voice over

Example of ‘Time’ in a Graphic Novel. The image shows a collage of multiple events happening at the same time.

Examples of the different aspects of a graphic novel.

General knowledge

Term Definition Example / EffectAccentAnarchismAnthropomorphismArchaismAudienceBig FiveCoherenceColloquialism CommunismComplex sentenceCompound sentenceContextDemocracyDialectDiscriminationFour EstatesIdeologyIntended audienceMultivocalNewsworthinessNominalisationParalanguageSimple sentenceSocialismSocietyTabooTextualityTotalitarianismVernacular

Writing/Speaking about textsYou need to know what these words mean and know for which category you use them.

Example:Jubilant, cold, personal, mocking are all words that can be used to describe…………………….(tone)

The purpose To inform, to explain, to persuade (the reader) that, to argue that, to entertain, to express (sorrow, anger, joy, grief, etc) …

The text Is aimed at, is directed at, targets, illustrates, predicts…

The author Describes, depicts, portrays, illustrates, argues that, suggests that, demonstrates that, recalls, compares…

Tone Jubilant, joyful, exuberant, excited, enthusiastic, dramatic, dark, sombre, melancholy, gloomy, bleak, solemn, earnest, serious, light, playful, flippant, whimsical, mocking, satirical, sarcastic, ironic, cynical, bitter, assertive, impersonal, detached, clinical, cold, personal, intimate, emotional, lyrical, sentimental, warm, calm, reflective, formal, stately, etc.

The author presents

A panoramic view of, a close-up view of…

The author is Objective, detached, unemotional, biased, prejudiced, emotionally involved, cynical, sceptical, optimistic, pessimistic, …

Structure Coherent, logical, chronological, …

Sentences Formal, informal, elegant, long, complex, short, concise, forceful, emphatic, jerky, loose, rambling, rhythmical, ungrammatical, incoherent, …

Imagery Symbolism, simile, metaphor, personification, oxymoron, alliteration, onomatopoeia, …

This image Suggests that, implies that, conveys, captures, symbolizes, represents, alludes to, compares to, has connotations of, …

This image is Vivid, memorable, very effective, sensuous, witty, humorous, startling, shocking, harsh, complex, natural, unusual, clichéd, …

Diction Simple, plain, colloquial, informal, elevated, literary, poetic, formal, concrete, precise, figurative, vulgar, technical, slangy, cultured, provincial, learned, simple, bombastic, pedantic, …

The content-intention

Scholarly, cultural, humanistic, philosophical, realistically, dramatic, mystical, humorous, plausible, subjective, objective, profound, credible, absurd, superficial, orthodox, radical, ironic, didactic, …

Characters(Physical)

Strong, brawny, sturdy, lively, clumsy, awkward, ghastly, active, elegant, handsome, pretty, grotesque, repellent, delicate, slim, fair, weak, frail, lovely, feeble, muscular, …

Characters Cunning, educated, capable, apt, talented, wise, erudite,

(Mentally) intelligent, ignorant, irrational, fatuous, dull, foolish, deranged, insane, rational, simple, stupid, witless, crafty, sensible, intellectual, learned, competent, …

Characters(social qualities)

Civil, polite, amiable, tactful, jolly, gracious, genial, courteous, sociable, suave, cheerful, cooperative, abusive, aggressive, violent, intrusive, ….

Characters(Moral qualities)

Idealistic, pure, righteous, innocent, chaste, dishonest, wicked, straightforward, vile, corrupt, trustworthy, respectable, immoral, truthful, …

Characters(Spiritual qualities)

Religious, devout, holy, saintly, faithful, carnal, diabolic, angelic, godless, mundane, profane, irreligious, sceptical, materialistic, …

Poetry Regular, irregular, stanza, foot, meter, jerky, staccato, interrupted, fluent, …

Helpful words and phrasesThis list is by no means complete. It merely provides you a source of possibilities.

Meaning Basic form More formal Most formal

Addition AlsoFirst, second, etc.Next

AdditionallyBesidesFurtherFurthermoreIn additionNot only...but alsoLast but not least

Equally importantMoreoverSimilarly

Cause and effect

Then ThereforeAs a resultFor this reasonThus

AccordinglyAs a consequenceHenceConsequently

Comparison AlsoLikeToo

As well asBoth…andCompared toLikewiseNeither…norIn the same wayAdditionallyWhat is moreBesides

By comparisonIn common withSimilarlyIn like mannerFurthermore

Contrast Instead HoweverNeverthelessOn the other handStillRegardlessIn spite ofDespite

ConverselyIn contrast toOtherwiseWhereasIn opposition toOn the contraryNonethelessNotwithstandingIn spite of

Time After a while Afterward Concurrently

AlsoAt lastFinallyIn the futureIn the pastLastNextNowEarlier

FormerlyImmediatelyAt the same timeIn the meantimeCurrentlyOccasionally

PreviouslySimultaneouslySubsequentlyPresently

Example For example For instanceIn other words

As an exampleAs an illustrationTo exemplify

Summary - Conclusion

FinallyAt lastIn the endBy the end

After allAll in allBrieflyConsequentlyOn the wholeThusEventuallyThereforeUltimatelyHence

AccordinglyAs a consequenceIn briefIn closingIn conclusionIn shortIn sumIn summaryTo concludeAs a result

Helpful words and phrases

Within a sentence From one sentence to the next

From one paragraph to the next

Sequencing

First(ly), second(ly), third(ly), finally

First(ly), second(ly), etc.

In the first (second, third) place

Sequencing in time

When As

WhileWhilstAfter

Before

ThenAt once

NextMeanwhile

In the meantimeNowSoon

At this momentHitherto

Until then (now)After this

Before thisSubsequentlyImmediately

SuddenlyGradually

MeanwhileIn the meantime

HithertoAt onceThe next

Soon (as soon as)At this time

At this momentSubsequentlyUntil this time

Throughout thisSuddenlyGradually

Sequencing in place

WhereWherever

ThereAt this/that point

Nevertheless

At this/that point

Showing contrast

Yet HoweverEven so

Nevertheless

HoweverEven so

Nevertheless

But InsteadOn the contrary

RatherYet

By contrastOtherwise

On the other handAlternativelyAt any rateIn any case

InsteadOn the contrary

RatherYet

By contrastOtherwise

On the other handAlternativelyAt any rateIn any case

Showing similarity

LikewiseIn the same way

SimilarityIn a similar manner

LikeA parallel argument

Both…and

LikewiseIn the same way

SimilarityIn a similar manner

LikeA parallel argument

Expanding upon or refining an argument

AndAnd also

AlsoIn addition

FurthermoreFor exampleFor instance

Another

In additionAn additionalFurthermore

An/one exampleAnother

Showing cause and effect

BecauseSinceForSo

So that

For this reasonThat being so

ThereforeOn account of this

As a resultThus

ConsequentlyIn that case

HenceAccordingly

For this reasonThat being so

ThereforeOn account of this

As a resultThus

ConsequentlyIn that case

HenceAccordingly

Showing conditionality

If ProvidedUnless

GrantedThat being soIn that case

Under the circumstances

GrantedIn the above case

Under these circumstances

Resisting conditionality

(Al)thoughEven though

Whether

StillDespite thisIn spite of

StillDespite this

In spite of this