What do you know about language teaching methodology?

1. Methodology:

According to Kumar (2010); It’s a matter of fact. It is not an idea, opinion or belief. It’s a mental construct. It’s mental capacity. It is not static, it is dynamic and always is changing. It’s flexible, not rigid and inflexible. It’s not narrow but it is very vast and general. It has three main goal:

1) Study of different methods.

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روش و اصولتدریسزبان

2) Preparation of the lesson plan and syllabus through first goal. 3) The study of nature of language and language skills, then we use them in

techniques.

2. Method:

It is a set of idea, opinion and principles which are designed by the experts. It’s a frame work that must be followed by teachers. It is fixed (unchangeable) and narrow. It doesn’t look for research. A teacher can’t say: “this is my method”. He/she is just the performer of the method.

3. Approach:

According to theory of Chastain (1967) the difference between approach and method is that: there is theory inside of approach: e.g. 1) theory of language and 2) Theory of learning, but there is not any theories inside of method. Method is the application of theory into practice.

4. Theory:

It is the set of opinion and principles for explaining about something. Theory should be clear and simple. It must be doubtful for me and others after a while. Appropriate theory should be falsifiable after awhile. It means that it should be rejected by me or other persons after awhile.

5. Technique:

It is set of actions and activities done by the teacher in the classroom. So a teacher can say: “this is my technique”. It varies from a teacher to another teacher.

Some common techniques are:

Repetition, individual repetition, pattern drills, dramatization, visualization contextualization, using true and false question and…

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6. Interaction :

Is the exchange of utterances weather spoken or written, between the writer and the reader or between two or more speakers.

7. Transaction:

It is what accomplished by the exchange of utterances. It’s the conclusion of conversation. It’s the conclusion of interaction.

What are the language theories (schools) of learning?

Behaviorism:

It was developed by Watson, Pavlov and Skinner. They worked on dogs and animals. They make conclusion that:

Everything in learning is conditioning, habit formation (bad habits should be eradicated), listen and repeat, not making mistake, making mistake is taboo. Punishment for all and encouragement for one. They believe there is no difference between human and animals. Mind is died. There is nothing called mind in our brain. They say mind is just a place of connection between stimulus and response. If the relationship between stimulus and response get reinforced, learning will happen, otherwise, it won’t happen at all. It is an army method. If the student doesn’t have the capacity of it, he/she becomes depressed. This method is abolished. It is classical and traditionally.

*Skinner is one of the new behaviorists. He believes on operant conditioning. It means that it’s not necessary to be a stimulus for each response. We can reach to response by the use of punishment and reinforcement.

Example: Child says I want milk.

3This is operant

If parents give him some milk the operant is reinforced

Structuralism:

It is based on psychology model that says there are different faculties (parts) in our mind. Our mind is constructed from compartments. Each ability is kept in one part. There is a place for words, a plce for grammar, a place for comprehension and…

G.T.M (Grammar Translation Method) is based on Structuralism. This method emphasizes on memorizing of words and grammar, reading texts (specially literary texts) and translation of them and learning vocabulary(synonyms, antonyms, root of words). Then we do comparison and analysis between the first language and the second language. This method is abolished and is used just in a few countries like Iran.

Innativism:

Noam Chomsky believes that English learning is human specific. It’s in human nature. It’s innate. God located seed of learning in our mind. Chomsky believes in LAD (language acquisition device) that it is like a black box. In fact we don’t know exactly what happens in our mind that leads to the acquisition of language.

*Differences between acquisition and learning;

Acquisition is for the first language and learning is for the second language. Acquisition is subconscious but learning is conscious. There isn’t forgetfulness in Acquisition but there’s forgetfulness in learning.

Reconstructivism:

It has 2 parts:

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1. Cognitive Reconstructivism (Piaget): that emphasizes on problems of mind and environment. Piaget divided mind’s development into the 3 stages:

Sensorimotor Stage (0-2) Preoperational Stage (2-7) Operational Stage Formal (7-11)

Concrete (11-16)

2. Social Reconstructivism (Vygotsky): that emphasizes to environment and social factors. They believe in reconstruction of mind and mental activities through social interaction.

Positivism:

This theory believes that as long as you have not witnessed or heard about anything, any events or any phenomenon, you can’t believe it. You must experience it yourself.

Its disadvantage is limitations of experience. It’s not applicable for some situations. (We can’t experience everything)

Functionalism:

They focus on functions and practical situations. Bruner adds some points to the Chomsky’s viewpoints: our mind is like a seed of wheat initially, but we can develop it by practicing. He believes on both Nature and Nurture.

Emergentism:

They say there are many relations between our neurons in networks which do in different cases and suddenly language appears in our mind and emerges in our tongue.

Cognitivism:

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This approach is based on cognition. It is cognitive or epistemology. the development of our cognition, cognitive ability is the pre-requisite for language learning. Our mind and thought should be developed before speaking.

Piaget explains language learning in 3 stages: 0-2= senseriomotor/ 2-7 = preoperational stage/ 7-16 = operational stage (7-11=concrete,11-16=formal)

How do we learn a language?

Learning Process is an ongoing, Generative and complicated process. Nobody knows what is learning? It is different from one person to another person. There are 2 viewpoints about learning:

Product learning : some people believe that What to learn is important. Knowing the subject (matter) and the content is important.

Process learning : some people believe that How to learn is important. Generally learning language depends on our Aptitude and Framework. For example: If your aptitude is based on Behaviorism, learning should be done according to Behaviorism and…

*4. Is language learning is an Art or Science?

Learning language or teaching language has 2 aspects: 1) Scientific aspect: It’s based on reading books, working on different materials, class attention and memorization of the subjects. 2) Artistic aspect: It is different from one person to another person. It depends on several factors such as learners’ differences or intelligence, innate factors, brain-lateralization and social experiences. The most common ways for gaining social experience are:

C.P: class participation Rapport: make a good relationship with students Negotiation/ Discussion Professionality

Generally teaching is both science and art. It’s a combination of them. But most of experts believe that the art aspect is more important than the science aspect

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*Brain Lateralization:Human brain has 2 hemispheres:

Left hemisphere: - Analytic- Observant- Sensitive- Special or detailed jobs

Right hemisphere:

- Holistic (It looks at the whole rather than sum of the parts)

- Feelings and Emotions

- Managing tasks

Brain Lateralization starts around the age of 11 or puberty. Both hemispheres are involved, but after puberty brain lateralization is complete. There are two hypothesis about learning language after puberty:

1) C.P.H: Critical Period Hypothesis: We should learn language until the age of 11, after that, because of brain lateralization, it’s impossible to learn a new language.

2) S.P.H: Sensitive Period Hypothesis: If we don’t learn language till puberty, we can learn language after that but with difficulties, problems and limitations.

Humanization:

It depends on the teacher’s point of view; if teacher has Traditional/Classical approach, there is no difference between human and animal for him (Animal system = Human system). But if teacher believes in Humanistic approach, he would use of communicative methods.

The history of English language teaching?

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G.T.M: (Grammar Translation Method)

It’s based on structuralism. They have more attention to structure, grammar and linguistics issues instead of semantic issues. It’s used for dead language Latin. It’s an old method. It has been abolished. It has been absolute. Its goal is reading, memorization, imitation, writing, translation of texts specially literary texts or literary works of art.

There is a common mistake among people; they think that the aim of G.T.M is development or promotion of the speaking ability of language learners (conversation). It’s not its weak point because it’s not created for developing language learners’ communication basically. Its weak point is that it deals with grammar and structure more than meaning. Another deficiency is teaching words out of context so the teaching is not meaningful or purposeful.

Its technique are: 1)use of synonyms and antonyms out of context 2)translation of the words and sentences and phrases 3)reading the literary work of art 4)translating them 5)use cognate words.

Reasons for the use of this method are: 1) Managing the class is so much easier 2) Lack of qualified teachers 3) Political reasons 4) High population of the class.

A.L.M: (Audio Lingual Method)

It’s based on Behaviorism. Its emphasis is on habit formation, conditioning, making mistake is taboo, punishment is for all and encouragement is for one, teacher always says: listen and repeat. It’s based on stimulus and response. If the relation between stimulus and response is reinforced learning will happen otherwise it won’t happen. Its stress is on speaking, oral activities and listening. Fluency is more important than accuracy, communication is more important than grammar. It is teacher centered. It means that teacher is the sole authority of the class. The relationship between teacher and student is symmetrical. No comparison between L1 and L2 is allowed. Students are just teacher’s imitators. The teacher is the pattern/model for the learner (he is like a foreigner). It’s weary method. It’s aggressive and army method. It’s abolished

One of the most techniques in ALM is chain drills:

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Single slot substitution drills Multi slot substitution drills Backward build up expansion drills

C.L.T (Communicative Language Teaching)

Its emphasis is on communication. Both accuracy and fluency are important. but fluency is more dominant than accuracy. The aim is to get your massage across. Its emphasis is on conversation in a natural way. It uses from:

Role play Games (like hangman game! Or pantomime) Realia and pictures Rapport (good relationship between teacher and student) Problem solving

Weak point of CLT is that; its frame work is not exactly clear. So some of experts disagree with this method and say it is not method.

T.P.R (Total Physical Response)

It was introduced by James Usher in 1970th. The emphasis is on physical activities and psychomotor mental activities. Teacher says: see and move or see and do. Teacher uses imperative sentences and gestures and playing games. It’s appropriate for kids and teenagers. He can also use Realia (real things like maps and posters and...). Women usually use this method.

Direct method:

It was introduced by Berlitz (1968). It is teacher centered/based/oriented. It is based on ask and answer. Use of the students’ native language or mother tongue is forbidden in the class. No translation is allowed. Just English! There is no comparison between L1 and L2, because it causes confusion. The emphasis is on communication; speaking, oral activities, vocabulary, pronunciation and accent, are important. So fluency is more important than accuracy. Its weakness is exaggeration and overemphasis.

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Natural way:

It was introduced by Tracy Terrel (1977) in California. She believes that we should learn language naturally, like our mother tongue. At first we learn listening then speaking after that reading and finally writing.

It is time consuming and it’s not economical approach. It’s not businesslike.

Comprehension Approach:

*What’s the difference between comprehension and understanding?

Comprehension is a specialized and technical term (word). It deals with receptive skills such as listening and reading (text & passage). But understanding is a general term. We can understand through many ways. So we can understand every subject easily but we can’t comprehend them absolutely. For comprehension we must read or listen.

Comprehension questions are in two types:

1) Referential questions : answer is inside the text.2) Inferential questions : answer is between the lines.

Silent way:

It was introduced by Gattegno (1972). Its emphasis is on mental factors and listening. Teacher's silence is a kind of skill. It is meaningful. Teacher uses colored rods and colored charts and every other thing that make students pay attention to another thing not to the teacher. So in this method teachers try student become self-sufficient (independent).

There is a famous quotation from Benjamin Franklin (one of the U.S presidents) that he says: “Tell me, I forget. Teach me, I remember. Involve me I learn.”

So in silent way we try to involve the students to learn. Grammar teaching is indirect. Teacher is like a technician. Use of mother tongue is allowed to guide and give order.

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Weakness of this method is that students become suppressed. They don’t pay attention to the segmental features. They don’t have imitation and repetition. So they have problem in pronunciation.

Segmental features: (vowels, consonants, phonemes, morphemes) supra segmental features: (stress, intonation, pronunciation, word boundaries)

Eclectic approach:

This approach is introduced by Kumar. It’s an approach which selects the best items or points of other approaches for teaching the language and uses them based on the proper conditions. It has its own pros and cons (for & against). the main word of those who disagree with this approach is that its framework is not clear.

Cognitive code approach:

It is based on Cognitivism. Mind activities and abilities are important. It says that the language learner must be cognitively/mentally ready for learning. Language learning is not based on conditioning or habit formation. Language is not learned through the relationship between stimulus and response. Language learning is the development of language competence not the development of language performance. The relationship between teacher and student is symmetrical. It is student centered. Teacher should be helper and facilitator. It means that learning should be meaningful. Prerequisite for meaningful learning is having prior knowledge. So students should have schema.

What is Schema or Schemata?

In word it means the general outline or image of something in our mind. In language teaching it means bits of information which are gathered and stored and classified in our long-term memory. So we understand the meaning of words and things and... through schema.

Cognitive code approach is based on Transformational and Generative theory of Chomsky.

A. Generative theory of Chomsky:

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It means that our mind is able to generate an infinite set of words and sentences based on a finite set of words and rules. It’s called Chomsky Generativism.

B. Transformational theory of Chomsky:

Our mind is able to transform one form/structure to another form/structure by learning a few limited patterns. e.g. we can express an idea in present simple tense. We can transform this idea into another form by using passive structure. So we can transform one idea from one form/structure to many other forms/structures.

What is LAD?

Chomsky talks about LAD (language acquisition device). He believes that language is innate, unique and human specific. Cognitivists say: first competence development then performance development.

Here’s a disagreement between Cognitivists. They are divided into 2 groups:

1. Freewill: learners can decide for themselves willingly. They shouldn’t be under pressure. They should speak willingly.

2. Deterministic: learners can’t decide in any things for themselves.

Nature and Nurture:

Nature: means acquiring language naturally, without formal education. It’s in our nature. It’s inborn. It’s unconscious. It means development of cognition naturally. There is no education.

Nurture: means learning through formal education. It’s conscious and formal.

*Human Mind Capacity or Capabilities?

1. Information processing at 3 levels:

a) Primal level: daily routines and unconscious activities like Some of our physical movements (blinking, …)

b) Affective level: Emotional activities (feeling) Processing.c) Logical/Rational level: of human brain processing:

All the conscious level like thinking and problem solving and…

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2. Concept formation:

Human brain is able to make relationship between an object and a phenomena to make a concept.

For example: Match Fire Heat/Burn

3. To conduct physical activities

4. Language learning conversation or speaking

5. Self awareness and self recognition:

We are aware of what’s happening in our mind and also in our environment and little by little we can recognize our own abilities and reach to the self-actualization.

6. Storing or retention of the information:

According to Chastain we have two kinds of memories:

Short-term memory : (verbal-comprehension memory) It processes the information for a short period of time. Its capacity is limited or finite. It sorts out, classifies and then uses the information. By rehearsal (repetition), this information will be active. But if we don’t use the information, it becomes passive and it will be stored in our subconscious.

Long-term memory : (Cognitive Networks) In this memory there are Bits of related information that make meaningful chunks and are called schema or schemata. Another task in this memory is making script. Scripts: are activities/ materials/ information that happen one after the other in order (like a slide show). Script shows the order of tasks, works, and routines. For example when we read a book for the first time, we

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Object Phenomena Concept

learn slowly and after learning materials because we get to the necessary script, we learn faster.

7. Recalling of the information:

Recalling of the information takes place in 2 ways:

a) Serial/Linear processing : it’s limited. It can focus on just one item/task. It’s level by level/stage by stage. Like the early stages of learning driving.

b) Selective/Parallel processing : it’s unlimited. It’s quicker/faster. It’s done unconsciously. We can skip or handle some levels professionally. We can do few tasks simultaneously (at the same time). Like next stages of learning driving.

8. Problem solving and analysis:

According to David Ausobel It is instinctive, algorithm and unconscious in animals. All works of animals are based on root learning. David said it is innate, not based on thinking. e.g scorpion bite/sting is unconscious. But in human it is heuristic, conscious and selective. It means that human can analyze a subject and select the best way. He can discover a better way.

9. Brain Lateralization:

We talked about it before (page 7).

Different parts of human brain:

1) Wernicke’s area: is the area of comprehension2) Broca’s area: fore brain is the area of production.3) Basis of the brain (spinal cord): is the area of mental, cognitive,

emotional and feeling activities.4) Cerebellum: is the area of controlling voluntary action of the body like

setting, standing up ,…

3 levels of Human Brain’s Activities:

1) Conscious level: All activities in which we are aware of them.

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2) Unconscious level: Some movements of body like blinking. Some special things in daily routines like thirst and hunger.

3) Meta-cognitive level: it is beyond the two previous levels. It controls and manages the two previous cognitive levels and then uses strategies.

Learning and teaching strategies?

There are two kinds of strategies:

1. Productive strategies

2. Unproductive strategies

It usually predicts the results of the activities (work, learning, teaching). It increases the comprehension. It grades the level of difficulty. It analyses and separates important issues from unimportant issues then it processes the information.

Processes information:

1) Bottom-up processing: (Data driven processing) We don’t use our brain information and just use data of context.

2) Top-down processing: (Conceptually driven processing) We just use of inside information of the brain. We don’t use data of the context.

3) Integrative processing: use both inside information of the brain and data of the context.

Different types of learning?

Rote learning: Mechanical, Active, Drills, A.L.M Meaningful learning: is based on concentration (cognitive, emotional,

meta-cognitive, purpose), background knowledge, context.

The factors that are involved in the storage or retention and recalling of the information?

1. Compatibility of the background knowledge:

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Activating the backward knowledge of students. Old information should be compatible to the new one.

2. Subsumption of the information:Inserting the compatible information in our mind in another form, so that it seems like a superficial forget fullness of the information. We can use warm up and engage techniques for this part.

3. Storing of the information in our long term memory:Cognitive, emotional, social, cultural = concentration

4. Rehearsal of the information5. Practice: Rote Meaningful: learning strategies : productive - unproductive

Examples for strategies:

1. Overt response

2. Covert response positive feedback

Negative feedback

3. Getting feedback Prompt feedback

Immediate feedback

Delayed feedback

*Intelligence: Does God give to all Humans equal intelligence?

There are 3 viewpoints in this field:

1) Psychometric view of intelligence:

Some experts define human intelligence as the brain capacity/capability which can be measured through psychological tests:

normal: 100 - 110 Good : 110 - 220 Elite : 220 - 230

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Super elite : 230

3) Piaget’s view of intelligence (Cognitivists’ view):

The development of mind and the maturation of mind through some life stages; 0 – 2 Sensorimotor stage

2 – 5 Preoperational stage

7 – 16 Operational stage 7 – 11 (formal stage)

11 – 16 (concrete stage)

4) Information processing view of intelligence (Chomsky/Innativists’ view):

They believe intelligence means what our mind is doing now, at the time of learning. Learning should be meaningful. Concentration is the prerequisite of comprehension and comprehension is the prerequisite of learning.

*Ways of improving memory and learning ability?

1. The prerequisite for comprehension is concentration.

2. We should pay attention to purpose or goal and context.

3. Use of both hemispheres: it means both left hemisphere (analytic aspect of mind) and right hemisphere (holistic aspect of mind) should be taken into consideration. In the other words, we should have Humanistic Learning. It means that human being is not mono-dimensional.

4. Enhancing learning strategies or technique MURDER :

M: Mood U: Understanding R: Recall, Remember D: Digest

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Concentration Comprehension Learning

R: Review, Repeat

Kumar says: intake = input + notice/awareness

Controlled

Practice: Semi controlled

Free practice

حافظه؟ تقویت های راه1 : معنادار. یادگیری و تمرکز و مطلب درک نیاز پیش یا الزمه معنادار یادگیری

. کرد. توجه متن هدف به باید سپس استمغز. 2 ی نیمکره دو از استفاده

تک انسان باشیمیعنی داشته اومانیستی یا و انسانی یادگیری باید دیگر عبارت بهاست ممکن چون نیست اومانیستی کنکور تست یا و ازمون یک نیستمثال بعدی

بیندازد خطر به را فرد یک ی ایندهباشه. 3 حالش و حس بخونه درس میخاد یادگیری های استراتژی بردن باال

میره باال درکمیره باال یاداوری

میگیره رو مطلبمیده توسعه

میکنه مرورمیکنه تکرار

= : رو مطلب میفهمی رو مطلب که کنی ادعا میتونی میگوید کومار/ اگاهی+ توجه میخونیمحور: معلم تمرین

محور دانشجو یا و معلممیدهد انجام ازاد خودش

Characteristics of successful language learner?

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We should pay attention if my method is teacher-centered (explicit) or learner-centered (explicit) or learning-centered (implicit). Everyone has his/her own characteristics.

learning centered is search-centered. It says successfulness should not be measured by scores. Successfulness is when the learners have been able to fulfill the expectations.

موفق؟ آموز زبان یک مشخصاتهمکاری یا و است محور دانشجو یا است نمره مالک ما متود بگیریم نظر در باید

. . کلی طور به دارد را خودش مشخصات کدام هر است پژوهشی کارهای و معلم باlearning-centered موفقیت مالک میگوید که است محور پژوهش و یادگیری متود

. یادگیری فرایند در اموز زبان ایا اینکه یعنی موفقیت مالک نیست باال ی نمرهو ذهنی عوامل بین توانسته کرده؟ایا براورده را انتظارات داشته؟ایا پیشرفت

خیر یا کند برقرار تعادل اموزشی و اجتماعی*What is the language?

1. Language is a tool for the manifestation of human thoughts.

2. An arbitrary set of visual, written and oral symbols for the communication:

bottom-up: letter sounds correspondence Top-down: meaning is in the mind Integrative ways: mixed of both bottom-down and top-down

Language has different purposes:

To express our individuality. To be an active member of community. Language is symbolic. It’s the manifestation of past, present and future.

چیست؟ زبانبشر. 1 افکار تجلی برای است ابزاری زبان2 : برای. نوشتاری و صوتی عالئم از دادی قرار ای مجموعه زبان قدیمی تعریف

ارتباط برقراریاست. 3 متعددی اهداف دارای زباناست. 4 وجود ابراز برای زبان

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است. 5 جامعه از فعالی عضو6. اینده. , و حال گذشته از است مظهری زبان یعنی است سمبلیک زبان

Characteristics of language:

1. Linguistic or Grammatical features of language :

All languages have vowels (there isn’t obstruction in their production), consonant (there is obstruction in their production), oral symbols, written symbols, verb, noun, tense, negation system, ellipsis system, case system and ellipsis system.

2. Communicative features of language:

a) Displacement

The human ability to talk about past or future, to talk about facts and events which are not available now.

b) Reciprocal ability

It means human being can act both listener and speaker.

c) Productivity

The ability to produce an infinite set of sentences base on a finite linguistic or grammatical rules. Chomsky introduced UG. There are 3 viewpoints about it:

Full access to UG It has been rejected No access to UG It has been rejected Partial access to UG It’s accepted

3. Social features:

Instrumental function of the language as a means of communication in society.

Interactional function of the language. Textual interaction

Kumar says there are 3 kinds of interaction Interpersonal interaction

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Ideational interaction

Imaginative function of the language

Formative function of the language:Language is sets of: Semantic system, word system, sound system, functional system and syntactic system.

Sound system

phone: the smallest unit of the sound

Phoneme: distinctive sounds (pat,mat)

Allophone: variation of phoneme in a complimentary distribution

Word system

Morph: the smallest unite of the word

Morpheme: free morpheme (doesn’t have meaning alone), bound morpheme (Prefix, infix, suffix)

Allomorph: a word is its sound but there isn’t itself, its sound is allomorph.

Semantic system

Capsulate the words of the sentence

Functional system:

Function is the purpose for which the lg /structure is used.

Notion is the time ,place ,situation.dexis in which the function is used.

1: گرامری. مشخصات

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) ( حروف ندارد وجود مانعی گونه هیچ تولیدشان در صدادار هاحروف زبان ی کلیه , , ) فعل) نوشتاری و گفتاری شکل دارد وجود مانع تولیدشان راه سره بر همخوان

, , , لفظی ی قرینه به حذف سیستم مستقیم سازی منفی گرامری زمان اسم ودارند.

2: زبان. فصیح و گویا مشخصاتجایی. جابه الف

و ) اشیا چیز همه مورد در زبان و فکر طریق از که دارد را توانایی این انسان یعنی )... مورد در و باشد داشته مکانی و زمانی جایی جابه نوعی ها پدیده و حوادث

. کند صحبت نمیشود دیده چشم با االن که اینده یا و گذشتهشنونده. هم و باشیم گوینده میتوانیم هم متقابل ب

ارتباط. برقراری ی وسیله عنوان به زبان پقوانین و لغت محدودی تعداد یادگیری یعنی است زایشی حالت مشخصه سومین

(. مورد در چامسکی میکنیم تولید جمله نامحدودی تعداد و میگویدکهUGگرامریبه دسترسی دوم UGبرای زبان اختیار در اطالعات کل دارد وجود نظریه سه

میگیرد قرارمیگیرد قرار دوم زبان اختیار در اطالعات از قسمتی

نمیگیرد قرار دوم زبان اختیار در اطالعاتی هیچزبان: اجتماعی مشخصات پ

دارد جامعه در ای وسیله کاربرد زبان ) ( متن طریق از تعامل میگوید کومار زبان تعاملی ساختار

نفر دو بین تعاملایده طریق از تعامل

زبان ی خالقانه کاربرد رسانی اطالع برای زبان از استفاده

, , , و کاربردی صوتی لغوی معنایی سیستم از ای مجموعه زبان کلی طور به. میباشد نحوی

: صوتی سیستمصوتی: واحد کوچکترین آوا

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دهنده: تمیز اصوات واج. : شده توزیع مکمل صورت به که واج از ای گونه گونه واج

: لغوی سیستمکلمه: واحد کوچکترین تکواژ

, نمیدهد: معنا تنهایی به که وابسته تکواژ میدهد معنا تهایی به که ازاد تکواژ واژکصدایش: به نیست خودش اما هست صداش که حرفی یا لغت تکواژگونه

. میگوییم گونه واج نوشتش به و میگوییم تکواژگونه

معنایی سیستمجمله یک کلمات کردن جز به جز و تفکیک

ساختاری سیستمجمله گیری بکار از هدف

Notion آن در ساختار که است موقعیتی و مکان و زمان که است ساختاری. میشود استفاده

The factors that cause the complexity of the language:

1. Register:

Use of the lg in different situations formal

Informal

Slang

Not knowing register cuses complexity,misunderestanding.

2. Style:

Oral,written,visual,synthetic

3. Idiolect (personal language):

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It is variation of language in which every person has his/her own language which varies from a person to another person (vocabulary, sterategies, accent) in using.

Dialect: Variation of the language beloning to local erea which doesn’t have an international prestige.

Accent: is common pronunciation,intonation,rythem in a special/local area.

4. Interlanguage:

It’s a language between L1 and L2, but it is neighter L1 nor L2.

5. Constraints (Limitations):

Individual

Cognitive motivation

Social atittude

Cultural purpose

Political stress

Economical

Enviromental

6. Chaos complexity (Fracture):

Chaos cimplexity article says language is complex, dynamic and it’s all the time changing (If we want repeat the same words after a few minutes, we cant repeat the same words)

language is fractal. It means that when we are speaking we can’t say 2+2=4 because there are some fractual facts. e.g. we can not say writing + speaking + reading + speaking = learning language. Because there are some fractual. so language is an open system and it is not close system.

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*fracture in language means unpredictable behavior. So language is full of chaoses. It’s chaotic. (rubish is not just rubish)

*language has systematicity and it’s rule-governed and every changing may cuse a disaster .

"Butterflys’ Effect": It means that all things are related together, and there is validity and systematicity in the world. So flying of a butterfly in one part of the world may cuse a disaster in the other part of the world.

"camel’s back effect": We should pay attention to abilities and capacity of students. If we don’t pay attention to abilities and capacity of the students we will not successful.

: میشود زبان پیچیدگی باعث که عواملی1: زبانی. تناسب

. , , = ای محاوره رسمی غیر رسمی مختلف های موقعیت در زبان کاربرد. میشود تفاهم سوء و زبان پیچپیدگی باعث مورد این نداستن یا رعایت عدم

2: زبان. سبکترکیبی, , , بصری کتبی گفتاری

فردی. 3 زبانفرق دیگر فرد به فردی از که دارد را خودش مخصوص زبان کسی هر

ی. وجهه ولیکن است خاصی ی منطقه به مطعلق که است زبان از شکلی دارد. ندارد المللی بین و سیاسی

Accent , , خاص ی منطقه در صدا ریتم صدا تن تلفظ کردن رعایت یعنیکدام. 4 هیچ ولی دارد را دوزبان هر مشخصات و دوم و اول زبان بین است زبانی

. نیست هم5: ها. محدودیت و مشکالت

شخصیانگیزش شناختیگرایش اجتماعی

هدف فرهنگی

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استرس سیاسیاقتصادیمحیطی

6: ریختگی. بهم و آشفتگیتغییر , حال در دائما یعنی پویا و پیچیده بسیار است فراندی زبان میگوید مقاله این ( دیگر کنیم تکرار را حرفها همان بخواهیم صحبت دقیقه چند از بعد اگر است

. کردن(. صحبت هنگام در یعنی است اعشاری زبان همیشه 4=2+2نمیتوانیم نیست+ + گوش خواندن نوشتن بگوییم کسی به نمیتوانیم مثال داریم اعشاری و کاری ریزه . دخیل+ = زیاد ریز عوامل و کاری خرده میشود زبان یادگیری کردن صحبت دادن

. نمیباشد . بسته سیستم و است باز سیستم یک زبان لذا میباشداشفتگی* از پر زبان لذا بینی پیش قابل غیر رفتار یعنی زبانی اصطالح در ولی

میباشد.. نیست: آشغال فقط آشغال مثال

. باعث* تغییر گونه هر و است سیستماتیک و منظم کامال زبان حال عین در یعنی. میشود فاجعه امدن پدید

. " از" پروانه برخاستن دارد ربط بههم چیز همه جهان این در یعنی ای پروانه اثر. میشود دیگر جایی در فاجعه باعث جایی

" و" توانایی ما اگر باشیم داشته توجه ها ظرفیت و ها توانایی به باید شتر کمر اثر. نمیشویم موفق نگیریم نظر در را دانشجو ظرفیت

Initial status:

It is very important. Every change may be dangrous in language or life.

Pidgin language (pidginization):

Pidgin means pigeon, It is a simplified form of a foreign language which has the feature of both L1 and L2, but it’s neighter L1 nor L2. It is used to fullfill the basic needs or neccessities for a foreigner in a foreign country. pidgin language changes to Interlanguage after awhile, and then changes to Creole language. Creol language is upper than saying initial needs, It’s the dominant and common foreign lg in a country. It changes to Native language after 1 or 2 generations and with great effort.

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Lingua franca:

A language that is adopted as a common language between speakers whose

native languages are different. (A pre-dominant foreign language) e.g. Grench in some parts of Canada and English in India.

Sapir and whorf hypothesis:

It’s about the relationship between language and culture. this hypothesis is rejected. Every one sees the world with his/her own language. It’s the language that determines our thoght, so everybody sees the world differently because they have different languages. They talk about world and the world through their language is different.

The reasons of the rejection of the this hypothesis :

1.Thought is prior to language. First we think then we speak.

2. It’s a tentative statement which everybody should experience it himself.

: اولیه وضعیتدر چه باشد امیز فاجعه است ممکن ناگهانی تغییر گونه هر و است مهم بسیار

زندگی . در چه و زبان:) کبوتری ) بقویی بق زبان

. دو هر مشخصات است خارجه زبان یک از ای ساده شکل و است کبوتر معنای به . . به گویی بق بق زبان میرود کار به اولیه های نیاز کردن برآورده برای دارد را زبان

به تبدیل به inter lgتدریج تبدیل نسل دو یکی از بعد .creol lgمیشود زبان میشودcreol lg آمده وجود به الزم تغییرات سال دو یکی از بعد که است زبان از نوع یک

. زیاد های تالش از بعد است اولیه های نیاز کردن فراهم از فراتر تبدیلcreol lgو. native lgبه عنوان به خاص جایی یا خاص کشور یک در رایج و غالب زبان میشود

. انگلیسی هند در و میباشد فرانسه کانادا در خارجی رایج و غالب زبان مثال: ورف و سپیر ی فرضیه

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A foreigner in a foreign country Pidgin lg. Creole lg. Native lg.

. نحوه زبان آیا است فرهنگ و زبان بین ی رابطه مورد در است شده رد ای فرضیهاول میکند؟کدام مشخص را ما زبان تفکر آیا یا و میکند مشخص را تفکر ی

را تفکر ی نحوه که است زبان این میگویند ورف و تفکر؟سپیر یا هست؟زبانعینک با را دنیا کس هر یعنی است تفکر بر مقدم زبان میگویند میکند مشخص

. میبیند خود زبان: نظریه این شدن رد دالیل

1. میزنیم. , حرف بعدا و میکنیم فکر اول است زبان بر مقدم تفکر یا و فکر2 . باید. دکتر ی شود؟بچه کارگر باید کارگر ی بچه آیا است تجربی بحث یک این

... شود؟ دکتر

What do you know about saliency and frequency?

Frequency means main words or phrase that are very common but they arent special. so because they are very importan students learn faster.

Saliency means words or letter or phrase that are not common but they are very important.

Never we don’t reach to ultimate attainment. never we don’t say I don’t want learn or teach anymore. We don’t have ultimate progress because we learn new point or material in every moment.

E.g: articles have high frequency and use more and are common but don’t have saliency for students,but active and passive don’t have frequency but have saliency and are important for students so saliency is more important than frequency.

Frequency به نیست، خاص و است رایج خیلی که اصلی عبارات یا کلمه یعنی. شوند می گرفته یاد دیرتر زیاد اهمیت داشتن دلیل

Saliency تر مهم و دارد خاصی اهمیت ولی نیست رایج که لغت یا حرف یعنیاست.

یا و بگیرم یاد نیستم حاضر دیگر من که بگوییم که نمیرسیم ای نقطه به وقت هیچ . جدیدی مطلب یا و نکته به لحظه هر چون نداریم نهایی پیشرفت بدهم درس

میرسیم.انگلیسی: زبان در تعریف حرف و frequencyمثال میروند کار به زیاد دارند باالیی

یا و اهمیت ولی هستند , saliencyرایج و معلوم ولی اموزان زبان برای ندارند

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تعریف حرف ی اندازه به اهمیت frequencyمجهول ولی و saliencyندارند دارندمیگیریم نتیجه پس است مهم اموزان زبان از saliencyبرای frequencyمهمتر

است.

*The hypothesis of Krashen:

1) language learning acquisition hypothesis:

Karshen is follower of C.P.H hypothesis.

2) Natural-order hypothesis:

It means first we should learn receptive skills Listening

Reading

Then we should learn productive skills Writing

Speaking

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