EUROPEAN IMPERIALISM DOCUMENTS

Document 1: Letter from Belgian King Leopold II to the Colonial Missionaries, 1883

Leopold II (9 April 1835 – 17 December 1909) was the second King of the Belgians, known for the founding and exploitation of the Congo Free State in Africa (most of what today is the Congo) as a private venture. At the Berlin

Conference of 1884–1885, the colonial nations of Europe only authorized his land claim because he promised to commit himself to improving the lives of its native inhabitants, including providing Christian missionary work. From the beginning,

however, Leopold ignored these conditions and millions of Congolese inhabitants, including children, were mutilated and killed as he ran the Congo using a

mercenary force for his personal enrichment. Leopold extracted a fortune from the Congo, initially by the collection of ivory, and after a rise in the price of rubber in the 1890s, by forced labor from the natives to harvest and process rubber. Under his regime millions of Congolese people died, with most historians agreeing with numbers around 10 million. Human rights abuses under his regime contributed

significantly to these deaths. Reports of deaths and abuse led to a major international scandal in the early 20th century, and Leopold was ultimately forced

by the Belgian government to relinquish control of the Congo to the civil administration in 1908. Below is a letter providing some instruction for Belgian

missionaries stationed in the Congo.

Reverends, Fathers and Dear Compatriots: The task that is given to fulfill is very delicate and requires much tact. You will go certainly to evangelize, but your evangelization must inspire above all Belgium interests. Your principal objective in our mission in the Congo is never to teach the niggers to know God, this they know already. They speak and submit to a Mungu, one Nzambi, one Nzakomba, and what else I don’t know. They know that to kill, to sleep with someone else’s wife, to lie and to insult is bad. Have courage to admit it; you are not going to teach them what they know already. Your essential role is to facilitate the task of administrators and industrials, which means you will go to interpret the gospel in the way it will be the best to protect your interests in that part of the world. For these things, you have to keep watch on disinteresting our savages from the richness that is plenty in their underground. To avoid that they get interested in it, and make you murderous competition and dream one day to overthrow you. Your knowledge of the gospel will allow you to find texts ordering and encouraging your followers to love poverty, like “Happier are the poor because they will inherit the heaven" and, "It’s very difficult for the rich to enter the kingdom of God." You have to detach from them and make them disrespect everything which gives courage to affront us. I make reference to their Mystic System and their war fetish-warfare protection, which they pretend not to want to abandon, and you must do everything in your power to make it disappear.

Your action will be directed essentially to the younger ones, for they won’t revolt when the recommendation of the priest is contradictory to their parent’s teachings. The children have to learn to obey what the missionary recommends, who is the father of their soul. You must singularly insist on their total submission and obedience, avoid developing the spirit in the schools, teach students to read and not to reason. There, dear patriots, are some of the principles that you must apply. You will find many other books, which will be given to you at the end of this conference. Evangelize the niggers so that they stay forever in submission to the white colonialists, so they never revolt against the restraints they are undergoing. Recite every day-"Happy are those who are weeping because the kingdom of God is for them." Convert always the blacks by using the whip. Keep their women in nine months of submission to work freely for us. Force them to pay you in sign of recognition-goats, chicken or eggs-every time you visit their villages. And make sure that niggers never become rich. Sing every day that it’s impossible for the rich to enter heaven. Make them pay tax each week at Sunday mass. Use the money supposed for the poor, to build flourishing business centers. Institute a confessional system, which allows you to be good detectives denouncing any black that has a different consciousness contrary to that of the decision-maker. Teach the niggers to forget their heroes and to adore only ours. Never present a chair to a black that comes to visit you. Don’t give him more than one cigarette. Never invite him for dinner even if he gives you a chicken every time you arrive at his house.

*********************************************************

Document 2(a): Excerpts of Rudyard Kipling’s “White Man’s Burden,” 1899In February 1899, British novelist and poet Rudyard Kipling wrote a poem entitled “The White Man’s Burden: The United States and The Philippine Islands.” In this

poem, Kipling urged the U.S. to take up the “burden” of empire, as had Britain and other European nations. (The U.S. had just acquired territories from Spain,

including Puerto Rico, Guam, Cuba, and the Philippine Islands). Published in the February, 1899 issue of McClure’s Magazine, the poem exhorts the reader and the listener to embark upon the enterprise of empire, yet gives somber warning about

the costs involved; nonetheless, American imperialists understood the phrase “white man's burden” to justify imperialism as a noble enterprise of civilization.

(Kipling also wrote many children’s stories, including one you likely read or watched: The Jungle Book)

Take up the White Man's burden--Send forth the best ye breed--

Go bind your sons to exileTo serve your captives' need;

To wait in heavy harness,On fluttered folk and wild--

Your new-caught, sullen peoples,Half-devil and half-child…

Take up the White Man's burden--

In patience to abide,To veil the threat of terror

And check the show of pride;By open speech and simple,

An hundred times made plainTo seek another's profit,

And work another's gain…

Take up the White Man's burden--The savage wars of peace--

Fill full the mouth of FamineAnd bid the sickness cease;

And when your goal is nearestThe end for others sought…

Watch sloth and heathen FollyBring all your hopes to nought…

**************************

Document 2(b) : “The White Man’s Burden (Apologies to Rudyard Kipling).” Victor Gillam,   Judge Magazine , April 1, 1899.

Document 3: Excerpts from "Confession of Faith" ~ Cecil Rhodes, 1877 Cecil Rhodes (1853-1902) was a British imperialist, businessman and politician in

South Africa, who served as Prime Minister of the southern African Cape Colony from 1890 to 1896. An ardent believer in British imperialism, Rhodes and

his British South Africa Company founded the southern African territory of Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe and Zambia), which the company named after him in 1895. Rhodes was the ultimate imperialist who believed, above all else, in the glory

of the British Empire and the superiority of the Englishman and British rule, and saw it as his God-given task to expand the Empire, not only for the good of

England, but for the good of all peoples over whom Britain would eventually rule. He even dreamed of building a rail line from the Cape Colony to Cairo, Egypt in what he hoped would eventually be all British territory rather than be divided amongst other European powers (see the cartoon below titled “The Rhodes’

Colossus: From Cape Town to Cairo). While some view him as the evil epitome of the worst of imperialism, racism, and Social Darwinism, others view him as a

heroic cultural icon, a builder (his De Beers diamond company, which he helped form in 1888, retains its prominence into the 21st century), and a philanthropist (Rhodes set up the provisions of the Rhodes Scholarship, which is funded by his

estate, in which a handful of selected winners are offered a full scholarship to earn degrees at England’s prestigious Oxford University. One notable winner was

President Bill Clinton.). Rhodes originally wrote his “Confession of Faith” on June 2, 1877, in Oxford. Later that year, he made some additions and changes.

It often strikes a man to inquire what is the chief good in life; to one the thought comes that it is a happy marriage, to another great wealth, and as each seizes on

his idea, for that he more or less works for the rest of his existence. To myself thinking over the same question, the wish came to render myself useful to my country. I then asked myself “how could I?” and after reviewing the various

methods, I have felt that at the present day we are actually limiting our children and perhaps bringing into the world half the human beings we [should be having] if

we had retained America. [T]here would at this moment be millions more of English living [if we kept America for ourselves]. I contend that we are the finest race in the world and that the more of the world we inhabit the better it is for the

human race. Just fancy those parts that are at present inhabited by the most despicable specimens of human beings what an alteration there would be if they

were brought under Anglo-Saxon influence. Look again at the extra employment a new country added to our dominions gives. I contend that every acre added to our territory means in the future birth to some more of the English race who otherwise

would not be brought into existence. Added to this the absorption of the greater portion of the world under our rule simply means the end of all wars…

The idea gleaming and dancing before one’s eyes…frames itself into a plan. Why should we not form a secret society with but one object the furtherance of the

British Empire and the bringing of the whole uncivilised world under British rule for the recovery of the United States for the making the Anglo-Saxon race but one Empire. What a dream, but yet it is probable, it is possible. I once heard it argued by a fellow in my own college, I am sorry to own it by an Englishman, that it was good thing for us that we have lost the United States. There are some subjects on

which there can be no arguments, and to an Englishman this is one of them,

but even from an American’s point of view just picture what they have lost. Look at their government, are not the

frauds that yearly come before the public view a disgrace to any country and

especially theirs, which is the finest in the world. Would they have occurred had they remained under English rule great

as they have become how infinitely greater they would have been with the softening and elevating influences of English rule, think of those countless

thousands of Englishmen that during the last 100 years would have crossed the Atlantic and settled and populated the

United States. Would they have not made without any prejudice a finer country of it than the low class Irish and German

emigrants? All this we have lost and that country loses owing to whom? Owing to

two or three ignorant pig-headed statesmen of the last century, at their door lies the blame. Do you ever feel mad? Do you ever feel murderous. I think I do with those men. I bring facts to

prove my assertion. Does an English father, when his sons wish to emigrate, ever think of suggesting emigration to a country under another flag? Never—it would seem a disgrace to suggest such a thing. I think that we all think that poverty is

better under our own flag than wealth under a foreign one.

…Put your mind into another train of thought. Fancy Australia discovered and colonized under the French flag, what would it mean merely several millions of

English unborn that at present exist we learn from the past and to form our future. We learn from having lost to cling to what we possess. We know the size of the world we know the total extent. Africa is still lying ready for us. It is our duty to

take it. It is our duty to seize every opportunity of acquiring more territory and we should keep this one idea steadily before our eyes that more territory simply means more of the Anglo-Saxon race; more of the best, the most human, most honorable

race the world possesses.

To forward such a scheme, what a splendid help a secret society would be; a society not openly acknowledged but who would work in secret for such an object. I contend that there are at the present moment numbers of the ablest men in the

world who would devote their whole lives to it…

(In every Colonial legislature the Society should attempt to have its members prepared at all times to vote or speak and advocate the closer union of England

and the colonies, to crush all disloyalty and every movement for the severance of our Empire. The Society should inspire and even own portions of the press for the

press rules the mind of the people. The Society should always be searching for

members who might by their position in the world by their energies or character forward the object but the ballot and test for admittance should be severe)

For fear that death might cut me off before the time for attempting its development, I leave all my worldly goods in trust to S. G. Shippard and the

Secretary for the Colonies at the time of my death to try to form such a Society with such an object.

 On September 19, 1877, Rhodes drafted his first will; at that time, he had an estate

of only about $17,000. (Although he changed his will quite a number of times in years following, the objective remained the same. After his death, the directors of the Rhodes Trust set up the Rhodes Scholarships as the best way to achieve his objectives.) The first clause of the 1877 will bequeathed his wealth as follows:

To and for the establishment, promotion and development of a Secret Society, the true aim and object whereof shall be for the extension of British rule throughout

the world, the perfecting of a system of emigration from the United Kingdom, and of colonization by British subjects of all lands where the means of livelihood are

attainable by energy, labor and enterprise, and especially the occupation by British settlers of the entire Continent of Africa, the Holy Land, the Valley of the

Euphrates, the Islands of Cyprus and Candia, the whole of South America, the Islands of the Pacific not heretofore possessed by Great Britain, the whole of the Malay Archipelago, the seaboard of China and Japan, the ultimate recovery of the

United States of America as an integral part of the British Empire, the inauguration of a system of Colonial representation in the Imperial Parliament

which may tend to weld together the disjointed members of the Empire and, finally, the foundation of so great a Power as to render wars impossible and promote the

best interests of humanity.

Document 4: European Colonization of Africa by 1913Owing to the European race for colonies known as the “Scramble for Africa,”

Germany started launching expeditions in Africa, which frightened both British and French statesmen possessing colonies there already. Hoping to quickly soothe

this brewing conflict over possessions and borders, King Leopold II of Belgium convinced France and Germany that common trade in Africa was in the best

interests of all three countries. Under support from the British and the initiative of Portugal, Otto von Bismarck, German Chancellor, called on representatives of thirteen nations in Europe (as well as the United States) to take part in what

become known as the Berlin Conference in 1884 to work out joint policy on the African continent. Fourteen countries sent representatives to attend the Berlin

Conference and sign the subsequent Berlin Act. However, African peoples not only lost autonomy over their lands, they were also not invited to the conference. Also, think about how separating some tribes between different colonial occupiers, and forcing tribes historically hostile to each other to now live together, would become issues in the future. Below is a map of what Africa looked like just months before

the start of World War 1.

Document 5: Chinese Commissioner Lin Zexu: Letter to Queen Victoria of Britain, 1839

By the early 1800s, the opium trade dominated by British merchants produced millions of Chinese addicts. The opium trade increased steadily; between1800 and 1821, 4,500 chests were shipped to and sold in China a year. In 1838, the number

reached 40,000 chests. The result was a serious outflow of Chinese silver. The Qing government finally decided in 1838 to ban the opium trade, and Lin Zexu was appointed as imperial commissioner to supervise the operation. Lin arrived in the Chinese province of Guangzhou in March 1839 and soon launched strong attacks on both addicts and smugglers. He also ordered confiscation of opium in foreign

merchants' possession and burned as many as 21,306 chests. Lin's letter to Queen Victoria was sent during his anti-opium campaign. In response to British

merchants' request for protection, the British fleet was on its way to Guangzhou. War was imminent in what would become known as the Opium Wars.

His Majesty the Emperor comforts and cherishes foreigners as well as Chinese: he loves all the people in the world without discrimination. Whenever profit is found, he wishes to share it with all men; whenever harm appears, he likewise will eliminate it on behalf of all of mankind. His heart is in fact the heart of the whole universe.  Generally speaking, the succeeding rulers of your honorable country have been respectful and obedient. Time and again they have sent petitions to China, saying: "We are grateful to His Majesty the Emperor for the impartial and favorable treatment he has granted to the citizens of my country who have come to China to trade," etc. I am pleased to learn that you, as the ruler of your honorable country, are thoroughly familiar with the principle of righteousness and are grateful for the favor that His Majesty the Emperor has bestowed upon your subjects. Because of this fact, the Celestial Empire (China), following its traditional policy of treating foreigners with kindness, has been doubly considerate towards the people from England. You have traded in China for almost 200 years, and as a result, your country has become wealthy and prosperous.  As this trade has lasted for a long time, there are bound to be unscrupulous as well as honest traders. Among the unscrupulous are those who bring opium to China to harm the Chinese; they succeed so well that this poison has spread far and wide in all the provinces. You, I hope, will certainly agree that people who pursue material gains to the great detriment of the welfare of others can be neither tolerated by Heaven nor endured by men. . . .  Your country is more than 60,000 li from China. The purpose of your ships in coming to China is to realize a large profit. Since this profit is realized in China and is in fact taken away from the Chinese people, how can foreigners return injury for the benefit they have received by sending this poison to harm their benefactors? They may not intend to harm others on purpose, but the fact remains that they are so obsessed with material gain that they have no concern whatever for the harm they can cause to others. Have they no conscience? I have heard that you strictly prohibit opium in your own country, indicating unmistakably that you know how harmful opium is. You do not wish opium to harm your own country, but you choose to bring that harm to other countries such as China. Why?  The products that originate from China are all useful items. They are good for food and other purposes and are easy to sell. Has China produced one item that is

harmful to foreign countries? For instance, tea and rhubarb are so important to foreigners' livelihood that they have to consume them every day. Were China to concern herself only with her own advantage without showing any regard for other people's welfare, how could foreigners continue to live? Foreign products like woolen cloth and beiges rely on Chinese raw materials such as silk for their manufacturing. Had China sought only her own advantage, where would the foreigners' profit come from? The products that foreign countries need and have to import from China are too numerous to enumerate: from food products such as molasses, ginger, and cassia to useful necessities such as silk and porcelain. The imported goods from foreign countries, on the other hand, are merely playthings which can be easily dispensed with without causing any ill effect. Since we do not need these things really, what harm would come if we should decide to stop foreign trade altogether? The reason why we unhesitantly allow foreigners to ship out such Chinese products as tea and silk is that we feel that wherever there is an advantage, it should be shared by all the people in the world. . . .  I have heard that you are a kind, compassionate monarch. I am sure that you will not do to others what you yourself do not desire. I have also heard that you have instructed every British ship that sails for Canton not to bring any prohibited goods to China. It seems that your policy is as enlightened as it is proper. The fact that British ships have continued to bring opium to China results perhaps from the impossibility of making a thorough inspection of all of them owing to their large numbers. I am sending you this letter to reiterate the seriousness with which we enforce the law of the Celestial Empire and to make sure that merchants from your honorable country will not attempt to violate it again.  I have heard that the areas under your direct jurisdiction such as London, Scotland, and Ireland do not produce opium; it is produced instead in your Indian possessions such as Bengal, Madras, Bombay, Patna, and Malwa. In these possessions the English people not only plant opium poppies that stretch from one mountain to another but also open factories to manufacture this terrible drug. As months accumulate and years pass by, the poison they have produced increases in its wicked intensity, and its repugnant odor reaches as high as the sky. Heaven is furious with anger, and all the gods are moaning with pain! It is hereby suggested that you destroy and plow under all of these opium plants and grow food crops instead, while issuing an order to punish severely anyone who dares to plant opium poppies again. If you adopt this policy of love so as to produce good and exterminate evil, Heaven will protect you, and gods will bring you good fortune. Moreover, you will enjoy a long life and be rewarded with a multitude of children and grandchildren! In short, by taking this one measure, you can bring great happiness to others as well as yourself. Why do you not do it?  The right of foreigners to reside in China is a special favor granted by the Celestial Empire, and the profits they have made are those realized in China. As time passes by, some of them stay in China for a longer period than they do in their own country. For every government, past or present, one of its primary functions is to educate all the people living within its jurisdiction, foreigners as well as its own citizens, about the law and to punish them if they choose to violate it. Since a foreigner who goes to England to trade has to obey the English law, how can an Englishman not obey the Chinese law when he is physically within China? The present law calls for the imposition of the death sentence on any Chinese who has peddled or smoked opium. Since a Chinese could not peddle or smoke opium if

foreigners had not brought it to China, it is clear that the true culprits of a Chinese's death as a result of an opium conviction are the opium traders from foreign countries. Being the cause of other people's death, why should they themselves be spared from capital punishment? A murderer of one person is subject to the death sentence; just imagine how many people opium has killed! This is the rationale behind the new law which says that any foreigner who brings opium to China will be sentenced to death by hanging or beheading. Our purpose is to eliminate this poison once and for all and to the benefit of all mankind. . . .  Our Celestial Empire towers over all other countries in virtue and possesses a power great and awesome enough to carry out its wishes. But we will not prosecute a person without warning him in advance; that is why we have made our law explicit and clear. If the merchants of your honorable country wish to enjoy trade with us on a permanent basis, they must fearfully observe our law by cutting off, once and for all, the supply of opium. Under no circumstance should they test our intention to enforce the law by deliberately violating it. You, as the ruler of your honorable country, should do your part to uncover the hidden and unmask the wicked. It is hoped that you will continue to enjoy your country and become more and more respectful and obeisant. How wonderful it is that we can all enjoy the blessing of peace!

****************************************************

Document 6: Treaty of Nanjing (Nanking), 1842The Treaty of Nanjing (or Nanking) was a peace treaty which ended the First

Opium War (1839–42) between the United Kingdom and the Qing dynasty of China on 29 August 1842. In 1839, Chinese officials rejected proposals to legalize and tax

opium, and appointed viceroy Lin Zexu to solve the problem by abolishing the trade. Lin confiscated around 20,000 chests of opium (or 2.66 million pounds)

without offering compensation, blockaded trade, and confined foreign merchants to their quarters. The British government, although not officially denying China's right to control imports of the drug, objected to this unexpected seizure and used its naval and gunnery power to inflict a quick and decisive defeat. It was the first

of what the Chinese later called the unequal treaties because Britain had no obligations in return. In the wake of China's military defeat, with British warships

poised to attack Nanking, representatives from the British and Qing Empires negotiated on board HMS Cornwallis anchored at the city. On 29 August 1842,

British representative Sir Henry Pottinger and Qing representatives Qiying, Yilibu, and Niu Jian signed the treaty. It consisted of thirteen articles and was ratified by

Queen Victoria and the Daoguang Emperor nine months later in 1843.

VICTORIA, by the Grace of God, Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, etc.,…Greeting! Whereas a Treaty between Us and Our Good Brother The Emperor of China, was concluded and signed, in the English and Chinese Languages, on board Our Ship the Cornwallis, at Nanking, on the Twenty-ninth day of August, in the Year of Our Lord One Thousand Eight Hundred and Forty-two, by the Plenipotentiaries* of Us and of Our said Good Brother, duly and respectively authorized for that purpose; which Treaty is hereunto annexed in Original.

Her Majesty the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and His Majesty the Emperor of China, being desirous of putting an end to the misunderstandings and consequent hostilities which have arisen between the two Countries, have resolved to conclude a Treaty for that purpose, and have therefore named as their Plenipotentiaries, that is to say HENRY POTTINGER, Major General in the Service of the East India Company, etc., etc.; And His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of China, the High Commissioners KEYING, a Member of the [Chinese] Imperial House,: Who, after having communicated to each other their respective Full Powers and found them to be in good and due form, have agreed upon, the following Articles:

Article I There shall henceforward be Peace and Friendship between Her Majesty the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and His Majesty the Emperor of China, and between their respective Subjects, who shall enjoy full security and protection for their persons and property within the Dominions of the other.

Article II His Majesty the Emperor of China agrees that British Subjects, with their families and establishments, shall be allowed to reside, for the purpose of carrying on their Mercantile pursuits, without molestation or restraint at the Cities and Towns of Canton, Amoy, Foochowfu, Ningpo, and Shanghai, and Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain, etc., will appoint Superintendents or Consular Officers, to reside at each of the above-named Cities or Towns, to be the medium of communication between the Chinese Authorities and the said Merchants, and to see that the just Duties and other Dues of the Chinese Government is hereafter provided for, are duly discharged by Her Britannic Majesty's Subjects.

Article III It being obviously necessary and desirable, that British Subjects should have some Port whereat they may careen and refit their Ships, when required, and keep Stores for that purpose, His Majesty the Emperor of China cedes to Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain, etc., the Island of Hong Kong, to be possessed in perpetuity by Her Britannic Majesty, Her Heirs and Successors, and to be governed by such Laws and Regulations as Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain, etc., shall see fit to direct.

Article IVThe Emperor of China agrees to pay the sum of Six Millions of Dollars as the value of Opium which was delivered up at Canton in the month of March 1839, as a Ransom for the lives of Her Britannic Majesty's Superintendent and Subjects, who had been imprisoned and threatened with death by the Chinese High Officers.

*Plenipotentiaries - a person, especially a diplomatic agent, invested with full power or authority to transact business on behalf of another.

Article V

The Government of China having compelled the British Merchants trading at Canton to deal exclusively with certain Chinese Merchants called Hong Merchants (or Cohong) who had been licensed by the Chinese Government for that purpose, the Emperor of China agrees to abolish that practice in future at all Ports where British Merchants may reside, and to permit them to carry on their mercantile transactions with whatever persons they please, and His Imperial Majesty further agrees to pay to the British Government the sum of Three Millions of Dollars, on account of Debts due to British Subjects by some of the said Hong Merchants (or Cohong), who have become insolvent, and who owe very large sums of money to Subjects of Her Britannic Majesty.

Article VIThe Government of Her Britannic Majesty having been obliged to send out an Expedition to demand and obtain redress for the violent and unjust Proceedings of the Chinese High Authorities towards Her Britannic Majesty's Officer and Subjects, the Emperor of China agrees to pay the sum of Twelve Millions of Dollars on account of the Expenses incurred…

Article VIIIThe Emperor of China agrees to release unconditionally all Subjects of leer Britannic Majesty (whether Natives of Europe or India) who may be in confinement at this moment, in any part of the Chinese Empire.

Article XIIOn the assent of the Emperor of China to this Treaty being received and the discharge of the first instalment of money, Her Britannic Majesty's Forces will [withdraw] from Nanking and the Grand Canal, and will no longer molest or stop the Trade of China. The Military Post at Chinhai will also be withdrawn, but the Islands of Koolangsoo and that of Chusan will continue to be held by Her Majesty's Forces until the money payments, and the arrangements for opening the Ports to British Merchants be completed.

Article XIIIThe Ratification of the Treaty by Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain,

etc., and His Majesty the Emperor of China shall be exchanged as soon as the great distance which separates England from China will admit; but in the meantime counterpart copies of it, signed and sealed by the Plenipotentiaries on behalf of their respective Sovereigns, shall be mutually delivered, and all its provisions and arrangements shall take effect.

Done at Nanking and Signed and Sealed by the Plenipotentiaries on board Her Britannic Majesty's ship Cornwallis, this twenty-ninth day of August, 1842, corresponding with the Chinese date, twenty-fourth day of the seventh month in the twenty-second Year of TAOU KWANG.

Signed,

~(L.S.) HENRY POTTINGER, Her Majesty's Plenipotentiary.~Chinese Signatures (3)

*****************************

Document 7(a): Azamgarh Proclamation of 1857As odd as this sounds, the nation of India was at one time controlled and governed not by a foreign government, but by a foreign private company called the British East India Company. (This would be like Ford Motor Company, but not the U.S.

government itself, controlling a foreign country). It would then give a portion of its profits to the British government, which happily did not have to spend any

government funds to manage it. This proclamation below, issued in the Indian village of Azamgarh, was published in the Delhi Gazette in the midst of the “Great Mutiny” or “Sepoy Mutiny/Rebellion” of 1857. The author was most probably Firoz Shah, a grandson of the Mughal (Indian) Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar (r. 1837–1857), whose restoration to full power from British control was a main aim of the rebels. General disillusionment with the pace of change and the fear that British missionaries were, with government connivance, attempting to Christianize India came to a head among the British East India Company’s sepoy troops. A rumor

started that the grease used in the paper cartridges of the Enfield rifle contained both cow and pig fat, an affront to the sensibilities of both Hindus and Muslims.

The resulting mutiny (known to Indians as the Great Rebellion or the First War of Independence) resulted in a civil war dominated by mass atrocities—and ultimately

in the imposition of the British “Raj,” or direct rule by the British Government.

It is well known to all, that in this age the people of Hindustan (northern India), both Hindus and Muslims, are being ruined under the tyranny and oppression of the treacherous and infidel and treacherous English. It is therefore the bounden duty of all the wealthy people of India, especially of those who have any sort of connection with any of the Muslim royal families…to stake their lives and property for the well-being of the public. With the view of effecting this general good, several princes belonging to the royal family of Delhi, have dispersed themselves in the different parts of India, Iran, Turan, and Afghanistan, and have been long since taking measures to compass their favourite end… to extirpate the infidels residing in the eastern part of the country, and to liberate and protect the poor helpless people now groaning under their iron rule… Several of the Hindu and Muslim chiefs who … have been trying their best to root out the English in India, have presented themselves to me, and taken part in the reigning Indian crusade…[B]e it known to all, that the ancient works both of the Hindus and the Muslims, the writings of the miracle-workers, and the calculations of the astrologers, pundits and fortune tellers, all agree asserting that the English will no longer have any footing in India or elsewhere. Therefore it is incumbent on all to give up the hope of the continuation of the British sway, side with me… ‘Section II. -Regarding Merchants.- It is plain that the infidel and treacherous British government have monopolized the trade of all the fine and valuable merchandise, such as indigo, cloth, and other articles of shipping, leaving only the trade of trifles to the people, and even in this they are not without their share of the profits, which they secure by means of customs and stamp fees…, so that the people have merely a trade in name. Besides this, the profits of the traders are taxed with postages, tolls, and subscriptions for schools…Notwithstanding all these

concessions, the merchants are liable to imprisonment and disgrace at the instance or complaint of a worthless man. When the Badshahi (the New proposed Indian government) is established, all these aforesaid fraudulent practices shall be dispensed with, and the trade of every article, without exception both by land end water, shall be open to the native merchants of India, who will have the benefit of the government steam-vessels and steam carriages for the conveyance of their merchandise gratis; and merchants having no capital of their own shall be assisted from the public treasury. It is therefore the duty of every merchant to take part in the war, and aid the Badshahi government with his men and money, either secretly or openly…  ‘Section III. - Regarding Public Servants.-It is not a secret thing, that under the British government, natives employed in the civil and military services, have little respect, low pay, and no manner of influence and all the posts of dignity and emolument in both the departments, are exclusively bestowed upon Englishmen; for natives in the military service, after having devoted the greater part of their lives, [are always paid far less than the British]. Natives, whether Hindus or Muslims, who fall fighting against the English, are sure to go to heaven; and those killed fighting for the English, will, doubtless, go to hell, therefore, all the natives in the British service ought to be alive to their religion and interest, and, abjuring their loyalty to the English, side with the Badshahi government and obtain salaries of 200 or 300 rupees per month for the present, and be entitled to high posts in future. If they, for any reason, cannot at present declare openly against the English, they can hearti1y wish ill to their cause, and remain passive spectators of passing events, without taking any active share therein. But at the same time they should indirectly assist the Badshahi government and try their best to drive the English out of the country… …‘Lastly, be it known to all [Natives], that whoever… still clings to the British government, all his estates shall be confiscated, and his property plundered, and he himself, with his whole family, shall he imprisoned, and ultimately put to death.'

Document 7(b): British Reactions to the Sepoy Mutiny/Rebellion of 1857The Sepoy rebels' murder of women, children and wounded British soldiers during

the Sepoy Rebellion, and the subsequent printing of the events in the British papers, left many British soldiers seeking revenge. Most of the British press,

outraged by the stories of rape and the killings of civilians and wounded British soldiers, did not advocate clemency of any kind. As well as hanging mutineers, the British also had some "blown from a cannon," (an old Mughal punishment adopted

many years before in India; illustration below), in which sentenced rebels were tied over the mouths of cannons and blown to pieces when the cannons were fired. Below are some other examples of justice - or revenge - undertaken by the British

in response.

British General Sir Henry Lawrence stated in August of 1857, “we have killed and drowned 500 out of the 600…(sepoy) men of the regiment.” Another British officer wrote in a letter: “Every native that appeared in sight was shot down without question, and in the morning Colonel Neill sent out parties of regiment…and burned all the villages near where the ruins of our bungalows stood, and hung every native that they could catch, on the trees that lined the road.” Sergeant David McAusland of the 42nd regiment during the Rebellion noted that “three scaffolds and six whipping posts stood outside of the town alongside of the jail and there [took place] executions to the number of six every day.” A judge of the trials whose wife had been killed in the revolt told Sergeant McAusland, “if ever I get the change of [judging] these Black rebels I will hang a man for every hair that was in my wife’s head.”

[Source: Streets, H. (2001). The Rebellion of 1857: Origins, consequences, and themes. Teaching South Asia: An internet journal of pedagogy, 1, 85-104. Retrieved from http://QL-VgQtecy4.pdf. p.97. ]

************************************

CONTINUE to MORE DOCUMENTS

Document 8a: U.S.

President Millard

Fillmore’s Letter to the Tokugawa

Document 7 (c): Great Britain’s Empire at its Peak (1921)

Emperor of Japan, July 14 th , 1853 (Presented by Naval Commander Commodore Matthew Perry)

In 1852, Commodore Perry was assigned a mission by American President (and former Buffalo, N.Y. mayor) Millard Fillmore to force the opening of Japanese ports to American trade, even through the use of “gunboat diplomacy” if necessary. The growing commerce between America and China, the presence of American whalers

in waters offshore Japan, and the increasing monopolization of potential coaling stations by the British and French in Asia were all contributing factors. The

Americans were also driven by concepts of “manifest destiny” and the desire to impose the benefits of western civilization on what they perceived as backward Asian nations. Upon his eventual arrival in 1853, Perry was in command of four

warships, including two steam frigates. Perry’s squadron arrived near the Tokugawa feudal government’s capital of Edo, on July 8, 1853. As expressed in the

following letter from President Fillmore to the Japanese Emperor, delivered by Perry to the worried Tokugawa officials who greeted him, the United States was

eager to break Japan’s “seclusion policy,” sign diplomatic and commercial treaties, and thus “open” the nation to the Western world. For the Japanese, who had

carefully regulated overseas contacts since the seventeenth century and whose technology could not compare to that displayed by the American squadron, Perry’s arrival and President Fillmore’s letter were unwelcome and ominous, despite being warned of his arrival. Commodore Perry stayed in Japan for fewer than ten days in 1853, withdrawing to the China coast with his ships. As he promised in his letter of July 14, 1853, however, he returned to Japan about six months later with a much

larger and more intimidating fleet, comprising six ships with more than 100 mounted cannon. In March of 1854, the Tokugawa shogunate capitulated to all the

American demands, signing the Treaty of Kanagawa with Perry, which you will read about in Document 8b.

MILLARD FILLMORE,President of the United States of Americato his Imperial Majesty,THE EMPEROR OF JAPAN Great and Good Friend!

I send you this public letter by Commodore Matthew C. Perry, an officer of the highest rank in the navy of the United States, and commander of the squadron now visiting Your imperial majesty's dominions. I have directed Commodore Perry to assure your imperial majesty that I entertain the kindest feelings toward your majesty's person and government, and that I have no other object in sending him to Japan but to propose to your imperial majesty that the United States and Japan should live in friendship and have commercial intercourse with each other. The Constitution and laws of the United States forbid all interference with the religious or political concerns of other nations. I have particularly charged Commodore Perry to abstain from every act which could possibly disturb the tranquility of your imperial majesty's dominions. The United States of America reach from ocean to ocean, and our Territory of Oregon and State of California lie directly opposite to the dominions of your imperial majesty. Our steamships can go from California to Japan in eighteen days.

Our great State of California produces about sixty millions of dollars in gold every year, besides silver, quicksilver, precious stones, and many other valuable articles. Japan is also a rich and fertile country, and produces many very valuable articles. Your imperial majesty's subjects are skilled in many of the arts. I am desirous that our two countries should trade with each other, for the benefit both of Japan and the United States. We know that the ancient laws of your imperial majesty's government do not allow of foreign trade, except with the Chinese and the Dutch; but as the state of the world changes and new governments are formed, it seems to be wise, from time to time, to make new laws. There was a time when the ancient laws of your imperial majesty's government were first made. About the same time America, which is sometimes called the New World, was first discovered and settled by the Europeans. For a long time there were but a few people, and they were poor. They have now become quite numerous; their commerce is very extensive; and they think that if your imperial majesty were so far to change the ancient laws as to allow a free trade between the two countries it would be extremely beneficial to both. If your imperial majesty is not satisfied that it would be safe altogether to abrogate the ancient laws which forbid foreign trade, they might be suspended for five or ten years, so as to try the experiment. If it does not prove as beneficial as was hoped, the ancient laws can be restored. The United States often limit their treaties with foreign States to a few years, and then renew them or not, as they please. I have directed Commodore Perry to mention another thing to your imperial majesty. Many of our ships pass every year from California to China; and great numbers of our people pursue the whale fishery near the shores of Japan. It sometimes happens, in stormy weather, that one of our ships is wrecked on your imperial majesty's shores. In all such cases we ask, and expect, that our unfortunate people should be treated with kindness, and that their property should be protected, till we can send a vessel and bring them away. We are very much in earnest in this. Commodore Perry is also directed by me to represent to your imperial majesty that we understand there is a great abundance of coal and provisions in the Empire of Japan. Our steamships, in crossing the great ocean, burn a great deal of coal, and it is not convenient to bring it all the way from America. We wish that our steamships and other vessels should be allowed to stop in Japan and supply themselves with coal, provisions, and water. They will pay for them in money, or anything else your imperial majesty's subjects may prefer; and we request your imperial majesty to appoint a convenient port, in the southern part of the Empire, where our vessels may stop for this purpose. We are very desirous of this. These are the only objects for which I have sent Commodore Perry, with a powerful squadron, to pay a visit to your imperial majesty's renowned city of Yedo: friendship, commerce, a supply of coal and provisions, and protection for our shipwrecked people. We have directed Commodore Perry to beg your imperial majesty's acceptance of a few presents. They are of no great value in themselves; but some of them may serve as specimens of the articles manufactured in the United States, and they are intended as tokens of our sincere and respectful friendship. May the Almighty have your imperial majesty in His great and holy keeping! In

witness whereof, I have caused the great seal of the United States to be hereunto affixed, and have subscribed the same with my name, at the city of Washington, in America, the seat of my government, on the thirteenth day of the month of November, in the year one thousand eight hundred and fifty-two.

Your good friend,

MILLARD FILLMORE, President

***********************************************

Document 8b: The Treaty of Kanagawa ~ March, 31, 1854 The Treaty of Kanagawa (also called Perry Convention), signed on March 31, 1854,

was Japan’s first treaty with a Western nation. Concluded by representatives of the United States and Japan at Kanagawa (now part of Yokohama), it marked the end of Japan’s period of seclusion/isolationism (1639–1854). The treaty was signed as a result of pressure from U.S. Commodore Matthew C. Perry (under approval of

U.S. President Millard Fillmore), who sailed into Tokyo Bay with a fleet of warships in July 1853 and demanded that the Japanese open their ports to U.S. ships for supplies. Perry then left Japan in order to give the government a few

months to consider its decision. When he returned in February 1854, the Japanese, aware that none of their armaments was a match for Perry’s warships, reluctantly

agreed to admit U.S. ships in certain ports and to allow America to establish an embassy there. The Treaty of Kanagawa was the first of the (forced) treaties

signed between Japan and other Western countries in the 19th century. But would Japan wind up like China, picked apart and abused by several European imperialist

nations, or would it recover and make necessary changes, perhaps even going beyond recovering and becoming an aggressive imperial nation itself?

The United States of American and the empire of Japan, desiring to establish firm, lasting and sincere friendship between the two nations, have resolved to fix, in a manner clear and positive by means of a treaty or general convention of peace and amity, the rules which shall in future be mutually observed in the intercourse of their respective countries; for which most desirable object the President of the United States has conferred full powers on his commissioner, Matthew Calbraith Perry, special ambassador of the United States to Japan and the august sovereign of Japan has given similar full powers to his commissioners, Hayashi-Daigaku-no-kami, Ido, Prince of Tsus-Sima; Izawa, Prince of Mmimasaki; and Udono, member of the Board of Revenue.

And the said commissioners after having exchanged their said full powers and duly considered the premises, have agreed to the following articles:

Article I: There shall be a perfect, permanent and universal peace, and a sincere and cordial amity, between the United States of American on the one part and

between their people, respectfully, (respectively,) without exception of persons or places.

Article II: The port of Simoda, in the principality of Idzu and the port of Hakodadi, in the pricipality of Matsmai are granted by the Japanese as ports for he reception for American ships, where they can be supplied with wood, water, provisions and coal, and other articles their necessities may require, as far as the Japanese have them. The time for opening the first named port is immediately on signing this treaty; the last named port is to be opened immediately after the same day in the ensuing Japanese year.

Note- A tariff of prices shall be given by the Japanese officers of the things which they can furnish, payment for which shall be made in gold, and silver coin.

Article III: Whenever ships of the United States are thrown or wrecked on the coast of Japan, the Japanese vessels will assist them, and carry their crews to Simoda or Hakodadi and hand them over to their countrymen appointed to receive them. Whatever articles the shipwrecked men may have preserved shall likewise be restored and the expenses incurred in the rescue and support of Americans and Japanese who may thus be thrown up on the shores of either nation are not to be refunded.

Article IV: Those shipwrecked persons and other citizens of the United States shall be free as in the other countries and not subjected to [incarceration] but shall be [agreeable] to [fair] laws.

Article V: Shipwrecked men and other citizens of the United States, temporarily living at Simoda and Hakodadi, shall not be subject to such restrictions and confinement as the Dutch and Chinese are at Nagasakil but shall be free at Simoda to go where they please within the limits of seven Japanese miles from a small island in the harbor of Simoda, marked on the accompanying chart hereto appended; and shall in like manner be free to go where they please at Hakodadi, within limits to be defined after the visit of the United States squadron to that place.

Article VI: If there be any other sort of goods wanted or any business which shall require to be arranged, there shall be careful deliberation between the particles in order to settle such matters.

Article VII: It is agreed that ships of the United States resorting to the ports open to them, shall be permitted to exchange gold and silver coin and articles of goods for other articles of goods under such regulations as shall be temporarily established by the Japanese government for that purpose. It is stipulated, however that the ships of the United States shall be permitted to carry away whatever articles they are unwilling to exchange.

…

Article IX: It is agreed, that if, at any future day, the government of Japan shall grant to any other nation or nations privileges and advantages which are not herein granted to the United states and the citizens thereof, that these same privileges and advantages shall be granted likewise to the United States and to the citizens thereof without any consultation or delay.

Article X: Ships of the United States shall be permitted to resort to no other ports in Japan but Simoda and Hakodadi, unless in distress or forced by stress of weather.

Article XI: There shall be appointed by the government of the United States ambassadors or agents to reside in Simoda at any time after the expiration of eighteen months from the date of the signing of this treaty; provided that either of the two governments deem such arrangement necessary.

Article XII: The present convention, having been concluded and duly signed, shall be obligatory, and faithfully observed by the United States of America, and Japan and by the citizens and subjects of each respective power; and it is to be ratified and approved by the President of the United States, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate thereof, and by the august Sovereign of Japan, and the ratification shall be exchanged within eighteen months from the date of the signature therefore, or sooner if practicable.

In faith, whereof, we, the respective plenipotentiaries of the United States of America and the empire of Japan aforesaid have signed and sealed these presents.

Done at Kanagawa, this thirty-first day of March, in the year of our Lord Jesus Christ one thousand eight hundred and fifty-four and of Kayei the seventh year, third month and third day.

************

Document 9: Japanese Imperial Control in Southeast Asia: 1914 vs. 1942

The Empire of Japan was the historical Japanese nation-state that existed from the Meiji Restoration in 1868 until the enactment of its modern constitution in 1947

after its surrender to the Allies in World War Two. After two centuries, the isolationist policy under feudal Japan came to an end when the country was forced

open to trade by the U.S. via Commodore Perry’s visit in 1853 on behalf of President Millard Fillmore. The ruling family at the time (Tokugawa) had

eventually stepped down in disgrace, and was replaced by Emperor Meiji in 1868. In 1871, Emperor Meiji enlisted Japanese ambassadors to travel to industrialized

nations of the world in the U.S. and Western Europe in order to gather information on western social, military, industrial, and economic systems to bring about modernization initiatives in Japan. The Emperor would also send students to

Western countries to observe and learn their practices, and also paid "foreign advisors" in a variety of fields to come to Japan to educate the populace. This

sudden westernization, once it was adopted, changed almost all areas of Japanese society, ranging from armaments, arts, education, etiquette, fashion, health, justice, politics, language, etc. Imperial Japan's rapid industrialization and

militarization under the slogan Fukoku Kyōhei ("Enrich the Country, Strengthen the Armed Forces") led to its emergence as a world power and the establishment

of a colonial empire. Unfortunately, Japan severely lacked critical natural resources necessary for industrial production, including coal, iron ore, and

petroleum; this only further lead to Japan’s mission to engage in colonial expansion in Southeast Asia, and joining Western Europe and America as an imperial giant on

the world stage. Below are two maps: one map outlining their colonial empire before the start of World War I; and a second map illustrating the growth of their

empire in the Pacific during the early stages of World War Two.

JAPAN’S EMPIRE in 1942