English IV Mrs. Dorety

Beowulf

Unit: The History and Development of the English LanguageSemester: 1

Meet THE AUTHOR Class Lectures, Discussions, Activities

READING CONSIDERATIONS

Pay particular attention to the following elements:

o Characters Beowulf Grendel Grendel’s mother Dragon Hrothgar Higlac Shild Unferth Welthow Wiglaf

o Epic Qualities Hero Villian

o Literary Elements Epithets Foreshadowing Allusions Alliteration Kennings

o Gender roles Expectations for men Expectations for

women Expectations for

marriage

Background: The Story Behind the Storyo The Anglo-Saxon Erao “A History of the English Church

and People”o “The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle”o The Epic

Critical Views:o Epic Qualityo Symbols in the World of the Poem

RESOURCES

TIMELINE

History Date LiteratureStonehenge 2,000 B.C.E.Celts arrive in England 1,500-1,000 B.C.E.Roman occupation 55 BCE- 410 C.E.Jutes, Angles, Saxons arrive 450 C.E.St. Patrick begins Irish missionSt. Augustine brings Christian revival 597 C.E.Historical King Arthur in Celtic Wales 500-600? C.E.

650 C.E. Caedmon begins writing poetry700 C.E. Irish Book of Kells written707 C.E. Beowulf presumed to be written and

preserved731 C.E. Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of the

English People writtenDanish (Viking) raids 787 C.E.

892 C.E. Anglo-Saxon ChroniclesThe Battle of Hastings 1066 C.E.

1086 C.E. Domesday Book

CLASS LECTURE OUTLINES

The Old English Period: 450-1150

The Anglo-Saxons come to the British Isles

o Britain before the Anglo-Saxonso Roman Britaino The Anglo-Saxon Conquesto Social and Political Organization

of the Old English King Ealdorman Aetheling Thane Geneat Peasant Theow

English writing begins

o The Runeso From Heathen to Christian

Old English Poetry Characterizedo The scopo Characteristics of written

poetryo The epic

The epic defined Beowulf

o Secular and Religious Lyrics The Exeter Book The Dream of the Rood

Alfred and the Triumph of Old Englisho Anglo-Latin Proseo Alfred the Greato The Benedictine Reformo The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

o Poetry after the Benedictine Reform

The Epic

The Classical Epico Address to the Museo Conflicto “In medias res”o Flashbacko Return to the presento Repetitionso Catalogueso Stock phraseso Epithetso Hospitality codeo Epic boastingo Intervention of the gods

o Visit to Hades

THE MANY FACES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

English evolved in three major phases: Old English, Middle English, and Modern English.

Lord's Prayer I (Exeter Book,10th c.)

[....]g fæder, þu þe on heofonum eardast,geweorðad wuldres dreame. Sy þinum weorcum halgadnoma niþþa bearnum; þu eart nergend wera.Cyme þin rice wide, ond þin rædfæst willaaræred under rodores hrofe, eac þon on rumre foldan.Syle us to dæge domfæstne blæd,hlaf userne, helpend wera,8 þone singalan, soðfæst meotod.Ne læt usic costunga cnyssan to

swiðe,ac þu us freodom gief, folca waldend,from yfla gewham, a to widan feore.(The Exeter Book, ed. Krapp and Dobbie 1936)

Matthew 6.9 (Wycliffe's translation, c. 1380)

Oure fadir that art in heuenes,

halewid be thi name; thi kyndoom come to; be thi wille don in erthe as in heuene: gyue to us this dai oure breed ouer othir substaunce; and forgyue to us oure dettis, as we forgyuen to oure gettouris; and lede us not in to temptacioun, but delyuere us fro yuel.

Book of Common Prayer (1928)

Our Father, who art in heaven,

Hallowed be thy Name. Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done, On earth as it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our trespasses, As we forgive those who trespass against us. And lead us not into temptation, But deliver us from evil. For thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory, for ever and ever. Amen.

THE DEATS, DANES, AND SWEDES OF BEOWULF

The Geats

Swerting

Hrethel

Herbald Hathcyn Higlac Daughter (m. Higd) (m. Edgetho)

Daughter Herdred BEOWULF

CLASS NOTES ON THE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMEN T OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

(m. Efor)

The Danes

Shild

Beo

Healfdane

Hergar HROTHGAR Halga Yrs (m. Welthow) (m. Onela)

Hrethric Hrothmund Freaw (m. Ingeld)

Herward Hrothulf

The Swedes

Onegentho

Ohther Onela (m. Yrs)

Eanmund Eadgils

WARM UPS

1. Some readers view Beowulf as a boastful glory seeker. Others readers view Beowulf as a noble, selfless man. With a small group of classmates, discuss each point of view. Try to come to a consensus on Beowulf’s character. Support your opinion with evidence from the text. Be prepared to share your discussion with the class and defend your point of view.

2. Using the poet’s descriptions of Grendel, develop a psychological profile. Describe the monster’s personality and possible motivations for his behavior.

3. In Beowulf what are the consequences of seeking revenge?4. With a small group of classmates, discuss Beowulf’s portrayal of women (including Grendel’s

mother). Based on the portrayal of women in the poem, describe the “ideal” Anglo-Saxon woman. How would she have behaved? What roles would she have played?

5. How might you account for the enduring popularity of Beowulf? 6. With a small group of students, discuss a theme developed in the story. Together, write a

sentence or two that sums up that theme. Be prepared to share your summary with the class, explaining how you arrived at it.

7. Why might it be significant that Beowulf’s battles are not against fellow men, but against evil monsters?

8. Frustrated pride may lead to spite, just as loyalty may lead to vengeance, and eagerness for glory may turn into greed. Explain how each creature Beowulf battles represents an extreme and dangerous form of warrior values and behavior.

DIRECTED READINGTake notes according to the following:

Part ASeveral key characters are introduced in the first section of the poem. Write a brief description of each character in the appropriate boxes below to help fix the characters in your mind.

Shild

Beowulf

Hrothgar

Unferth

Welthow

Grendel

Part BAs you read, respond to the following questions in your notebook. Be prepared to hand in these responses.

1. In a paragraph, analyze the purpose of the prologue, or introduction, to Beowulf. How does it set the stage for the action that follows?

2. Why does Hrothgar build Herot? 3. Why doesn’t Herot collapse when Beowulf engages Grendel in combat? What might its collapse

have symbolized?4. How did Hrothgar come to know Beowulf’s father? Do you think that Beowulf feels indebted to

Hrothgar for his past kindnesses to the family? Explain.5. Briefly describe Grendel. What might Grendel symbolize?6. Contrast Beowulf and Unferth. What function does Unferth serve in the poem?7. Based on Welthow’s actions in the poem, what role or roles do you think women played in

Anglo-Saxon society?8. Grendel’s mother is a major figure, but nothing is known about Grendel’s father. In a poem in

which ancestry is important, what does Grendel’s ancestry suggest about his character?9. What is the mood at Herot at the beginning on Part 19? How does the mood change? Why?10. What does Beowulf’s speech just before fighting Grendel’s mother suggest about his

relationship to his men? To Higlac?11. Contrast Beowulf and Hermod. How does the contrast help define Beowulf’s character?12. What sword does Beowulf take into battle in Parts 19-31? Who gave him the sword? What

does the sword’s failure suggest about its owner?13. Examine the tone of parts 20 and 21 in which Hrothgar laments the murder of his trusted

counselor Esher and Beowulf responds.14. What incident leads the dragon on the path to vengeance?

15. How does Beowulf become king of the Geats? Explain how his ascension to the throne reinforces the character traits earlier in the poem.

16. In what ways does Wiglaf resemble the younger Beowulf? What makes him a worthy successor to Beowulf?

17. Why is Beowulf’s death a turning point for the Geats?18. What is usually done with treasures taken from a defeated enemy? Why is it significant that the

treasure from the dragon’s den is buried with Beowulf?

Class Discussion Questions (Group work)

19. What does the story of Grendel’s origins suggest about the beliefs of Anglo-Saxon culture?20. Terrorized by Grendel, Hrothgar and his followers face “Twelve winters of grief.” How does the

length of their suffering increase the epic feeling of this tale?21. Look back at the passages leading up to the coming of Beowulf to rid the Danes of Grendel’s

terror. How does the poem establish that the coming battle is not just a battle between a hero and a monster, but a battle between good and evil?

22. Look back at the passage when the watchman addresses the Geats asking them to identify themselves. How do word choice and stylistic features of the watchman’s speech add an epic tone to his question?

23. Look back at the passage detailing Beowulf’s introduction of himself to the watchman. What does Beowulf’s way of identifying himself suggest about the values of a warrior culture?

24. Beowulf boasts of his great deeds upon introduction to Hrothgar. How do his boasts and his announcement of his plan to rid Herot of Grendel establish him as a hero?

25. What values and beliefs of warrior culture does Beowulf’s attitude toward death express?26. As the battle between Beowulf and Grendel begins, Grendel is called the “shepperd of evil” and

the “guardian of crime”. How do the ‘renamings’ of Grendel emphasize the weighty significance of the battle that is about to begin?

27. Which details from the description of the battle between Beowulf and Grendel add realism? Which details add epic grandness?

28. Consider Grendel’s recognition that he is feuding with God. How might this change his perspective?

29. How does the setting of the battle with Grendel’s mother add to its epic significance?30. According to Wiglaf, what is Beowulf’s relationship with his followers like?31. As the battle with the dragon begins to turn against Beowulf, what does Wiglaf’s decision

suggest about the way in which a legendary hero can inspire heroism in others?32. In Beowulf’s death scene, what is shown about the importance in warrior culture of the

commemoration of individuals after death?

ESSAY TOPICS FOR CONSIDERATION

Critics often describe the theme of Beowulf in one of the following ways:

A. Beowulf is steeped in a pagan tradition that depicts nature as hostile and forces of death as uncontrollable. Blind fate picks random victims; man is never reconciled with the world. Beowulf is a failure.

B. Beowulf is the story of a dual ordeal: an external battle with vicious opponents and an internal battle with human tendencies of pride, greed, cowardice, betrayal, and self-concern.

C. Beowulf is the universal story of man’s journey from adolescence to adulthood to old age. It charts the growth in wisdom about self and the world gained through the pain and triumph of experience.

D. Beowulf represents the successful blending of pagan and Christian elements. These elements were often incorporated side-by-side in the epic. Describe and explain the placement of these elements including readers’ acceptance of both.

E. Beowulf is the blending of Christian traditions with a story that extols virtues of loyalty, courage, and faith in the face of extreme dangers and even death. It presents a model of man willing to die to deliver his fellow men from terrifying evil forces.

Write an essay in which you analyze one of the above themes as it applies to the epic.

Essay Help

References:

Hrothgar builds Heorot…page 7Grendel is introduced and his background in provided…page 9Beowulf reaches the Danes…page 23Unferth challenges Beowulf…page 35Beowulf describes the swimming match with Brecca…page 37Grendel approaches and enters Heorot…page 47Grendel’s mother seeks revenge…page 89Beowulf attacks Grendel’s mother…page 99Beowulf returns home…page 131Beowulf gains fame and becomes king…page 149

Dragon awakened…page 151Beowulf decides to fight the dragon…page 165Wiglaf intervenes…page 175Beowulf realizes he’s dying…page 183Beowulf’s last words…page 189Wiglaf addresses the thanes…page 193Beowulf’s funeral…page 203 (211)

Beowulf Overview

Source:Epics for Students. Ed. Sara Constantakis. Vol. 1. 2nd ed. Detroit: Gale. From Literature

Resource Center.

Introduction

The Old English poem Beowulf follows its main character from heroic youth to heroic old

age. Beowulf saves a neighboring people from the monster Grendel; eventually becomes the king of his

own people; and dies defending them from a dragon. It is a great adventure story and a deeply

philosophical one. Scholars differ over the poem's original purpose and audience, but Beowulf probably

appealed to a wide audience and garnered a range of responses.

Beowulf survives in one manuscript, which is known as British Library Cotton Vitellius A. 15. At least

one scholar believes the manuscript is the author's original, but most scholars believe it is the last in a

succession of copies.Beowulf may have been written at any time between about 675 ce and the date of the

manuscript, about 1000 ce.

No one knows where the manuscript was before it surfaced in the hands of Laurence Nowell in the

sixteenth century. An edition of Beowulf was published by G. S. Thorkelin in 1815, but for over one

hundred years, study focused on Beowulf not as poetry, but on what it could tell about the early Germanic

tribes and language (philology).

J. R. R. Tolkien's "The Monsters and the Critics" redirected study to the poem as literature. The 1939

excavation of the Sutton Hoo ship burial in Suffolk, England, and Tolkien's own Lord of the Rings,

influenced by his lifelong study of Beowulf, helped to interest general readers in the poem. Since then

translations and adaptations of the poem have increased the poem's audience and recognition. Notably,

Nobel laureate Seamus Heaney published a bestselling, easy-to-read modern English translation in 2001

that was reissued in 2007 with one hundred illustrations. This epic poem has influenced modern

adventure fantasy and inspired at least two bestsellers, comic books, and even a  Beowulf/Star Trek

Voyager cross-over.

Plot

Narrative in Beowulf

The action of Beowulf is not straightforward. The narrator foreshadows actions that occur later.

Characters talk about things that have already happened. Both narrator and characters recall incidents and

characters outside the poem's main narrative. These digressions are connected thematically to the main

action. Critics once saw the digressions as flaws. The poet, however, consciously used them to

characterize human experience, stressing recurri ng patterns, and to represent the characters' attempts to

understand the ir situation.

The Kings of the Danes and the Coming of Grendel

Scyld was found by the Danes as a small boy in a boat washed ashore. The Danes at this time were

without a leader and oppressed by their neighboring countries. Scyld grew to be a great warrior king and

made the Danes a powerful nation. Dying, he ordered the Danes to send him back in a ship to the sea

from which he came. They placed him in a ship surrounded by treasures and pushed it out to sea--and "no

one knows who received that freight."

Scyld's son, Beowulf Scylding, becomes king in his turn. His son Healfdene takes the throne, and then

Healfdene's son Hrothgar succeeds him. Hrothgar builds a great hall, Heorot, in which to entertain and

reward his people. There are great festivities at its opening, but the music and laughter enraged Grendel, a

human monster living underwater nearby. That night Grendel breaks into Heorot, slaughters and eats

thirty of Hrothgar's men (the king's warriors would normally sleep in the hall). This happens again the

next night. After that, "it was easy to find him who sought rest somewhere else."

Grendel haunts the hall by night for twelve years. The Danes despair of ridding themselves of him. They

can neither defeat him nor come to terms with him.

Beowulf Comes to the Kingdom of Hrothgar

Danish sailors bring news of Grendel to King Hygelac of the Geats whose nephew (also

named Beowulf Scylding) has a growing reputation for strength and monster-killing. Beowulf, supported

by the wisest men of his people, resolves to go to Hrothgar's aid and sets off by ship with fourteen

companions. They land in Denmark and are met and questioned by a coast guard who, impressed

with Beowulf, sends them to Heorot. Hrothgar receives them and accepts Beowulf's offer of help.

Hrothgar knew Beowulf as a child and interprets Beowulf's arrival at his court as an act of gratitude. He

had sheltered Beowulf's father, Ecgtheow, when he was an exile and made peace for him with his

powerful enemies.

Unferth, an official of the court, attempts to discredit Beowulf with the story of a swimming

match Beowulf had as a boy with another boy, Breca. Beowulf exonerates himself with his version of the

swimming match. Wealtheow, Hrothgar's queen, welcomes Beowulf. The young man tells her that he

would lay down his life to defeat Grendel. She thanks God for his resolve.

Beowulf's Fight with Grendel

Hrothgar gives Beowulf and his companions the duty of guarding Heorot that night. The young man

decides to face Grendel without weapons since Grendel does not use them. He tells those around him that

the outcome of the fight is in the hands of God. The Danes leave the hall,  Beowulf and his companions

bed down for the night. When darkness falls, Grendel comes stalking across the empty moors. Intent on

slaughter and food, he has no idea what is waiting for him in the hall. He bursts open the Heorot's heavy

iron-bound doors with the touch of his hand and rushes in, grabs one of the sleeping Geats, eats him,

greedily gulping down the blood, and then grabsBeowulf. Beowulf has had a moment to get oriented,

however, and wrestles with Grendel. Surprised by Beowulf's strength Grendel tries to get away, but

cannot. They struggle, Beowulf refusing to break his grip. Beowulf's companions try to wound Grendel,

only to find he is impervious to their weapons. In the end, Grendel manages pull away from  Beowulf,

leaving his arm in the hero's grasp. He flees, bleeding, to his lair.

The Morning after the Battle

With morning the Danes come from the surrounding countryside to see the huge arm, its nails like steel,

and the bloody trail of the dying monster. Some of them follow the trail to the water's edge and come

back singing Beowulf's praises. One of the king's men compares Beowulf to the great dragon-slayer,

Sigemund. (In the legends on which Nibelungenlied is based, it is Sigemund's son Siegfried who is the

dragon slayer.) Hrothgar thanks God that he has lived to see Grendel stopped. He publicly announces that

he will now consider Beowulf his son. Beowulf tells the Hrothgar that he wishes the king might have seen

the fight. He says that he had hoped to kill Grendel outright, but it was not God's will.

Celebrations in Honor of Beowulf's Victory

There is a celebration in honor of Beowulf and his companions. Hrothgar gives him magnificent gifts,

including a golden banner, sword, and armor. The other Geats are given rich gifts too. Hrothgar gives

treasure for the man whom Grendel has eaten. (This probably represents his  wergyld, literally "man-

price," the payment made to a man's lord or his family by someone responsible for his death as an

indemnity.) A lay, or short narrative poem, of a famous battle is sun as entertainment.

Wealtheow acknowledges Beowulf's great deed, but counsels her husband not to alienate his nephew

Hrothulf by adopting Beowulf. She hopes aloud that Hrothulf will remember all she and the king did for

him when he was young and will treat his young cousins, their sons, well. Wealtheow then

gives Beowulf a magnificent golden necklace (worn at that time by both men and women). Wealtheow

asks Beowulf to be a good friend to her sons. She ends by saying that in Heorot all the men are loyal to

one another and do her will. The original Anglo-Saxon audience knew from existing legends and stories

that Hrothulf would later kill his two cousins.

Grendel's Mother Comes for Vengeance and Beowulf Tracks Her to Her Lair

The Geats are given new quarters for the night and Danish warriors sleep in the hall for the first time in

many years. While the Danes are sleeping, Grendel's mother comes to avenge her son. She carries off

Aeschere, Hrothgar's friend and counselor, a man who had always stood at his side in

battle. Beowulf finds Hrothgar broken with grief over the loss of his friend. Hrothgar tells Beowulf what

the Danes know about the monsters and the wilds where they live. Beowulf offers to track Grendel's

mother to her underwater lair, remarking that it is better to perform noble deeds before death and better to

avenge a friend than mourn him too much. Hrothgar, Beowulf, and their men ride to the sea where they

find Aeshere's head at the edge of the overhanging cliffs. Unferth, now deeply impressed by Beowulf's

generous heroism, loans Beowulf his sword. Beowulf asks Hrothgar to take care of his companions and to

send Hygelac the treasures he had been given for killing Grendel if he (Beowulf) dies.

Beowulf's Fight with Grendel's Mother

Beowulf enters the water and is seized by Grendel's mother who drags him to her den, which is dry

despite its underwater entrance. Unferth's sword is useless against this monstrous hag.  Beowulf wrestles

with her. The woman trips him and tries to stab him with her dagger, but the blade is turned by his

chainmail (a mesh tunic of fine interlocked metal rings). He struggles away from her, grabs a great sword

hanging on the wall, and strikes off her head. He sees the body of Grendel and cuts off his head too, the

sword blade melting in his blood. Carrying Grendel's head and the sword's hilt,  Beowulf swims back to

the surface.

Beowulf Returns from the Fight in Triumph

Meanwhile from the cliffs above, the waiting men see blood welling up to the surface of the water.

Hrothgar and the Danes assume the worst and make their way sorrowfully back to the hall. Beowulf's

companions linger, grieving and forlornly hoping for his return. Beowulf comes to the surface. He and his

men return to the hall. He presents Grendel's head and the hilt of the ancient sword to

Hrothgar. Beowulf recounts his underwater fight to the court, acknowledging the grace of God. Hrothgar

praises Beowulf and counsels him to use his strength wisely. He warns him of the temptations of

prosperity which lead to arrogance and avarice. Beowulf returns Unferth's sword. He thanks Hrothgar for

his great kindness and promises him that if Hrothgar ever needs him, he shall come to his aid with a

thousand warriors. Beowulf and his companions return to their ship, and Beowulf presents the kindly

coast guard with a sword.

Beowulf's Return to His Uncle's Court

Beowulf and his companions return home and go immediately to his uncle's hall. Hygelac's young queen,

Hygd, is presiding with her husband. Hygelac welcomes his nephew back with great

warmth. Beowulf narrates his adventures. In particular he talks about Hrothgar's daughter, Freawaru, who

is engaged to Ingeld, a prince whose people are hereditary enemies of the Danes.  Beowulf fears the

marriage will not end the feud and that Ingeld will have to decide between his people and his young wife.

This passage exactly predicts what happens in the Ingeld legend. Thus the epic's original listeners were

likely moved by Beowulf's wisdom and prescience in predicting the strife that is to

come. Beowulf presents Wealtheow's and Hrothgar's gifts to his uncle and aunt. In return Hygelac gives

his nephew a princely estate and his grandfather's sword.

The Treasure and the Dragon

Years pass. Beowulf's uncle and his uncle's son, Heardred, die in battle. Beowulf becomes king of the

Geats and rules for fifty years. Then a dragon begins to threaten the land. The dragon has been sleeping

on a treasure, deposited in a barrow above the sea centuries before by the last despairing survivor of a

noble family. A desperate man stumbles upon the treasure and steals a golden cup from it to regain his

lord's favor. The dragon in revenge terrorizes the countryside, burning Beowulf's hall in the old king's

absence. Beowulf decides to fight the dragon. He orders an iron shield made and assembles an escort of

twelve warriors plus the thief, brought along as a guide. They arrive on the cliffs above the

barrow. Beowulf, feeling his death is near, looks back over his life and recounts the tragic history of his

family and people. He speaks affectionately of his grandfather and the old man's grief over the accidental

death of his eldest son. He speaks bluntly of the warfare between the Geats and Swedes. He recalls his

adventures in Denmark. He speaks of his loyalty to his uncle Hygelac. Finally he remembers his uncle's

disastrous raid to the Rhine and his own part in it. He recalls defeating Daegrefn, champion of the Franks,

in single combat before both armies by crushing him in a bear hug. Beowulf then announces that he

intends to fight the dragon alone. He goes down the path to the treasure barrow and attacks the dragon,

but cannot manage to kill it. One of his men, a young warrior Wiglaf, comes to his aid. Together they kill

the dragon, but Beowulf is fatally wounded. He dies saying he has no fear in God's judgment of him and

thanking God for allowing him to trade his old life for a great treasure for his people. He tells Wiglaf to

take care of the Geats. Finally, he asks that they build a barrow for him on the cliffs where it will be seen

and he remembered. The Geats build the barrow, place the treasure in it, and mourn their lost king as the

kindest and most worthy of rulers.

Characters

Aeschere : Aeschere is Hrothgar's counselor and friend, his "wing man" in battle. Grendel's mother

murders him in revenge for the death of her son. Hrothgar is broken with grief when he learns of

Aeschere's death.

Beowulf : Beowulf is the son of Hrethel's daughter and Ecgtheow. From the age of seven, he is raised by

his maternal grandfather. He is first and foremost the hero who kills the monsters no one else can face,

but he is more than a fighter. Beowulf is a strong man who thinks and feels. His deep affection for his

grandfather Hrethel and uncle Hygelac lasts to the end of his long life. He is capable of discernment,

sensitivity, and compassion. He is concerned about what Freawaru may face in her political marriage. He

understands and sympathizes with Wealtheow in her concern for her sons. He, more than any other

character, has a sense of God's hand in human affairs. He alone talks about an afterlife. His impulses are

not merely courageous, they are generous. As a young man he comforts Hrothgar at Aeschere's death,

saying that glorious deeds are the best thing for a man to take into death. Dying, he thanks God that he

has been allowed to trade his old life for a treasure for his people and commits their welfare to Wiglaf.

Beowulf is not merely an incredibly strong man skilled in hand-to-hand combat; he is equally skilled with

words. His defense against Unferth is a brilliant exercise in oration. His conversation with his uncle on his

return home is a formal relation, the official report of an ambassador. When he looks backward on his life

and times before his final fight, he produces the sort of historical memoir that was long the hallmark of

the elder statesman. His choices may not have always been what people around him wanted, whether in

his decision not to take the throne over his young cousin or in his decision to fight the dragon. His

choices, however, are never without reasons with which the narrator and the audience can sympathize.

Except for monsters, Beowulf kills only two human beings: Daegrefn, the champion of the Franks, during

his uncle's disastrous raid in the lands at the mouth of the Rhine, and Onela, who was responsible for his

cousin Heardred's death. Except for an expedition against the Swedes, Beowulf does not engage in any

war during his reign.

Beowulf Scylding : Beowulf Scylding is the son of Scyld, father of Healfdene, and grandfather of

Hrothgar.

Breca : Breca is the boy who has a swimming match with Beowulf. Beowulf admits it is a foolish thing to

do. They are separated by a storm at sea. Breca reaches shore in Finland. Beowulf comes ashore after

killing nine sea monsters who try to eat him.

Daegrefn : Daegrefn is the champion of the Franks. Beowulf defeats him in single combat before the

armies of the Geats and the Franks, crushing him in a bear hug.

Eadgils : Eadgils is the son of Othere and grandson of the Swedish king Ongetheow. He and his brother

Eanmund rebel against their uncle, King Onela. They are sheltered by Heardred and the Geats.  Beowulf,

to avenge his cousin, supports Eadgils in taking the throne.

Eanmund : Son of Othere and grandson of the Swedish king Ongetheow, Eanmund and his brother

Eadgils rebel against their uncle, King Onela. They are sheltered by Heardred and the Geats.

Ecglaf : Ecglaf is Unferth's father.

Ecgtheow : Beowulf's father, Ecgtheow married the unnamed daughter of Hrethel, king of the Geats. It is

likely that Ecgtheow was related to the Swedish royal family, which would explain why the Swedish

king, Onela, does not dispute Beowulf's control of the Geat kingdom after Beowulf's cousin Heardred

dies in battle with the Swedes. Ecgtheow is involved in a feud so violent that only Hrothgar would shelter

him. Hrothgar is able to settle the feud.

Freawaru : Hrothgar's daughter, Freawaru gets engaged to Ingeld in the hope that doing so ends the

recurring war between the Danes and Ingeld's people, the Heathobards. Beowulf's prediction of what is

likely to happen is uncannily like what the legends say did happen. The passage characterizes  Beowulf as

perceptive and sympathetic.

Grendel : Grendel is an immensely strong cannibal. Whatever Grendel and his mother may have been in

the traditions behind the present poem, in Beowulf they are descendants of Cain, the eldest son of Adam

and Eve, and the first murderer. Placing Grendel and his mother in a biblical context made them even

easier for the original audience to accept. They live in the wilds, cut off from human society. Grendel's

attack on the hall is motivated by his hatred of joy and light. The Danes cannot hope to come to terms

with Grendel or his mother since they are completely outside and beyond human society and

understanding.

Haethcyn : Second son of Hrethel, Haethcyn kills his older brother in an archery accident. Haethcyn

himself is killed in the border warfare between the Geats and the Swedes. Hygelac, his younger brother,

leads the relief party that saves the remnants of the Geatish army at the battle of Ravenswood.

Healfdene : Healfdene is Beowulf Scylding's son and the father of Hrothgar.

Heardred : Heardred is the son of Hygelac and Hygd. Beowulf refuses to take the throne before him and

acts as his guardian. Heardred is killed in the fighting that follows his intervention in a power struggle

between two branches of the Swedish royal family.

Heorogar : Heorogar is Healfdene's second son.

Herebeald : Herebeald is Hrethel's eldest son who is killed by his younger brother Haethcyn in an

archery accident.

Heremod : Heremod is a king of the Danes who reigns before Scyld. Despite his great promise, he grows

cruel and avaricious, murdering his own supporters. Both Hrothgar and the retainer who first sings

Beowulf's praises use him as an example of an evil leader.

Hondscio : Beowulf's companion Hondscio is eaten by Grendel.

Hrethel : Hrethel is Beowulf's maternal grandfather, Hrethel raises Beowulf from the age of seven. He

dies of grief after his second son accidentally kills his eldest son. Fighting between the Geats and Swedes

begins after Hrethel's death. Beowulf remembers his grandfather with great affection.

Hrothgar : Hrothgar is the great-grandson of Scyld and a successful warrior king. Hrothgar builds the

greatest hall in the world and finds himself unable to defend it or his people from Grendel. Only once

does his dignity and patient endurance break down, when he is faced with another monster and the death

of his closest friend just when he thinks his hall and people are finally safe. Hrothgar recovers his

composure and gives Beowulf a philosophy of life that, while austere and pessimistic, is fitted to the

world in which they live. As hinted in the poem, he is killed by his son-in-law, Ingeld, and Heorot is

burned.

Hygd : Wife of Hygelac, Hygd represents a perfect queen. She offers the throne to Beowulf after her

husband's death because her son is too young. Interestingly, Hygd's name means "thought," and her

husband's name means "thoughtless."

Hygelac : Hygelac is Hrethel's youngest son and the hero of the battle of Ravenswood. He dies on a raid

that is initially successful, but ends with the annihilation of the Geatish forces.

Ohtere : Ohtere is the son of Ongentheow. His sons Eadgils and Eanmund unsuccessfully rebel against

his brother Onela.

Onela : Onela is the king of the Swedes and son of Ongentheow. His nephews Eadgils and Eanmund

rebel against him. They then seek refuge with Heardred and the Geats. Onela exacts vengeance on the

Geats, killing Heardred, but he does not interfere when Beowulf takes the throne. Beowulf helps Eadgils

take the Swedish throne and kills Onela in vengeance for his cousin's death.

Ongentheow : Ongentheow is the king of the Swedes. He is killed at the battle of Ravenswood.

Scyld : Often called Scyld Scefing, Scyld is the first king of his line. In other ancient accounts, Scyld is

said to have arrived alone in a boat as a small child. One tradition holds that he is the son of the biblical

Noah and was born aboard the ark. Scyld appears in the genealogy of the West Saxon kings.

Unferth : Unferth is characterized as Hrothgar's "thyle," but modern scholars are not exactly sure what

this word means. In glossaries from the Old English period, the word is defined by the Latin

word rhetor or orator. Unferth may be the king's "press officer," a source of official information about the

king and his policies, or he may be a scribe or court jester. He is initially envious of Beowulf's reputation

and reception at court, but later Unferth offers his friendship to Beowulf.

Wealtheow : Wealtheow Is a princess of the house of the Helmings and the wife of Hrothgar. She has

great dignity, political sense, and status among her husband's people. She addresses Hrothgar like a

counselor.

Wiglaf : Wiglaf is the young warrior who comes to the aid of Beowulf when he fights the dragon. Wiglaf

is a relative of Beowulf, probably on his father's side since his connections are Swedish. His father,

Weohstan, fought on the Swedish side during their invasion of the Geats following Heardred's meddling

in the internal feuds of the Swedish royal house.

Source Citation

"Overview: Beowulf." Epics for Students. Ed. Sara Constantakis. 2nd ed. Vol. 1. Detroit: Gale,

2011. Literature Resource Center. Web. 9 Oct. 2015.

Overview: "Beowulf"

Source:Poetry for Students. Ed. Elizabeth Thomason. Vol. 11. Detroit: Gale, 2001. From Literature Resource

Center.

Introduction

"Beowulf" appeared in Richard Wilbur's second volume of poetry, Ceremony and Other Poems (1950),

the book that established him as one of the preeminent American poets of his generation. In this poem,

Wilbur retells part of an Old English epic, or long narrative poem, also called "Beowulf." He describes

the hero of the ancient poem from a mid-twentieth century point of view.

The epic "Beowulf" was written between the mid-seventh and the late tenth centuries a.d. It tells the story

of a Scandinavian hero, Beowulf, who comes to save a kingdom from a monster named Grendel who

attacks the castle each night. The hero fights and kills the monster; soon Grendel's mother appears,

and Beowulf must defeat her as well. The Danes give Beowulf many gifts in thanks, and he returns home,

where he is king of the Geats for fifty years. He eventually dies in a battle against a dragon.

Wilbur shows Beowulf as a melancholy hero. He bravely promises to fight the monster, but he also is

aware that being a hero can be a lonely job. Despite his courageous deeds, he is isolated from other

people, who cannot really understand him. Even the Danes, whom he saves, are remote from him. While

the epic poem celebrates the heroic ideal, Wilbur's poem reveals the hero as a human being living in a less

than perfect world.

Wilbur is often seen as a poet of affirmation, one who has a bright and witty view of the

world. "Beowulf," then, is somewhat different from the poet's other work in its tone and subject matter,

though it is similar in its formal structure and musical rhythm. The power of this poem may come from

Wilbur's exploration of a dark side of existence, in spite of his natural inclination to celebrate the details

that make life worthwhile.

Plot

Stanza 1:

The poem opens with a description of the country that Beowulf has come to save. The speaker of the

poem seems to be an unseen narrator who is describing this scene from the hero's point of view. There is

something too perfect about the natural world; the land is like artificial scenery on a stage. The flowers

and the grass seem to have human characteristics; they appear "attentive," or overly polite, and

"garrulous," or too talkative. The lake is so still that the reflection of a bird remains after the bird has

flown away. The road, built during the days of the now-fallen Roman Empire, seems untraveled. These

images of the physical world have an unreal quality, creating a sense of mystery about this country.

Stanza 2:

Here the speaker introduces the people of the country. Like their land, they are strange, though they are

hospitable to Beowulf. The king says that he had known Beowulf's father. Offering thanks for his help,

the queen serves the hero mead, a wine made from honey, in a cup decorated with jewels. These details

are similar to ones that appear in the original epic poem.

The other people have a "vagueness," which may mean that they don't think very clearly, or that they

cannot be clearly seen, like shadows. They live in fear of "daily harm," which refers to the nightly attacks

by the monster Grendel. This fear causes the people to repeat themselves when they speak. The

strangeness of the residents adds to the atmosphere of mystery about this country.

Stanza 3:

At the beginning of this stanza, the "childish country" appears to refer to the childlike nature of the

people. However, the "child / Grown monstrous" describes Grendel, who is a giant monster but also the

child of a monster. Since he attacks the castle each night, the people are always afraid. In addition,

because Grendel eats those he kills, people fear that he will "own them to the bone."  Beowulf determines

that he will fight the monster alone, so that others will not risk death.

The poet may have more than one meaning here. The people spend their days afraid of what will happen

when night comes. Grendel, according to the Old English poem, lives in the wilderness outside the

borders of the kingdom. Wilbur may be implying that the people's "dream of fright" is fear of the

unknown. The hero, however, is willing to confront the mystery symbolized by the monster.

Stanza 4:

Wilbur condenses much of the action from the original poem in this stanza. In lines 19-20, he describes

how the Danes go off to bed, leaving Beowulf alone to face the monster. The hall is "echoed" because it is

a large, high-ceilinged room in the castle. When a crowd is feasting and celebrating there, the noise is

very loud. When the hall is empty, it may echo with the slightest sound. Beowulf is a lonely figure

standing in this great hall by himself, waiting for the monster. In addition, according to the epic poem, the

sounds of human happiness in this hall first attract Grendel's anger, causing him to come and kill those in

the castle.

Lines 21-22 describe the fight between Beowulf and Grendel. The fierce battle shakes the beams

supporting the roof. Beowulf is so strong he defeats Grendel without using weapons; instead, he pulls the

monster's arm completely off his body. The "child"--Grendel--leaves, groaning and dying.

When the fight is over, the Danes find Beowulf in an exhausted sleep. His head is "sealed" because he

does not wake up for a long time, and no one knows what he is thinking or feeling. In the original

poem, Beowulf fights not only Grendel, but Grendel's mother, who comes to avenge her child's death.

Then the hero falls into a deep sleep.

Stanza 5:

The speaker returns to a description of the landscape. However, the country is apparently changed by the

monster's death. It is still "overmuch like scenery," as in the first stanza, but now it is not friendly. The

lark is free of the lake, but its song is silent. The day passes too quickly and the night offers no welcome.

Line 30 echoes line 7, describing the people as strange. Here, though, they are cold instead of warm. It

may be that now that they feel safe, they do not care about the hero as much as before.

The country seems to have lost its childishness when its child monster dies. In the first stanza, the land

seemed too new, like the road "paved too shiningly" in line 5. In this fifth stanza, the day is "swiftly old."

The people may have lost their innocence. While they had their monster, they could blame all their

problems on an outside element. Now they have to look inside themselves to find out why the lark's song

is not heard, or why the flowers are wrong.

However, since the speaker seems to be describing the adventure from Beowulf's point of view, this

change in the land and its inhabitants may come from the hero's own feelings. Perhaps he is so tired from

the battle that the country seems unfriendly. Perhaps he believes his effort was so great that the people

cannot truly appreciate what he has gone through. Or, he may feel that since his task is over, he is no

longer welcome and should leave.

Stanza 6:

The people are not unappreciative, as this stanza shows. They shower Beowulf with valuable presents as a

reward for his rescue of their kingdom. All of these gifts are needed by a warrior-hero--a horse, armor,

and weapons. The speaker hints that by giving Beowulf these things, the people are encouraging him to

fight other battles, to "do again what he has done." This may imply that the hero would prefer to rest after

his great deed, but cannot because everyone expects him to do more great deeds. He may also have these

expectations of himself.

Beowulf takes his presents and sails home. He is lonely despite his victory, because he has no son to leave

his treasure to. The hero believes in the tradition of children carrying on the name of the father and

honoring his accomplishments after his death. Beowulf may weep because he fears no one will remember

him after he dies, since he has no son.

Stanza 7:

In this stanza the speaker most reveals Beowulf's isolation from the world. He becomes king of the Geats,

but when he dies he has no family members left. He is famous for his brave deeds, and he is mourned, but

his is a lonely death. He is buried at the edge of the sea, which is an in-between place, suitable for

someone who lived outside the mainstream of the community. Although some of his followers ride

around his barrow, or burial mound, and sing at his funeral, they do not fully understand him. Wilbur may

be saying that a hero--or anyone who does great deeds--is never completely understood by the people

around him.

Source Citation

"Overview: 'Beowulf'." Poetry for Students. Ed. Elizabeth Thomason. Vol. 11. Detroit: Gale,

2001. Literature Resource Center. Web. 9 Oct. 2015.

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