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MODULE-1: FACTORS AFFECTING DIGESTIBILITY OF A FEED
Learning objectives
The module will give a comprehensive knowledge on the various factors influencing feed digestability.
DIGESTIBILITY
It is the portion of the feed or nutrient present in the feed that is not excreted in feces by the animal.
Digestibility can be determined by feeding experiments It is usually expressed as
Digestible nutrient Digestibility coefficient
There are various factors that affect feed digestibility. They may be grouped as
Feed factors Animal factors
FEED FACTORS
The most important feed factors that affect digestibility of feed are feed composition, ration composition and preparation of the feed.
o Feed composition: The digestibility of a feed is closely related to its chemical composition. Other feeds, particularly fresh and conserved herbage show variation in composition and therefore vary more in digestibility. The crude fiber fraction of feed has greater influence on its digestibility and both the amount and chemical composition of the crude fibre are important. If the lignin content in crude fibre is more it reduces the digestibility of the feed. Lignin content of any plant tissue increases with maturity.
o Ration composition: The digestibility of feed is influenced not only by its own composition, but also by the composition of other feeds consumed with it. This is known as associative effect. Associative effect of feeds represents a serious problem on the determination of the digestibility of concentrates by difference method.
o Preparation of feeds: Feed preparation also influences its digestibility. The commonest treatment applied to the feeds are chopping or chaffing, crushing or grinding and cooking. chopping or chaffing roughages increases their surface area and hence increases their digestibility. In order to obtain maximum digestibility cereal grains should be crushed for horses and ground for pigs and poultry: otherwise they may pass through the gut intact. Feed processing such as peletting and extrusion cooking also enhances feed digestibility.
ANIMAL FACTORS
The most important animal factors that affect digestibility of feed are the species, age, physiological and health status of the animal and level of feeding:
o Species: There is a wide variation in the digestion of feed according to the species of animals. Hind gut fermenting animals like horses are able to digest fibrous feeds better than poultry and Swine.
o Age: In the young animals the digestive system is not fully functional especially with regard to secretion of enzymes, hence they are not able to digest feed as that in adults.
o Physiological and health status of the animal: Animals in advanced stages of pregnancy are not able to digest feed due to the pressure and suffering exerted by the gravid uterus on the gastrointestinal tract. Sick animals especially those suffering from diseases of gastrointestinal tract have reduced capacity to digest feed.
o Level of feeding: An increase in the quantity of feed eaten by an animal generally causes a faster rate of passage of digesta. The food is then exposed to the action of digestive enzymes for a shorter period, so that there may be reduction in its digestibility.
MODULE-2: NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS IN POULTRY
Learning objectives This module will help the learner to know the nutrient requirements for
various categories of chicken, it will also provide information on factors influencing nutrient requirement in chicken.
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT IN POULTRY - INTRODUCTION
Nutrient requirements are the amount of nutrients required by poultry to support normal function.
Requirements may be expressed in quantities of nutrients or in dietary proportions.
Statements or quantitative descriptions of the amounts of one or more nutrients needed by poultry have been provided by various agencies or organizations.
o In India we usually follow BIS specification.o In USA and in many other nations NRC specifications is followed.o However certain commercial poultry farms follow their own
standards. Poultry feeds must be formulated and prepared so that it provides all of the
bird’s nutrient requirements.
The nutrient requirements of poultry are affected by a large number of factors, including:
Genetics (the species, breed or strain of bird) - Different species, breeds or strains of bird have different average body sizes, growth rates and production levels and will also absorb and utilize nutrients from feed with different levels of efficiency, leading to different nutrient requirements.
Age - Nutrient requirements are related to both body weight and the stage of maturity.
Sex - Prior to sexual maturity the sexes have only small differences in their nutrient requirements. Differences in nutrient requirements are larger following the onset of sexual maturity.
Reproductive state - The level of egg production in hens and sexual activity in males will affect nutrient requirements.
Ambient temperature - Poultry have increased energy requirements to maintain normal body temperature in cold ambient temperatures and the opposite in hot ambient temperatures.
Housing system - The type of housing system will influence the level of activity of the birds and therefore their energy requirements.
Health status - Birds experiencing disease require an increase intake of some nutrients, commonly vitamins.
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT IN POULTRY - BIS
Nutrient Recommendation for Broilers, Layers and Breeders as per BIS (Bureau of Indian Standard)
The following table gives the nutrient recommendation for Broilers and Layers as per BIS (Bureau of Indian Standard)
Nutrient Broiler Starter (0-
6wk)
Broiler Finisher (6-
9wk)
Chicks (0-8 wk)
Grower (8-20wk)
Layer (20-80wk)
Breeder (20-80wk)
Moisture max % 11 11 11 11 11 11
Metabolizable energy ME (kcal/kg)
2,800 2,900 2,600 2,500 2,600 2,600
Crude Protein min % 23 20 20 16 18 18
Crude fibre max % 6 6 7 8 8 8
Acid insoluble ash max 3 3 4 4 4 4
Salt as (NaCl) Max % 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
Calcium min % 1.2 1.2 1.0 1.0 3.0 3.0
Available Phosphorus min %
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Lysine min % 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.6 0.65 0.65
Methionine min % 0.5 0.35 0.30 0.25 0.30 0.30
Manganese, mg/kg 90 90 90 90 90 90
Vitamin D3, IU/kg 6000 6000 6000 6000 6000 6000
Vitamin E, mg/kg 15 15 15 10 10 10
Vitamin K, mg/kg 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Riboflavin, mg/kg 6 6 6 3 3 3
Biotin, mg/kg 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.15 0.15 0.15
Choline 1400 1000 1300 900 800 800
Pyridoxine, mg/kg 5 5 5 5 5 5
Aflatoxin, maximum permissible level ppm
50 50 50 50 50 50
BIS specifications (2002).
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT IN POULTRY - COMPOUNDED LIVESTOCK FEED MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION
The Compounded livestok feed manufacturers association have given their specification for poultry feeds which is given below:
Nutrient Recommendation for Broilers
Characteristic Broiler starter feed
Broiler finisher feed
Moisture (maximum %) 12 12
Crude protein (minimum %) 20 18
Fat (maximum %) 3 3
Crude fibre (maximum %) 6 5
Acid-insoluble ash (maximum %) 4 4
Metabolizable energy (minimum cal/kg)
2 600 2 700
Nutrient Recommendation for layers
Characteristic Chick feed
Grower feed
Layer feed, I
Layer feed II
Moisture (maximum %) 12 12 12 12
Crude protein (minimum %) 18 14 16 14
Fat (maximum %) 2 2 2 2
Crude fibre (maximum %) 7 8 8 10
Acid-insoluble ash (maximum %)
4 4 4 4
Metabolizable energy (minimum cal/kg)
2 600 2 300 2 500 2 300
NUTRIENT SPECIFICTIONS COMPARISON
A comparison is made between BIS and CLFMA specifications with regard to the energy and protein requirement for broilers and is illustrated graphically.
The BIS energy and protein requirements are on the higher side compared to that of CLFMA specification.
A comparison is made between BIS and CLFMA specifications with regard to the energy and protein requirement for layers and is illustrated graphically.
The BIS energy and protein requirements are on the higher side compared to that of CLFMA specification for growers and layers.
MODULE-3: NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS IN SWINE
Learning objectives
Through this module the learner will be exposed to the nutrient requirement for various swine rations.
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT IN SWINE - INTRODUCTION
Swine / Pigs require many nutrients for their maintenance, growth and production.
Carbohydrates: Pigs can utilize crude fibre to a lower extent. The utilization of fibre by the pigs depends on the age of and
weight of pigs and characteristic of non-fibrous portion of the ration.
For growing and finishing pigs 5-6% crude fibre level in their diet is recommended.
In sows, 10-12% level of CF in diet can be well tolerated. Fats:
o When high fat diets are fed to pigs there is deposition of excessive fat inside the body.
o If this feed fat contains higher concentration of short chained fatty acids (ex. Soybean and groundnut) there is a production of soft pork which is not desirable.
o Pigs fed on rations containing 0.5% fat, make a satisfactory gain and stores normal amount of body fat.
o However, the practical level of fat inclusion is higher than this i.e. about 4%.
Protein Requirement:o In Swine/Pig feeding it is important to provide good quality protein in
the ration.o All essential amino acids should be present in right quantity and
proper balance.o Even if one essential amino acids is lacking or is in excess it will cause
marked reduction in the feed intake which will affect the growth and production
o A combination of animal and vegetable protein in a pigs diet will provide all essential amino acids in proper proportion.
Protein requirements of pigs express as % in the feed is given below:
S.NO
Class of Pig % of protein in diet
1. Pigs - preweaning/creep feed
18-22
2. Weaned pigs 16
3. Growing pigs '45 kg body wt'
14
4. Breed gilts 15
5. Sows 14
6. Breeding boars 14
7. Lactating sow 15
Mineral Requirementso If swine is fed on concentrates alone calcium is more likely to be
deficient. Whereas if they are fed only on pasture, phosphorus deficiency results.
o The recommended calcium and phosphorus levels for swine diet are as below:
Category of pig Weight Ca %
P %
Growing & Fattening Pigs
(5-10 kg) 0.80
0.60
(10-45kg)
0.65
0.50
(45-90 kg)
0.50
0.40
Gilts & Sow bred 0.75
0.50
Lactating Sows 0.60
0.40
In practical swine ration it is routine practice to add 0.5-1% limestone and 0.5% di-calcium phosphate/bone meal.
As per the NRC 0.5% common salt is recommended in rations of all classes and ages of pigs.
Iodine need of pig is 0.2 mg/kg diet which should be supplied in the form of iodised salt.
Piglet anaemia is seen in piglets, housed in concrete floors under intensive farming system. The condition is called as "thumps". Anaemic piglets are listless and flabby with wrinkled skin and unhealthy looking hair coat. At birth, piglets contains 50 mg iron. The daily requirement is 7 mg and about 1 mg is supplied in daily sow milk consumed by the piglet. This deficit of 6mg/day will exhaust the body stores within a week if iron is not provided. This condition can be prevented by giving iron orally or by injections. Iron dextrose 100 mg on third day of birth followed by 50 mg on 21 day prevents anaemia. Painting the udder of the sow with a pate of ferrous sulphate causes intake of iron when the piglet suckles its mother and helps prevent thumps.
Requirement of copper is 6mg/kg diet. Requirement for Manganese is 10mg/kg diet. Requirement for zinc is 50mg/kg diet. Vitamin Requirements
o Vitamin K is synthesized in the intestine of the pigs by micro-organisms in adequate amount and hence has no practical importance.
o Deficiency of vitamin B-complex may arise under practical conditions in pigs raised on feeds like cereal grains without much inclusion of green forage. Liberal supply of good quality legume fodder hay, dairy products will take care of vitamins of B-series.
o Vitamin C is synthesized in the body and hence not of practical importance.
As in the case of poultry pig / swine feeds may be formulated as per NRC specifications or BIS specification.
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT IN SWINE AS PER NRC (NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL USA)
The following table gives the nutrient requirement of diets of Growing pigs
Growing Pigs Allowed Feed Ad Libitum (90% dry matter)
Body Weight (kg)
3–5 5–10 10–20
20–50
50–80
80–120
Average weight in range (kg)
4 7.5 15 35 65 100
DE content of diet (kcal/kg)
3,400
3,400
3,400
3,400 3,400 3,400
ME content of diet (kcal/kg)
3,265
3,265
3,265
3,265 3,265 3,265
Estimated feed intake (g/day)
250 500 1,000
1,855 2,575 3,075
Crude protein (%) 26.0 23.7 20.9 18.0 15.5 13.2
The following table gives the nutrient requirement of diets of Barrows and Gilts
Barrows and Gilts allowed Feed Ad Libitum (90% dry matter)
Body weight range 50–80 kg Body Weight
Lean gain (g/day) 300 300 325 325 350 350
Gender Barrow
Gilt Barrow
Gilt Barrow
Gilt
Average weight in range (kg)
65 65 65 65 65 65
DE content of diet (kcal/kg)
3,400 3,400
3,400 3,400
3,400 3,400
ME content of diet (kcal/kg)
3,265 3,265
3,265 3,265
3,265 3,265
Estimated feed intake (g/day)
2,750 2,400
2,755 2,400
2,755 2,400
Crude protein (%) 14.2 15.5 14.9 16.3 15.6 17.1
Body weight range 80–120 kg Body Weight
Lean gain (g/day) 300 300 325 325 350 350
Gender Barrow
Gilt Barrow
Gilt Barrow
Gilt
Average weight in range (kg)
100 100 100 100 100 100
DE content of diet (kcal/kg)
3,400 3,400
3,400 3,400
3,400 3,400
ME content of diet (kcal/kg)
3,265 3,265
3,265 3,265
3,265 3,265
Estimated feed intake (g/day)
3,280 2,865
3,280 2,865
3,280 2,865
Crude protein (%) 12.2 13.2 12.7 13.8 13.2 14.4
The following table gives the nutrient requirement of diets of Gestating sows
Gestating Sows (90% dry matter)
Body Weight at Breeding (kg)
125 150 175 200 200 200
Gestation Weight Gain (kg)
55 45 40 35 30 35
Anticipated Pigs in Litter
11 12 12 12 12 14
DE content of diet (kcal/kg)
3,400
3,400
3,400
3,400
3,400
3,400
ME content of diet (kcal/kg)
3,265
3,265
3,265
3,265
3,265
3,265
Estimated feed intake (kg/day)
1.96 1.84 1.88 1.92 1.80 1.85
Crude protein (%) 12.9 12.8 12.4 12.0 12.1 12.4
The following table gives the nutrient requirement of diets of Lactating sows
Latating Sows Allowed Feed Ad Libitum (90% dry matter)
Sow Postfarrowing Weight (kg)
175 175 175 175 175 175
Anticipated Lactational Weight Change (kg)
0 0 0 -10 -10 -10
Daily Weight Gain of Pigs (g)
150 200 250 150 200 250
DE content of diet (kcal/kg)
3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400 3,400
ME content of diet (kcal/kg)
3,265 3,265 3,265 3,265 3,265 3,265
Estimated feed intake (kg/day)
4.31 5.35 6.40 3.56 4.61 5.66
Crude protein (%) 16.3 17.5 18.4 17.2 18.5 19.2
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT IN SWINE AS PER BIS (BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARD)
The following table gives the nutrient specification of various categories of swine / pig feed as per Bureau of Indian Standards specification
S. No
Nutrient RequirementPig
starter/Creep feed
Pig growthmeal
Pig finishing
/ Breeding meal(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
Moisture content (Max %)
Crude protein ( Min %)
Crude fat or ether extract (Min %)
Crude fibre (Max %)
Total ash (Max %)
Acid insoluble ash (Max %)
Metabolizable energy (Kcal/kg), Min
11.0
20.0
2.0
5.0
8.0
4.0
3 360
11.0
18.0
2.0
6.0
8.0
4.0
3 170
11.0
16.0
2.0
8.0
8.0
4.0
3 170
MODULE-4: NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT IN EQUINE
Learning objectives
On completion of this module the learner will be able to comprehend on the nutrient requirements of horses in different physiological activities and activity level.
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT IN EQUINES - INTRODUCTION
As in other categories of livestock the horse also has a requirement of various nutrients as discussed below.
Energy - Is what horses use to do work.o Energy requirements are influenced by age and by the work's degree
and duration.o Mature, idle horses and mares in the first 2 trimesters of pregnancy
require less energy.o Young, rapidly growing horses, horses at work and lactating should be
supplemented with concentrated energy sources to meet their energy requirements
Protein - Horses use protein to synthesize various body tissues, such as muscle. Proteins are composed of amino acids and will vary in amino acid composition.
o Protein requirements vary for different classes of horses.o Young, growing horses have a higher requirement for protein because
they are growing body tissues like muscle and bone.o Mature horses have a much lower requirement for protein than do
young horses since mature horses need protein for maintenance of body tissue rather than growing new tissue.
Minerals - Are needed by the horse's body for various purposes, ranging from serving as components of the horses skeletal system to maintaining nerve conductivity, muscle contraction and electrolyte balance.
Vitamins - Vitamins A, D and E are the most common vitamins added to horse diets. Although B complex vitamins are synthesized in the large intestine of horses supplemented, including them in performance horse diets may be necessary.
Factors influencing nutrient requirements in horses
Body weight of the horse or its size. Breed of the horse Age of the horse Physiological status of the horse - gestation, lactation, rate of growth Nature and intensity of work Temperament of the horse Hair coat of the horse Fat insulation Environment – temperature, wind velocity and relative humidity Health status of the horse Vices of the horse
NUTRIENT REQUIREENT IN EQUINES AS PER NRC (NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL USA)
The following table gives the nutrient requirements for sedentary, mature horses of different body weight.
Energy, Protein, Calcium and phosphorus requirements for Sedentary, Mature Horses of Different Body Weight
Size of Horse Digestible Energy (Mcal/day)
Crude Protein (grams)
Calcium (grams)
Phosphorus (grams)
Maintenance (500 15 600 18 13
Maintenance (550 16.5 700 20 14
Maintenance (600 18 750 22 15
The following table gives the nutrient requirements of horses fr rowth and for different production stages.
Energy, Protein, Calcium and Phosphorus requirements for growth and different Production Stages (body weights of 550 Kg)
Age of Horse (Weight/grow
th)
Digestible Energy (Mcal/da
y)
Crude Protei
n (gram
s)
Calcium
(grams)
Phosphorus
(grams)
6 months
240 Kg/1000 g per day
15.5 750 39 22
12 months
350 Kg/500 g per day
19 900 38 21
24 months
470 Kg/200 g per day
19 850 37 20
Class of Horse
Breeding Stallion
22 850 20 14
Broodmare
Early Pregnancy
17 700 20 14
8 months pregnancy
18.5 850 28 20
11 months pregnancy
21 1000 36 26
Lactation (1st month)
32 1700 59 38
Lactation (3rd month)
31 1600 56 36
Lactation (5th month)
28 1450 40 25
The following graphs illustrate the variations in energy and protein requirements in mare at different stages of pregnancy
The following table gives the nutrient requirements for different working horses
Energy, Protein, Calcium and Phosphorus requirements for different working horses
Working Horse
Digestible Energy (Mcal/day)
Crude Protein (grams)
Calcium (grams)
Phosphorus (grams)
Light exercise
20 750 30 18
Moderate exercise
23 850 35 21
Heavy exercise
27 950 40 29
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF EQUINE AS PER INDIAN STANDARD
Nutrient Requirements of Horses (% of ration)
The nutrient requirement of different categories of horses as per Indian standards is given below:
Class TDN
(Kg/day)
Crude Protein
%
Calcium %
Phosphorus %
Feed intake
%, Body weight
Adult horses at rest
3.7 8.0 0.30 0.2 1.5
Pregnant mare (last 3 months of pregnancy)
4.2 10.0 0.45 0.35 1.75
Lactation (First 3 months)
6.4 12.5 0.45 0.35 2.75
Nursing Foal (3-5 months)
1.6 16 0.8 0.55 0.75
Requirements in addition to milk
18-24 months 3.9 10.0 0.40 0.35 2.0
12-18 months 3.8 12.0 0.50 0.35 2.5
2 year old to maturity
3.7 9.0 0.40 0.35 1.75
The following table gives the energy requirement of horses for various types of physical activity
Energy Requirement for Physical Activity (In addition to Maintenance Requirement)
Physical Activity M cal / Hour / 45 Kg Body
weight
TDN / hour / 45 Kg Body
weight
Walking 0.02 4.53
Slow Trot 0.23 54.36
Fast Trot and Cantering
0.57 99.66
Cantering and Galloping
1.05 240
Strenuous effort 1.77 403.17
MODULE-5: METHODS ADOPTED FOR ARRIVING AT ENERGY AND PROTEIN REQUIREMENT FOR
MAINTENANCE
Learning objectives
The module explains the methods involved in arriving at energy and protein requirements of animals / birds.
MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENT
The Maintenance requirement of nutrients is the amount of nutrients required by an animal to maintain it in a state of equilibrium, wherein the animal does not grow, does not produce product, does not work and does not loose or gain weight.
The minimum demand of feed or nutrient is referred to as the maintenance requirement.
If this need is not met, animals are forced to draw upon their body reserves to meet their nutrient requirements for maintenance, commonly revealed by a loss in weight and other undesirable consequences.
The knowledge of this maintenance requirement of animals is of importance to find out the total requirements of feed for animals under various conditions such as pregnancy or yielding certain quantity of milk or doing certain amount of work.
The starting point of finding maintenance requirement is the fasting catabolism.
METHODS ADOPTED FOR ARRIVING AT ENERGY REQUIREMENT FOR MAINTENANCE
The minimum amount of energy required by an adult non-producing animal, at rest, that is neither gaining nor losing weight is called as the maintenance requirement of energy.
This can be determined by the following methods
Basal and Fasting Metabolism
The term Basal Metabolism or Basal Metabolic rate refer to the heat production of an animal resting in a thermally neutral environment (approximately 25ºC) and in a post-absorptive state (that is after the digestion and absorption of the last food ingested has stopped).
During this rest period although the animal will be doing no external or digestive work nor will it have any emotional excitement, still it will carry on a variety of internal processes, which are essential to life.
These processes include respiration, circulation, maintenance of muscular tonus, production of internal secretions, etc.
In the absence of feed, the nutrients required to support these activities must come from the breakdown of body tissues itself.
The heat production can be determined by direct calorimetry, or by indirect calorimetry.
The conditions of the animals, which are essential for measuring metabolic rate, are as follow:
o Good nutritive conditions – this implies that the previous diet of the animal has been adequate, especially as regards to energy and protein. Poor state or previous nutrition tends to decrease basal heat production.
o Environmental temperature – temperature of about 25ºC.o Rest - by this way the minimum muscular activity can be achieved.
This is very difficult for any kind of animal other than man.o Post-absorptive state – state when the process or digestion or
absorption disappears. It is reached by an overnight starvation in case of human, but for herbivores it may require about three or four days.
An animal in the resting state accomplishes little or no work all of the energy released, even that needed to carry out vital functions of the body is degraded to heat and lost to the environment.
Under these circumstances the intensity of energy metabolism can be estimated either by calculating heat production from the exchange of respiratory gases (indirect calorimetry) or by measuring the heat which is lost from the body by radiation, conduction, convection and evaporation (direct calorimetry).
Direct calorimetry
Sensible heat loss (heat of radiation, conduction) from the animal body can be measured with two types of calorimeters, adiabatic and gradient. The insensible heat (latent heat of water vaporized from the skin and the respiratory passages) is estimated by determining in some way the amount of water vapour added to the air, which flows through the calorimeter. For this, rate of airflow and change in humidity is measured.
Adiabatic calorimeterso In this type an animal is confined in a chamber constructed in such a
way that heat loss through the walls of the chamber is reduced to near zero. This is attained by a box within a box. When the outer box or wall is electrically heated to the same temperature as the inner wall, heat loss from the inner wall to the outer wall is impossible. Water circulating in a coil in such a chamber absorbs the heat collected by the inner wall; the volume and change in temperature of the water can be used to calculate sensible heat loss from animal body. The construction and operation are complicated and very expensive.
Gradient calorimeterso Calorimeters of this type allow the loss of heat through the walls of
the animal chamber. The outer surface of the wall of the calorimeter is maintained at a constant temperature with a water jacket; the temperature gradient is measured with thermocouples, which line the inner and outer surfaces of the wall. By the use of appropriate techniques it is possible to measure separately the radiation component of the sensible heat loss.
Indirect Calorimetry
Measurement of heat production by Respiratory quotient (RQ)o Because the animal body ultimately derives all of its energy from
oxidation, the magnitude of energy metabolism can be estimated from the exchange of respiratory gases. A variety of techniques is available for measuring the respiratory exchange; all ultimately seek to measure oxygen consumption and CO2 production per unit of time. The substances which are oxidised in the body, and whose energy is therefore converted into heat, fall mainly into the three nutrient classes of carbohydrates, fat and proteins.
Respiratory quotient is the ratio between the volume of carbon dioxide produced by the animal and the volume of oxygen used.
Since, under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, equal volumes of gases contain equal numbers of molecules, the RQ can be calculated from the molecules of carbon dioxide produced and oxygen used.
The RQ for carbohydrate is calculated as 6 Co2/6 O2 = 1, and that of fat, tripalmitin, as 51 CO2/72.5 O2 = 0.70.
If the RQ of an animal is known, the proportions of fat and carbohydrate oxidised can then be determined from standard tables.
For example, an RQ of 0.9 indicates the oxidation of a mixture of 67.5% carbohydrate and 32.5% fat, and the thermal equivalent of oxygen for such a mixture is 4.924 Kcal/litre.
The mixture oxidised generally includes protein. The quantity of protein catabolised can be estimated from the
output of nitrogen in the urine, 0.16g of urinary N being excreted for each gram of protein.
The heat of combustion of protein (i.e. the heat produced when it is completely oxidised) varies according to the amino acid proportions but averages 5.3 Kcal per g.
Protein, however, is incompletely oxidised in animals because the body cannot oxidise nitrogen, and the average amount of heat produced by the catabolism of 1 g. of protein is 4.3 Kcal.
For each gram of protein oxidised, 0.77 litres of carbon dioxide is produced and 0.96 litres of oxygen used, giving an RQ of 0.8.
Measurement of Energy retention by the Carbon and Nitrogen balance Technique
o The main forms in which energy is stored by the growing and fattening animal are protein and fat, for the carbohydrate reserves of the body are small and relatively constant.
o The quantities of protein and fat stored can be estimated by carrying out a carbon and nitrogen balance trial; that is by measuring the amounts of these elements entering and leaving the body and so, by difference, the amounts retained.
o The energy retained can then be calculated by multiplying the quantities of nutrients stored by their calorific values.
o Both carbon and nitrogen enter the body only in the food, and nitrogen leaves it only in faeces and urine. Carbon, however, leaves the body also in methane and carbon dioxide and the balance trial must therefore be carried out in a respiration chamber.
o The procedure for calculating energy retention from carbon and nitrogen balance data is best illustrated by considering an animal in which storage of both fat and protein is taking place.
o In such an animal intakes of carbon and nitrogen will be greater than the quantities excreted, and the animal is said to be in positive balance with respect to these elements.
o The quantity of protein stored is calculated by multiplying the nitrogen balance by 100/16 (=6.25), for body protein is asumed to contain 16% nitrogen. It also contains 51.2% carbon, and the amount of carbon stored as protein can therefore be computed.
o The remaining carbon is stored as fat, which contains 74.6% carbon. Fat storage is therefore calculated by multiplying the carbon balance, less that stored as protein, by 100/74.6.
o The energy present in the protein and fat stored is then calculated by using average calorific values for body tissues. These values vary from one species to another, for cattle and sheep those used are commonly 9.37 Kcal per g for fat and 5.32 Kcal per g for protein.
Energy Requirement by Feeding trials
In this method an attempt is made to determine the amount of feed in terms of energy, which is sufficient to maintain constant weight for an extended period.
The value so obtained may be expressed in terms of TDN or digestible energy by inclusion of a digestion trial.
The inclusion of metabolic trial helps to calculate the results in terms of metabolisable energy.
As live weight is the sole criterion of exactness of this method, it should be noted that the weight should remain constant over the period the experiment is being conducted.
Another defect of this method is that constancy of weight does not necessarily mean the integrity of body tissue.
This defect, however, can be eliminated by inclusion of slaughter test.
METHODS ADOPTED FOR ARRIVING AT PROTEIN REQUIREMENT FOR MAINTENANCE
The maintenance requirement of protein is the total amount of nitrogen excreted in the urine and the feces by an animal maintained on a nitrogen free diet but otherwise adequate in all the other nutrients.
Protein requirement for maintenance can be determined as follows
Factorial method from EUN and MFN
The losses of body protein in the animal when kept on a protein free ration occurs through urine and faeces in negligible amount, through shedding of hairs, loss of nail, skin etc.
The loss, which occurs through urine, is known as EUN or endogenous urinary nitrogen loss
The loss, which occurs through faeces, is called MFN or Metabolic faecal nitrogen loss.
EUNo Here the loss of nitrogen is due to the catabolism that occurs for the
maintenance of the vital tissues of the body, which can be measured at the minimum urinary excretion on a nitrogen free otherwise adequate (particularly energy adequacy) diet.
o The quantity of nitrogen thus lost through urine will be dependent on the body size.
MFN
o Faecal nitrogen consists of two parts; undigested food nitrogen and another part known as MFN, which comprises residues, originated from the body, eg. Residues of bile, digestive enzymes, epithelial cells derived from the alimentary tract and undigested bacteria.
o Metabolic faecal nitrogen unlike EUN is not proportional to body weight but this value is dependent on the dry matter intake.
Thus the minimum protein requirement of an adult for maintenance must be met by supplying digestible protein required to compensate losses through EUN and MFN plus losses for adult growth in an otherwise adequate diet.
In practice, however, a larger amount is given to afford a margin of safety for variation of requirement from animal to animal arising out of variable wastage in metabolism like loss of nitrogen in hair etc.,
Total digestible protein = (EUN + MFN + S) x 6.25 x ( 100 / BV)
EUN - Endogenous urinary nitrogen MFN - Metabolic fecal nitrogen S - the loss of nitrogen in hair BV - biological value of protein
Nitrogen Balance Method as Measure of Protein Maintenance
The protein requirement as determined by nitrogen balance studies is a reliable measure.
In this method, rations containing different levels of protein but adequate in all other respects are fed to the animals and the minimum protein intake capable of enforcing nitrogen equilibrium in well-nourished animal is said to be the maintenance requirement of protein
The animals chosen for such determination must be in a good state of protein nutrition at the start.
Minimum intake capable of maintaining nitrogen equilibrium is also very important.
Feeding trial to determine maintenance requirement of protein
Rations containing different levels of protein but otherwise adequate in energy and other nutrients are fed to determine the amount of intake capable of maintaining an adult non-producing animal in sufficiently good condition for an extended period without loss of weight or gain of weight.
Data obtained from slaughter tests are very helpful to determine the integrity of the nitrogenous tissues.
MODULE-6: METHODS ADOPTED FOR ARRIVING AT ENERGY AND PROTEIN REQUIREMENT FOR GROWTH
Learning objectives This module will provide information on the determination of energy and
protein requirement for growth.
GROWTH
Growth is defined as increase in weight and size of the body of animal . Subject to individual variability there is a characteristic rate of growth for
each species. The maximum size and development are fixed by heredity. Nutrition is key factor to determine whether this maximum weight is
achieved. An optimum nutritional fulfillment is one, which enables an animal to take
full advantage of heredity, but maximum size fixed by heredity cannot be exceeded by nutrition.
True growth involves an increase in structured constituents such as bones, muscles and organs and not by deposition of fat.
The growth is measured by increase in weight as growth/day. The relative measures which record the increase percent can also be used for measuring the growth. Along with this we can have dimensional measures such as increase in height, length and girth. A combination of both is more useful measure of growth.
The rate of growth in an animal is influenced by level of nutrition that the animal gets.
The nutrients required by a growing animal for forming bones, muscles other tissues in addition to its maintenance requirement is called nutrient requirement for growth.
Growth curve
The first part of the growth curve is self-accelerating and the second part of growth curve is self de accelerating until the mature weight of the animal is reached.
The point from which the growth begins to slow down in a growth curve is the inflexion point.
The increase in growth of an animal over a unit time is called absolute growth.
The relative increase in growth over unit time is relative growth. Relative growth of different body parts, tissue types, etc. take place
according to an allo metric growth equation. The development order is consistent with survival of the animal in the early
stages of life.
METHODS ADOPTED FOR ARRIVING AT ENERGY REQUIREMENT FOR GROWTH
The energy required by a growing animal for forming bones, muscles and other tissues in addition to its maintenance energy requirement is called energy requirement for growth.
Determination of Energy Requirement for Growth
From Feeding Trials
o The data of energy requirement for growth shown in the feeding standard are based on the results of feeding trials.
o Here the experimental animals in groups throughout the growth period are fed at different levels of energy intake so as to determine the optimum level most suited to normal growth and development without being unnecessarily high.
o The energy so found may be expressed in terms of any desired measure of energy.
By the Factorial Methodo The principle of energy requirement for growth is that the energy of
the tissue formed is determined first and the value of basal metabolism increased by an activity factor is added to it.
o Thus the requirement of energy is determined at any given period by the expected rate of gain and the average body weight during the period .
o Data from the slaughter experiment in respect of the fat and protein provides the figure for computing the calories for expected rate of gain while the body weight data provide the basis for arriving at the required energy for basal metabolism.
o An activity increment over the energy required for basal metabolism has to be considered.
o The data of basal metabolism and activity factor is to cover the maintenance requirement.
o Thus the sum of calories of basal metabolism + activity increment factor + growth tissue formed is the estimated energy requirement expressed as net energy which in turn can be converted to ME or DE or TDN by the appropriate conversion factors.
METHODS ADOPTED FOR ARRIVING AT PROTEIN REQUIREMENT FOR GROWTH
The protein required by a growing animal for forming bones, muscles and other tissues in addition to its maintenance protein requirement is called protein requirement for growth .
Young animals require relatively larger proportion of protein for rapid growth.
As the animals grow older, the amount of protein requirement is proportionately lower. This is primarily due to growth in the beginning of life being protein in nature followed by growth of tissue of less protein and more fat.
Factorial Method
The amount of protein required for maintenance is determined first. The value thus obtained is added to the amount of protein required for
growth (or say gain in weight) plus losses in metabolism. The maintenance needs can be determined directly on the basis of
endogenous urinary nitrogen or calculated from the basal energy metabolism and later corrected for metabolic faecal nitrogen losses.
The amount required for the growth tissue formed can be estimated from the slaughter data.
Nitrogen balance method for estimation of protein for growth
The protein requirement may also be determined by nitrogen balance studies and is said to be exact measure of actual requirement of protein.
In this method, growing animals are raised on equal amounts of dry matter and on isocaloric rations which contain different levels of protein.
The minimum intake of protein which provides maximum retention is taken as the estimate of requirement.
However, in such studies, the animals must be making satisfactory rate of growth during the study.
Feeding trials for estimating protein need for growth
In this method, the rations containing different levels of protein are fed to determine the minimum level required to give the maximum rate of growth.
The nature of growth thus obtained may be further tested by slaughter tests for assessing the integrity of the nitrogenous tissues.
MODULE-7: METHODS ADOPTED FOR ARRIVING AT ENERGY AND PROTEIN REQUIREMENT FOR
REPRODUCTION
Learning objectives This module will explain on nutrient requirements for reproduction and
impact of malnutrition during pregnancy in mammals.
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS FOR REPRODUCTION - INTRODUCTION
The reproductive cycle may be considered to consist of three phases:
The first phase, which is important to both the sexes, comprises the production of ova and spermatozoa. Nutrient requirements for these processes in mammals are small compared with the egg production in birds.
The second phase of the cycle is pregnancy The third phase is lactation.
In the female mammal, the quantities of nutrients required in excess of those needed for maintenance are small for the first phase, moderate for the second and large for the third.
METHODS ADOPTED FOR ARRIVING AT ENERGY AND
PROTEIN REQUIREMENT FOR PRODUCTION OF SPERM OR OVA
Methods used for determining energy and protein requirement for ova or sperm production is similar to that of methods adopted in determining maintenance requirement.
o In mammals, the spermatozoa and ova and the secretions associated with them represent only very small quantities of matter.
o Nutrient requirements for the production of spermatozoa and ova are likely to be inappreciable compared with the requirements for maintenance and for processes such as growth and lactation.
o Hence adult male animals kept only for semen production require no more than a maintenance ration appropriate to their species and size, but in practice such animals are given food well in excess of that required for maintenance in female of the same weight.
o Animals given a sub-maintenance ration eventually show some reduction in fertility.
o In males this may be brought about by a decreased output of spermatozoa or by a smaller output of the accessory secretions.
o In females continued underfeeding leads to a cessation of ovarian function.
METHODS ADOPTED FOR ARRIVING AT ENERGY AND PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS FOR PREGNANCY
Can be determined only through slaughter studies carried out during various stages of pregnancy.
During pregnancy nutrients are required for Growth of the foetus, uterus and placenta
1. Foetal growth2. Uterus growth3. Placental growth4. Mammary gland development5. Pregnancy anabolism
In the early stage of pregnancy the amounts of nutrients required for growth of foetus, uterus and placenta is small, and it is only in the last third of pregnancy that nutrient requirements for growth of the foetus uterus and placenta increases.
Even in the later stages the net energy needed growth of the foetus uterus and placenta is small in relation to the maintenance requirement of the mother herself, but net requirements for protein and for calcium and phosphorus are quite appreciable in the last stage of pregnancy.
Mammary gland development
Mammary development takes place throughout pregnancy It is only in the later stages that it proceeds rapidly enough to make
appreciable nutrient demands.
Pregnancy anabolism / Extra-uterine growth during pregnancy
The live weight gains made by pregnant animals are often considerably greater than can be accounted for by the products of conception alone.
For example, a litter of 10 piglets and its associated membranes may weigh 18 kg. at birth, but sows frequently gain over 50 kg during gestation.
The difference represents the growth of the mother herself, and sows may in their own tissues deposit 3 – 4 times more protein and 5 times more calcium as that was deposited in the tissues on conception.
This is called pregnancy anabolism. Frequently much of the weight gained during pregnancy is lost in the
following lactation.
Consequences of malnutrition in pregnancy
Malnutrition - meaning both inadequate and excessive intakes of nutrients -
may affect pregnancy in several ways.
The fertilized egg may die at an early stage (i.e. embryo loss) Later in pregnancy the foetus may develop incorrectly
(teratogenicity) and die and then be resorbed in uterus or expelled before full - term (abortion) or carried to full term (still birth).
Less severe mal nutrition may reduce the birth weight of young and the viability of small offspring may be diminished by their lack of strength or by their inadequate reserves (eg. of fat).
MODULE-8: METHODS ADOPTED FOR ARRIVING AT ENERGY AND PROTEIN REQUIREMENT FOR PRODUCTION
(EGG, MEAT AND WORK)
Learning objectives
This module will provide the learner information of energy and protein estimation for egg production in chicken.
EGG PRODUCTION
Good flocks of layer produce an average of about 250 eggs per bird per year (i.e. 70% production).
Their eggs weigh on average 57 g. Birds usually start to lay at around five months (20-21 weeks) of age and
continue to lay for 12 months (52 weeks) on average, laying fewer eggs as they near the moulting period.
The typical production cycle lasts about 17 months (72 weeks) On average a bird produces one egg per day. Not all birds start to lay exactly when they are 21 weeks old. In areas where the climate is hot and humid, commercial hybrid laying birds
produce on average between 180 and 200 eggs per year. In more temperate climates birds can produce on average between 250 and
300 eggs per year.
METHODS ADOPTED FOR ARRIVING AT ENERGY REQUIREMENT FOR EGG PRODUCTION
Energy requirement for egg production depends on production percentage and egg size
Energy requirement
Good flocks of layers produce an average of about 250 eggs per bird per year (i.e. 70% production).
Their eggs weigh on average 56 g and have an energy value of about 0.375 MJ
Metabolisable energy is used only at an efficiency of 80 % for egg production.
A hen weighing 2 Kg has a fasting metabolism 0.60MJ / day. Energy required for 1 g per day body gain is 0.014 MJ. This information can be used as the basis for a factorial calculation of the
nutrient requirements of layers. Metabolisable energy requirement for egg production = (fasting metabolism
+ Energy required for production of egg + energy required for body gain) x 0.8.
Estimates of Metabolizable Energy Required per Hen per Day by Chickens in Relation to Body Weight and Egg Production (kcal)
Body Weight (kg)
Rate of Egg Production (%)
0 50 60 70 80 90
1.0 130
192
205
217
229
242
1.5 177
239
251
264
276
289
2.0 218
280
292
305
317
330
2.5 259
321
333
346
358
371
3.0 296
358
370
383
395
408
Source NRC
METHODS ADOPTED FOR ARRIVING AT PROTEIN REQUIREMENT FOR EGG PRODUCTION
Protein requirement for egg production is also calculated by the factorial approach.
A sum of protein required for maintenance plus that required for egg production and that required for body gain will give protein required for egg production.
Here also the factors to be considered are 70 %t production and utilisation of protein only at an efficiency of 80 %.
Protein requirement egg laying = (maintenance requirement + protein content of 1 egg) x 100/efficiency %
METHODS ADOPTED FOR ARRIVING AT ENERGY REQUIREMENT FOR MEAT PRODUCTION
Energy requirement
The energy requirement for meat production can be determined by the factorial method.
The factorial method can be expressed by a model:
NI = N m + N l + N f
where NI is the nutrient intake, and N m , N l , and N f are the requirements of nutrients for maintenance, lean tissue, and fat deposition, respectively.
The N m depends on body and carcass composition. The N l is limited by the genetic potential, and NI and N f are affected by
environmental and genetic factors
Protein requirement
The protein requirement for meat production can be determined by the factorial approach taking into consideration maintenance requirement of protein to which is added protein deposited in lean body mass.
METHODS ADOPTED FOR ARRIVING AT ENERGY REQUIREMENT FOR WORK
Energy requirement
Mathematical models are used to predict the energy requirements for work.
The energy required for work depends ono The amount of worko The time spent workingo The intensity of the worko The nature of terrain were work is performedo Weight of the ridero Ability of the ridero The level of training of the horseo Environmental factors.
Energy requirement for work can also be calculated if the maintenance requirement of the horse is known.
For light work the animal requires 20% more than the maintenance needs.
For moderate work the animal requires 40% more than the maintenance needs.
For heavy work the animal requires 60% more than the maintenance needs.
For very heavy work the animal requires 100% more than the maintenance needs.
Protein requirement
The protein requirement for working horses is determined by the factorial approach taking into consideration endogenous urinary nitrogen, metabolic fecal nitrogen, nitrogen losses in sweat, dermal loss of nitrogen, nitrogen deposited in tissues.
MODULE-9: FORMULATION OF RATIONS AS PER BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS (BIS), NATIONAL RESEARCH
COUNCIL (NRC) AND AGRICULTURAL
Learning objectives This module will widely cover all aspects of ration formulation and also
discuss on the various methods that can be used for ration formulation.
RATION FORMULATION
A ration is the feed allowed for a given animal during a period of 24 hours. The feed may be given at a time or in portions at intervals.
Ration formulation is a process by which different feed ingredients are combined in a proportion necessary to provide the animal with proper amount of nutrients needed at a particular stage of production.
It requires the knowledge abouto Nutrientso Feedstuffso Animal
in the development of nutritionally adequate rations. When consumed in sufficient amount will provide the optimum level of production at a reasonable cost.
The ration formulated should be palatable and should not cause any serious digestive disturbance or toxic effects to the animal.
The nutrient requirements can be arrived using feeding standards. The list of commonly available feeds in that region should be prepared. The nutritional value of the feeds can be obtained from any standard source
such as NRC. Using the above information rations can be prepared by several methods
that includeo Pearson Square Methodo Two-by-two Matrix methodo Trial and Error Method ando Linear Programming (LP)
Factors to be considered in ration formulations
Acceptability to the animal - The ration formulated has to be palatable. Digestibility - The nutrients in the feed should be digestible and released
into the gastrointestinal tract to be utilized by the animal. Rations with high fiber content cannot be tolerated by poultry and swine.
Cost - The requirement of the animal can be met through several combinations of feed ingredients. However, when the costs of these ingredients are considered, there can only be one least-cost formulation. The least-cost ration should ensure that tile requirements of the animal are met and the desired objectives are achieved.
Presence of anti-nutritional factors and toxins. The presence of anti-nutritional factors in the feed affects the digestion of some nutrients and makes them unavailable to the animal. The inclusion of these feed ingredients should therefore be limited in the formulation.
Other factors that should be considered are texture, moisture and the processing the feed has to undergo.
SQUARE METHOD
This is relatively simple and easy to follow. It satisfies only one nutrient requirement and uses only two feed ingredients.
The limitation however is that the level of nutrient being computed should be intermediate between the nutrient concentration of the two feed ingredients being used.
It is of greatest value when only two ingredients are to be mixed. The nutrient requirement is noted in the middle of the square this value in
the middle of the square must be intermediate between the two values that are used on the left side of the square which are actually the nutrient content of the two ingredients that are to be used.
For example, the 14 percent crude protein requirement has to be intermediate between the soybean meal that has 45 percent crude protein or the maize that has 10 percent crude protein.
Subtract the nutrient value from the nutritional requirement on the diagonal and arrive at a numerical value and note it down on the right side of the square.
Two sets of values will be got. By summing those parts and dividing by the total, you can determine the
percent of the ration that each ingredient should represent in order to provide a specific nutrient level.
Using More Than Two Ingredients
It is possible to prepare ration with more than two ingredients using the Pearson square.
For example, to prepare a 15 percent crude protein mixture that consists of a supplement of 60 percent soybean meal (45 percent crude protein) and 40 percent ground nut oilcake (45 percent crude protein), and a grain mixture of 65 percent corn (9 percent crude protein) and 35 percent sorghum (12 percent crude protein), the following steps are followed. Since only two components can be used in the Pearson square method, the ingredients are combined first as follows:
60% SBM x 45% crude protein = 27.040% GNC x 45% = 18.0Protein in supplement mixture 45.0%65% corn x 9.0% = 5.8535% sorghum x 12.0% = 4.20Protein in grain mix 10.05%5.0 parts x 60% = 3.0 parts SBM5.0 parts x 40% = 2.0 parts GNC30.0 parts x 65% = 19.5 parts corn30.0 parts x 35% = 10.5 parts Sorghum
35.0(3.0 / 35.0) = 8.57% SBM(2.0 / 35.0) = 5.71% GNC(19.5 / 35.0) = 55.72% corn
(10.5 / 35.0) = 30.00% sorghumTWO-BY-TWO MATRIX METHOD
This method solves two nutrient requirements using two different feed ingredients. A 2 x 2 matrix is set and a series of equations are done to come up with the solution to the problem.
TRIAL AND ERROR METHOD
This is the most popular method of formulating rations for swine and poultry.
As the name implies, the formulation is manipulated until the nutrient requirements of the animal are met.
This method makes possible the formulation of a ration that meets all the nutrient requirements of the animal.
Greater control can be had on implementing restrictions and judging inclusion levels
It is a time consuming method involving a lot of calculations and meeting out specifications may not be very precise.
LINEAR PROGRAMMING (LP)
This is a method of determining the least-cost combination of ingredients using a series of mathematical equations.
There are many possible solutions to each series of equations, but when the factor of cost is applied, there can only be one least cost combination.
An electronic computer is capable of making thousands of calculations in a very short time.
However, the machine is incapable of correcting errors resulting from incorrect data and errors in setting up of the program.
Therefore, the resultant rations obtained from linear programming will be no better than the information and values which are entered into the computer.
There are many feed formulation software packages available in the market. The software range from simple, spreadsheet-based solutions to sophisticated and complex packages designed for large feed manufacturers that require multi-site, multi-server, and multi-blending capabilities.
Inputs required for formulating least cost rations using linear programing
Details of animal or bird so as to fix their nutrient requiremento Specieso Breedo Ageo Sex
o Physilogical statuso Production status
Ingredients list and their nutritive value Critical nutritive ratios eg Ca:P ratio Maximum and minimum levels of inclusion of ingredients Cost of ingredients
Advantages
Minimizes the cost of ration. It is convenient and saves manpower. It is a choice for the commercial feed Millers who handle large no of
ingredients. It eliminates human error both in calculation and in speed
MODULE-10: FEEDING STANDARDS
Learning objectives This module will provide information on history, classification, merits and
demerits of feeding standards.
FEEDING STANDARDS
Feedings standards are the tables, which indicate the quantities of nutrients to be fed to the various classes of livestock for different physiological functions like growth, maintenance, lactation and egg production. The nutrient requirements are generally expressed in quantities of nutrients required per day or as a percentage of diet.
There are two terms, which has been used, in the feeding standards. One is the nutrient allowance and another is the nutrient requirement.
o The nutrient allowance gives an extra allowance of nutrient over the requirement, which gives a margin of safety.
o Nutrient requirement gives the requirement for optimum production. Feeding standards are grouped under major heading on the basis of
principles of the standards such aso Comparative typeo Digestible nutrient systemo Production value type.
FEEDING STANDARDS FOR MONOGASTRICS
The common feeding standards used for monogastrics is NRC feeding standars in USA and many other countries and in India we follow Bureau of Indian standards. In UK the ARC feeding standard is also used.
National Research Council (N.R.C.) standard
National Research Council, USA, recommends a nutrient allowance for differant species of animals.
The N.R.C. reports for each species is the pooled judgement of a group of experts in the field of species in question.
Today a number of countries follow N.R.C. standards.
The NRC standards express energy requirement as metabolisable energy for poultry, digestible energy for swine and horses.
The NRC revises these feeding standards in keeping with new information and changing feeding practices.
Agricultural and Food Research Council (A.F.R.C.) standard
The nutritive requirement of various livestock in the United Kingdom has been presented in Ministry of Agriculture’s Bulletins.
The Technical Committee of the Agricultural and Food Research Council of Britain prepares these.
Requirements are set forth in three separate reports dealing with poultry and pigs, each of these reports extensive summaries of the literature upon which the requirements are based.
Indian standards
India has been almost entirely dependent on standards drawn up by late F. B. Morrison.
Dr. K. C. Sen had compiled the feeding standards on Morrison’s recommendations where he adopted the average of maximum and minimum values recommended by Morrison.
Considering the fact that nutrient needs of livestock and poultry breeds under tropical environments are different from those developed in temperate climate, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research realised the necessity of setting up suitable feeding standards for the Indian livestock and poultry.
A scientific panel on Animal Nutrition and Physiology was set up. The scientific panel set up subcommittees for each species by inviting experts from various institutes of the country.
On the basis of the scientific information arising from the experimental work carried out in India over the past two decades, nutrient requirement of Indian livestock and poultry.
Bureau of Indian standards
These standards have been specified for Swine, Poultry and certain laboratory animals.
Energy is expressed as ME kcal/kg. Protein expressed as crude protein. The standard is revised periodically from time to time.
MODULE-11: FEEDING OF SWINE
Learning objectives This module will provide details on feeding different categories of swine.
FEEDING OF SWINE - INTRODUCTION
Swine / Pigs have been classified as omnivores. Their cecum and colon are flexible. Depending on type of food offered these
parts of gastrointestinal tract can increase or decrease in size. Thus, pigs can tolerate crude fibre in their diet to a greater extent than
carnivorous animals but to a lesser extent than herbivorous species.
Methods of feeding of swine
Full feeding by hand or self feeding: In self feeding grains and supplements may be offered free choice in separate compartments/completely mixed balanced ration may be self fed. The pigs have excellent ability to balance their rations if the grains and supplements are offered separately. It is generally more profitable than the controlled feeding. Self feeding has been proved too be more efficient and economical method of producing market pig. The pigs fed by this method gain faster body weight and require less feed and labor.
Restricted/controlled feeding: It is not a economical one since it decreases the rate and economy of gain. However diets can be reduced to about 80% of the full feed without any serious effect.
Wet Vs. Dry feeding: Large scale pork producers prefer dry feeding whereas backyard pig producers give wet feed because of the limited quantity of feed involved. Pigs generally like wet feed, when pigs are given wet feed the feed should consist of three parts of water to one part of dry fed.
Floor Vs Trough feeding: Pigs some times are fed on floor instead of troughs. With the floor feeding cost of feeding equipments and the cleanliness factor gets reduced. Dry feeds alone can be used for floor feeding.
Water Requirements of Pigs
If there is a loss of 10% of a body water, disorder will occur. If body water loss is 20% and more pig may die.
The factors which affect the water intake are environmental temperature, feed protein content, mineral intake, activity level and production
On an average pigs consume 2-3 times water than its dry matter intake. Generally pigs require 5-10 liters of water per 45 kg body weight except in
lactation, where the water requirement is 25 litres/day. Pigs can tolerate upto 1% salt in water.
FEEDING OF PIGLETS
Piglets are allowed to suckle their mother for colostrum immediately after birth
Piglets feed on the milk from the sow up to 1-2 weeks of age. Beyond two weeks additional feed in form of creep feed is essential.
o Creep feeding is necessary because the sows milk alone does not meet the nutrient requirement of the rapidly growing piglet.
o Moreover the large litter size also warrants creep feeding
Creep Ration
The practice of self feeding of concentrates to young ones away from their mother is called as "Creep Feeding".
It is usually given in a separate enclosure which the sow cannot access. In pigs, it is given from second week of age. Creep feed should contain 19-20% CP and 3360 kcal/kg of ME. Major portion of creep feed should be of animal origin. The feed should contain appropriate quantity of vitamins and minerals. It should contain low crude fibre. Dry creep feed are called as pre-starter feed. Example of a creep feed is as follows
S. No. Ingredients Parts
1. Ground Yellow maize 40
2. Skim milk 10
3. Ground nut oil cake 10
4. Sesame oil cake 10
5. Wheat bran 10
6. Molasses or jaggery 10
7. Fish meal 6
8. Brewers yeast 2
9. Mineral mixture 2
This concentrate mixture should be supplemented with vitamin mixture at the rate of 10 gm/100 kg feed as a general guide.
Starter Ration
It is fed when pig attains body weight of 12 -14 kg and is continued till they attain a body weight of 23 kg.
It should contain 20% crude protein an 3170 kcal/kg of ME. It should have low fibre. should be rich in vitamin and minerals. Example of starter ration is as follows
S. No.
Ingredients
Parts
1. Ground yellow maize
30
2. Ground nut oil cake
28
3. Wheat bran
30
4. Fish meal 10
5. Mineral mixture
2
FEEDING OF GROWERS
Grower Ration
When pigs attains a body weight of 55 kg they can be turned from starter to grower ration.
The grower ration should contain 16% CP and should contain 3170 kcal/kg ME.
It should contain some animal protein and fibre. Example of grower ration is as follows
Ingredients Parts
Ground yellow maize
30
Ground nut oil cake 20
Wheat bran 40
Fish meal 7.5
Mineral mixture 2.5
It is supplemented with 10 gm of Vitamin mixture per 100 kg of feed.
FEEDING OF LACTATING AND PREGNANT SOWS
Gestation Ration
A special care should be given during gestation of sow.
During first two-third period of gestation, a ration with 14% CP should be fed whereas during last third of gestation ration should contain 16% CP.
The ration shuld have 3265 kcal/kg of ME. Pregnant sow are fed 3-4 kg feed per day per sow. An example of gestation ration is as follows
IngredientsParts
Ground yellow maize 53
Ground nut oil cake 20
Molasses 5
Wheat bran 15
Fish meal 5
Mineral mixture 2
Salt 0
Feeding lactating Sow
The sow largely uses dietary nutrients for the synthesis of milk. If the dietary nutrients are not provided, the body will use tissue reserves in an attempt to meet milk production demands. When this occurs, it will result in a loss of body weight.
First-parity animals normally consume less feed during lactation than older sows. Because of this, the diet of first parity sows should be formulated to contain a higher concentration of nutrients.
The feeding practice for lactating sows is to feed a minimum amount of feed the first day after farowing and then to increase that amount so that the sow is on full feed by day five of lactation.
It is a common practice to feed lactating sows twice a day, but most sows cannot consume enough feed with this feeding practice hence the frequency of feeding can be increased.
The method of feeding lactating sows is critical during the summer months when feed intake is particularly low. In summer the sow is fed during the cooler times of the day.
The inclusion of fat in the sow's lactation ration has been shown to increase milk-fat content.
The dietary protein (amino acids) concentration provided to the sow during lactation is of extreme importance in meeting the needs for milk production. The ration should contain around 18% crude protein.
The rtion should have 3265kcal/kg of ME. When constipation is a problem, the addition of a fiber source (wheat bran,
alfalfa meal) at a 5% level may be helpful. Fiber inclusion in the lactation ration will, however, lower the energy value of the diet.
Within a few days of farrowing, the fiber should therefore be withdrawn from the diet and replaced with energy supplements.
As during late gestation, adequate quantity of calcium and phosphorous should be provided ration.
Feed consumption of lactating sow 6 -10 Kg depending on litter size.
FEEDING BREEDING BOARS
Feeding Breeding boars
The feed for young boar of less than 15 days age should contain 16% CP whereas for older boars CP % of feed should be 14% .
The boar ration should contain 3265 kcal/kg of ME. Adult boar can be fed 3-4 Kg of feed per day. A ration similar to a growing ration can be prepared and fed.
FEEDING FATTENNING ANIMALS
Finisher Ration
It is fed to pigs when they achieve 45 kg body weight and is fed until they attain marketing rate of about 90 kg.
Finisher ration is also called as "Fattening Ration".
It can be fed upto 4 Kg per animal per day. This ration contains 14% CP. The Metabolisable energy content can be
between 3200 to 3400 kcal/kg. Example of finisher ration is as follows
Ingredients Parts
Ground yellow maize 40
Wheat bran 30
Ground nut oil cake 12
Sesame oil cake 10
Fish meal 5.5
Mineral mixture 2.5
Rovimix 10 gm
PREPARATION OF FEEDS FOR SWINE
Fine grinding of feeds for pig is not recommended because such feed sticks to the feeder and there is increased incidence of gastric ulcers.
Coarse grinding of cereals and millets is profitable than to feed them as a whole.
Pelleting of feed is profitable if a ration is high in crude fibre content. Soaking of small grains like sorghum 12 hours prior to feeding improves
their utilization by animal. Cooking can also improve the utilization of starch especially when tubers
like potato and legumes like soyabeans are used as feed.
FEED INTAKE
Average feed consumption of Pigs
Age (Months)
Live Body Wt.
(kg)
Average feed consumption per
head/day
2 15 0.5
2-3 27 1
3-4 40 1.25
4-5 50 1.50
5-6 60 2 - 3
MODULE-12: FEEDING OF EQUINES
Learning objectives This module will enable the learner to learn about the feeding of horses
accoording to their physiological status and activity level.
FEEDING OF HORSES
The following are some of the important points that are to be considered while feeding horses.
If a horse has been well bred, is well trained and managed, is in good health and lives in a suitable environment, then nutrition will be the main factor influencing its performance.
Generally, horses undergoing only limited activity or light work are fully nourished by good quality pasture. However, pastures vary greatly in nutritional value.
At times, horses might not get enough nutrition from grazing, and will need a supplement. Feeding a supplement should be aimed at providing that part of the horse’s nutritional needs not available from the grazing.
When horses do not have access to grazing, a well-balanced ration which provides energy, plus protein, minerals and vitamins, needs to be supplied.
When grazing is adequate, the addition of minerals and vitamins to the diet is not usually necessary. However, mineral/vitamin supplement may be necessary, if roughage quality is poor. Salt should be supplied freely to working horses because considerable quantities are excreted in sweat. The provision of salt blocks or rock salt in feed boxes will help ensure adequate intake.
Feeds for horses
Two basic types of feeds are available to provide the nutrient requirements of the horse they include roughage such as hay or grasses and concentrates such as grains, grain by-products and oil cakes.
Dry matter intake
The dry matter intake of horses is 1.5–2.5% of their body weight per day
Roughage and concentrate requirements of horses
Type of work Feed per 100 kg live weight
Roughage (kg)
Concentrate (kg)
Idle 1.5 Nil
Light (2 hours/day) 1.25–1.5 0.5–0.75
Medium (2 1–1.5 1.0
hours/day)
Heavy (4 hours/day)
1.0 1.0–1.5
Feeding management
Treat each horse as an individual, learn its feeding habits, and adjust rations accordingly.
Feeding and watering is to be carried out according to a regular routine. The daily ration for working horses should be split into at least three
feeds per day, with half the ration fed as the evening feed. Feed a quarter of the concentrate requirement at each of the morning
and midday feeds, and feed the remaining half at night.
Reduce the amount of concentrate by 50–70% on days when the horse isn’t worked.
Make any changes in the ration gradually over a period of 10–14 days. Keep feed and water troughs clean, and remove leftovers. Measure feeds by weight, not by volume. Mix feed carefully and only in sufficient amounts for each day’s feeding.
Do not allow a horses to drink large quantities of water immediately after exercise. Allow the horse to drink only 2–4 L, and then let it cool before allowing free access.
Avoid working the horse on a full stomach. Allow at least 2 hours for digestion.
FEEDING FOALS
Feeding of foals is according to its age. The mares milk will meet out the requirement for a foal up to the first 3
months of its life. Composition of mares milk: Fat - 1.25, Crude protein - 2.1%, Lactose - 6.3%
and Ash - 0.4%. Gross energy - 480 Kcal/kg. Colostrum feeding important provides immunity to the foal.
Feeding orphan foal
The foal is injected horse serum for immunity. Fostering or hand rearing by bottle or bucket feeding can be carried out Modified cow milk - cow milk 600 ml + 150 ml lime water + 1 spoon sugar. Frequency of feeding once in 2 hours first two weeks once in four hours next
two weeks and four times a day feeding upto weaning.
Creep feed
Beyond 1 and half month additional creep feed can be provided. The Creep feed should provide 75 % TDN and 16 % crude protein and
should be prepared from highly digestible ingredients. It can be fed at the rate of 0.5 to 1 % of the foals body weight. Example of creep feed is as follows
Ingredient Percent in feed
Oats groats rolled 15
flaked oats 20
Flaked maize or sorghum 35.75
Soy bean meal 15
Skim milk powder 5
molasses 5
Dicalcium phosphate 2
ground limestone 0.75
Trace min mix 1
Vitamin supplement 0.5
FEEDING YEARLINGS
The following is the feeding schedule for yearlings
3- 6 months: 500 g grain or concentrate mixture and 1 Kg good quality hay.
6-9 months: 1 kg grain or concentrate mixture and 2-3 Kg good quality hay.
9-12 months: 2 kg grain or concentrate mixture and 4-5 Kg good quality hay
Concentrate mixture for yearlings
The following is an example of concentrate mixture to be fed to growing foals / yearlings
Ingredient Percent inclusion
Crushed oats 25
Flaked maize or barley 30.8
Crushed sorghum 15
Soy bean meal 15
Alfa alfa meal 5
Molasses 5
Vitamin supplement 0.7
Dicalcium phosphate 2
Ground limestone 0.5
Trace mineral mix 1
FEEDING OF STALLIONS
The feeding of stallion is critical for its breeding performance
The actual amount of energy required by the stallion during the act of mating is quite small, but the additional physical activity and psychological response to breeding increases the dietary energy needs.
During the breeding season, the addition of more energy-dense feeds, like grains, to the ration is usually necessary to meet the stallion's higher energy requirements. Vegetable oil can also be used to provide extra energy and can reduce the inclusion of large amounts of grain.
The stallion should be fed high quality hay at a minimum level of 1.0 per cent of body weight.
Stallions that are used to mate many number of mares will require energy-dense grains, fed at levels up to 0.75 kg/100 kg body weight.
Other nutrient requirements also increase during the breeding season since they are needed in proportion to energy intake.
Additional mineral and vitamin needs can be met by providing a suitable vitamin/mineral supplement.
If the stallion is already receiving a properly balanced diet, adding extra feed or supplements to the diet will not enhance fertility.
Unless the stallion is excercised, nutrient requirements in the off-season are similar to those of the idle horse at maintenance.
Stallions that are exercised regularly will have higher nutrient requirements and should be fed according to their level of work.
Stallions finishing the breeding season in good condition can be brought down to maintenance ration by increasing the hay portion and decreasing the grain portion of the ration.
FEEDING MARES
Feeding of mares should be carried out according to its physiological status
Nutrients such as energy, protein, calcium, phosphorus, iodine, copper, zinc, manganese and vitamins A, D and E. are important especially for the pregnant and lactating mare.
Good quality pastures or feeding high quality hays can meet the nutrient requirement of mares.
Where pasture availability is limited, mares have to be supplemented with hay.
Grain supplementation can be done when energy needs increase or if hay quality is not good.
Additional calcium, phosphorus, trace mineral and vitamin needs can be met by providing a suitable mineral/vitamin supplement
Feeding pregnant mares
During early to mid-gestation the nutrient demands of the developing fetus are minimal. Growth of the foal ranges 90 to 220 g per day. Therefore, the mare's nutrient requirements in early to mid-gestation are similar to a mature, idle horse at maintenance.
During late gestation the foal is growing at an accelerated rate of 350 to 450 g per day. To support this growth, the mare's energy and protein requirements increase.
Fetal uptake of minerals is greatest during the last three months of gestation, so the mare's calcium and phosphorus needs increase substantially.
The elevated energy and protein requirements of a mare in late gestation can be met by increasing the amount of mixed hay containing leguminous species and grass .
Supplementing cereal grains and protein supplements is also done. Adequate intakes of minerals and vitamins are also provided with an
appropriate mineral or vitamin supplement
Feeding lactating mares
Mares at time of lactation should have a good body condition. Underfeeding mares during lactation can lower milk production, ultimately affecting the growth of foal. A thin body condition will also decrease the mare's ability to be rebred.
In addition to its own needs, the mare has to produce 2 to 3 per cent of her body weight per day as milk.
The mare also has to be rebreed after foaling. The energy and protein needs increase 75 to 100 per cent. The lactating mare needs three times more calcium and two and a half times
more phosphorus as needed in early gestation. When grass hay alone is fed, a protein and energy supplement should be
used. Increased mineral needs can be met by providing a mineral mixture, along . The mare's nutrient requirements begin to decline in the fourth, fifth and
sixth months of lactation, as milk production declines. The ration can be altered decreasing the grains gradually. Once the foal is weaned, the dry, pregnant mare can be managed as an early
gestating mare once again.
FEEDING RACE HORSES
Each horse is an individual, and their needs are influenced by breed, living conditions, build, work level, and age.
For horses performing light work for two or three hours per day their energy requirements increases 50% above maintenance.
If a horse performs moderate work such as fast trotting, cantering, jumping, etc. for four or five hours a day, the energy requirement is increased 70% above maintenance.
In such horses it is not possible to meet the energy needs by feeding roughage alone.
Further horses after several hours of work do not eat enough. Hence the energy density of the ration has to be increased. Cereal grains or concentrate mixture can be supplemented. Adding fat to the ration upto 10% also increases the energy density .
Example of ration for 500 kg horses performing light work
1. Alfa alfa / grass hay – 7 Kg2. Crushed oats / barley – 2 Kg3. Mineral mixture – 30 g4. Iodised salt – free choice
Example of ration for 500 kg horses performing moderate work
1. Alfa alfa / grass hay – 8 Kg2. Crushed oats / barley – 3 Kg3. Mineral mixture – 30 g4. Iodised salt – free choice
Example of ration for 500 kg horses performing intense work
1. Alfa alfa / grass hay – 9 Kg2. Crushed oats / barley – 4.5 Kg3. Oil – 500 g4. Mineral mixture – 30 g5. Iodised salt – free choice
When to feed before riding
High intensity worko remove hay four hours prior to competitiono feed grain four hours before competition.
Light to moderate intensity worko remove hay four hours before ridingo adapt horse to eating smaller quantity of ration spread throughout
the dayo feed grain four or more hours before riding.
Long distance raceso allow free access to hay right up to the competition.o allow access to hay even during the ride.o feed large quantity of grains / concentrate mixture four hours
before the ride.o feed smaller quantity of grain throughout the ride
MODULE-14: FEEDING OF POULTRY - BROILERS
Learning objectives This module will provide learner with information pertaining to broiler
feeding.
BROILER FEEDING - INTRODUCTION
Broilers are grouped as broiler starter (0-3 weeks) and Broiler finisher (4 weeks till marketting).
Broiler starters are fed broiler starter (0-3 weeks) feed and broiler finisher are fed finisher mash (4 - 6 weeks).
Feeding programs have primarily emphasized on live performance of meat birds taking into account effects on live weight or gain, feed conversion, and some times livability.
FEED CONSUMPTION
The following table gives the cummulative feed consumption in broilers
Cumulative feed consumption for male and female broilers (g)
Age(weeks)
Male Female
0 0 0
1 135 130
2 425 400
3 900 850
4 1600 1500
5 2500 2200
6 3700 3200
Variation exists between the sexes in feed consumption As the age increases the feed consumption increases
The following is the graphical depiction of cuumulative feed consumption in broilers at different weeks
NUTRIENT SPECIFICATION FOR COMMERCIAL BROILER DIETS
Broiler diets can be prepared following different specifications such as BIS, NRC, CLFMA etc
The following table gives the nutrient specification for commercial broiler diets.
Nutrient specification for commercial broiler diets
Nutrients Pre-starter
Starter Grower Finisher/Withdrawal
Crude protein (%)
23 22 20 20 18 18 16
ME (kcal/kg) 3050 3050
2900
3150
3000
3200 3050
Lysine (%) 1.35 1.20 1.05 1.10
0.90 0.90 0.80
Methionine (%)
0.52 0.48 0.42 0.44
0.38 0.37 0.36
Calcium (%) 1.0 0.95 0.95 0.92
0.92 0.90 0.90
Availablephosphorous (%)
0.45 0.42 0.42 0.40
0.40 0.38 0.38
Sodium (%) 0.19 0.18 0.18 0.18
0.18 0.18 0.18
Source: Commercial Poultry Nutrition, 2nd Ed. S. Leeson and J. D. Summers. Pub University Books, Canada, 1997
FATS AND OILS IN BROILER FEEDING
Lipids constitute the main energetic source for poultry and they have the highest caloric value among all the nutrients.
Linoleic acid is the only fatty acid whose dietetic requirement has been demonstrated.
Besides supplying energy, the addition of fat to poultry dietso improves the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins
o increases diet palatabilityo the efficiency of utilization of the consumed energyo it reduces the rate of food passage through the gastrointestinal tract,
which allows a better absorption of all nutrients present in the diet. In birds, body fat composition is similar to the composition of the fat from
the diet. Birds fed diets having higher levels of poly unsaturated fatty acids tend to
produce soft fat. Higher inclusion of vegetable oils rich in unsaturated fatty acids necessiates
inclusion of antioxidants.
THE IDEAL PROTEIN CONCEPT
The concept of Ideal Protein for broiler chickens is an important advance in broiler feeding and has seen widespread adaptation.
An assumption of this concept is that broilers need amino acids in a certain balance to ensure optimum performance.
Any absorbed amino acid which is in relative excess will be oxidized and the nitrogen excreted in form of uric acid.
Thus, the Ideal Protein Concept is providing the right quantity and balance of amino acids that helps to improve nitrogen utilisation.
MODULE-15: FEEDING OF POULTRY - LAYERS
Learning objectives This module will enable the learner to gain knowledge on different aspects
of layers starting from chick stage to egg laying stage.
LAYER FEEDING - INTRODUCTION
Feeding of layers depend on their age and physiological status
Chicks require a ration that can provide the nutrients needed for rapid growth and feather development. Chick rations are relatively high in energy, protein and thevitamins and minerals required for growth and development.
Once the chicks are fully feathered their energy requirements are reduced. Feeding management for layer pullets aims to maintain a growth rate that
will lead to the pullet reaching sexual maturity at the desired age and to avoid obesity.
Layer pullet ration have lower energy and protein levels than chick rations on a percentage basis.
A pre-lay ration that increases calcium, is recommended for feeding 2-3 weeks before the bird begins to lay eggs.
Layer ration is to optimize egg production, provide the nutrition required to safeguard health, maintain the desired bodyweight. This can be in terms of either in terms of egg numbers, egg size or egg mass.
Calcium is increased in the ration for egg shell formation.
Recommended levels of nutrients in poultry ration by some commercial enterprises
Nutrient specifications for commercial layersChickStarter (0-5
wks)Pullet grower (5-
17 wks)Layer
productionM.E (Kcal/kg) 2950 2750 2800
Crude Protein (%)
20.5 16.0 17.0
Lysine (%) 1.16 0.73 0.85
Methionine (%) 0.52 0.39 0.43
Met. + Cystine (%)
0.86 0.68 0.73
Tryptophan (%) 0.19 0.17 0.19
Arginine (%) 1.20 0.80 0.84
Threonine (%) 0.78 0.52 0.61
Leucine (%) 1.30 0.90 0.95
Isoleucine (%) 0.75 0.57 0.72
Calcium (%) 1.05-1.10 0.90-1.10 3.60-3.80
Avail. Phosphorus (%)
0.48-0.55 0.45-0.55 0.42-0.55
Sodium (%) 0.16-0.17 0.16-0.17 0.16-0.17
Chloride (%) 0.19 max 0.19 max 0.19 max
Linoleic Acid (%)
1.1 1.0 1.2
Choline (mg/kg) 1500 1300 1300
Potassium (%) 0.50 0.50 0.65
Source: www.inghams.com
STARTER AND GROWER FEEDING
Starter feeds
Are fed to newly hatched chicks until they are about 6 weeks old. Starter diets are formulated to give proper nutrition to fast growing baby chickens.
These feeds usually contain between 18 and 20 percent protein. The ME content of the feed is around 2800 kcal/kg.
Grower and developer feeds
Once the birds reach about 6 weeks of age, the grower feed is used in place of the starter. Grower feeds contain about 15 or 16 percent protein and are formulated to sustain good growth to maturity. The feed usually contains around 2400 kcal/kg of ME. After about 14 weeks of age, the grower feed can be replaced with developer feeds if they are available. These prepare young chickens for egg production.
FEEDING LAYING BIRDS
Layer feeds
Once chickens have started laying eggs, layer feed is used . Layer feeds are formulated for chickens that are laying table eggs. Layer feeds contain about 16 percent protein and extra calcium so the
chickens will lay eggs with strong shells. The ME content of the feed can range between 2400 to 2600 kcal/kg. This feed is fed from about 20 weeks of age or when the first egg is laid,
whichever occurs first.
LAYER NUTRITION AND
FEEDING
Methods of feeding layer chickens depend on the age and activity (laying or breeding) of the bird. Feed requirements change as birds pass through the pre-egg-laying, egg production, and molt phases.
Phase feeding
Phase feeding is used extensively. Phase feeding was first proposed in the 1960s by Dr. G.F. Combs. This was the term that was given to the program of reducing the protein
level in the feed as the hen aged. Currently levels of other nutrients, along with protein and amino acids, are
lowered as the hen ages or when egg production in the flock declines to a certain percentage.
Different feeds with varying protein content are formulated for various stages of production.
Usually, the number of feeds ranges from two to four. Phase feeding reduces feed costs as egg production decreases because each
change in formula is associated with a less fortified feed.
RESTRICTED FEEDING
There are two main types of restrictive feeding programs. The first of these is every day feeding of a limited amount, or lower nutrient content diet. The amount fed will ensure adequate growth but not result in obesity. Another type of restrictive feeding is an alternate day feeding program.
Broiler breeders will eat until they become obese. Therefore, restricted feeding is necessary if the birds are going to be used as breeder stock. Otherwise, the obesity severely limits the numbers of eggs laid and the fertility of those eggs.
Restricted feeding is also practiced in pullets to delay onset of sexual maturity, so that egg size can be improved and uniform sized eggs can be got from a flock.
Restricted feeding is also practiced to bring about forced moulting in layers at the end of the laying period.
INDUCED /FORCED MOULTING
Induced/ forced moulting
Moulting is the process of the bird shedding and re-growing feathers. Moulting occurs naturally in the wild, as seasonal daylight shortens and
females stop laying eggs. Laying hens are generally moulted once or twice during their productive
lives. Molting usually does not affect egg size, but allows for an improved egg
laying rate, improved shell quality, and increased albumin height. Moulting also allows a producer to keep the birds longer than they might
otherwise be kept. To induce moult, a producer may use a period of fasting and a reduced
amount of daylight, giving the birds water and allowing them to lose a proportion of their body weight.
Daylight length will then be increased, and the hens begin laying eggs again.
Calcium supplementation in laying hens
The major mineral required for egg shell quality is calcium. Layers need 4 - 5 grammes of calcium per day from first egg throughout the
laying period. The recommended strategy is to feed a constant, modest level of calcium in
the feed and to use calcium grit (eg limestone or oyster shell) to provide the additional requirement.
After peak production the feed volume will be gradually reduced and by increasing the amount of calcium grit fed, the total amount of calcium per day from feed and grit can be secured.
The metabolic requirement for calcium occurs mainly during the night when the egg shell is formed.
Feeding the additional grit in the afternoon will provide the bird with calcium during the night when it is needed most.
Laying hens should have calcium available free-choice, even if calcium is being added to feed.
INTERNAL QUALITY OF EGGS
The internal quality of eggs and the quality of the egg shells are influenced by many factors.
These include
Bird strain Bird age Nutrition Disease Management practices Water quality Housing conditions Temperature Stress
Egg shell quality
The egg shell consists of about 94 to 97% calcium carbonate. The thickness of an egg shell is determined by the amount of time it
spends in the shell gland (uterus) and the rate of calcium deposition during egg shell formation.
If the egg spends a short period of time in the shell gland, then shell thickness will be less.
The time of day when the egg is laid will also determine the thickness of the shell. The earlier in the day or light portion of the photoperiod the thicker the shell will be.
The amount or rate of calcium deposition will also affect the thickness of the shell.
Some strains of birds may be able to deposit calcium for the egg shell at a faster rate than others.
Age of the hen plays a role in determining the quality of the egg shell. As the hen ages, the thickness of the shell usually declines.
Other egg shell quality factors such as the formation of abnormal ridges, calcium deposits, or body checks (ridges) are important considerations in determining egg shell quality.
Nutritional causes for thin egg shells
Calcium is the primary mineral that makes up eggshells and when not supplied in the diet, the hen does not have the basic materials needed to make the shell.
The problem is produced when whole grains or feeds deficient in minerals and vitamins make up the bulk of the laying hen diet.
Thin egg shells are observed when calcium, phosphorus, zinc and vitamin D3 are not provided in diets at adequate levels.
Dietary manipulation for enhancing nutritional quality of eggs
Egg yolk is considered one of the richest sources of cholesterol in human diet. Normal cholesterol content of eggs (about 200-250 mg) and blood (around 150mg%) in chickens has found to vary quite considerably. The cholesterol content of chicken egg can be reduced up to 25 % through the use of additives, dietary fiber and polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation.
Omega-3 fatty acids have cardio protective and other beneficial effects. Poultry nutritionists have started research to incorporate more of these fatty acids in the egg and have succeeded in developing such an egg called Omega 3 designer egg. They also call it the 'diet egg' or the 'functional egg'.
Diet eggs have a high percentage of Vitamin E, an antioxidant, which prevents oxidation of cholesterol and therefore its ill effects. These eggs contain 600 mg of Omega – 3 fatty acids. Omega – 3 fatty acids help to reduce cholesterol triglycerides, clog formation, tumor growth and improved immunity.
In order to improve the quality of these eggs further Vitamin E, selenium, and carotenoid pigments are also incorporated into these eggs.
Egg size too big – Reasons
Over feeding – High energy feed, high linoleic acid feed, too high protein content, methionine content.
Too high body weight at beginning of laying period. Onset of lay too late. Low house temperature increases feed intake.
Egg size too small – Reasons
Under feeding – low energy feed, low linoleic acid feed, too low protein content, methionine content.
Too low body weight at beginning of laying period. Onset of lay soon. Limited water intake. High house temperature
increases feed intake.
FEED INTAKE
The following table gives the feed intake for layers
Feed intake g (DMB) for layers
Weeks
Intake g/day/bird
Cumulative intake g/bird
0-4 22 616
5-8 38 1680
9-12 50 3080
13-16 61 4788
17-20 70 6748
21 -72 110 46788
MODULE-16: FEEDING OF POULTRY - BREEDERS AND
BACKYARD POULTRY
Learning objectives
This module will deal with the role of different nutrients in a breeding hen ration and discuss the feeding of backyard poultry.
FEEDING BREEDERS
Both male and female breeders should be placed on a breeder diet five to six weeks before saving hatching eggs.
This time is required especially by the hen to deposit all of the essential nutrients required for proper embryo development in the yolk.
Underfeeding the hen can have an impact on chick quality. Offerring low feed to young commercial breeder flocks results in
increased late embryonic death, poorer chick viability and uniformity. A breeder diet with an energy density of approximately 2750 Kcal/Kg
should have a protein content of 15%. Excess protein reduces fertility. Optimum energy intake in breeders for optimal chick is 440 - 480
Kcals/bird/day. The inclusion fats in breeder feeds should be low Preference for unsaturated fats rather than saturated fats is given.
Providing adequate vitamins in a breeding ration is very important. Vitamins account for about 4% of the cost of a breeder feed
Deficiencies of various trace elements and vitamins may lead to reduced hatchability and poor chick quality.
Dead embryos may exhibit conditions that reveal the particular vitamin deficiencies causing their death.
A deficiency of Vitamin B-12 will cause a rapid decrease in hatchability. There's also a poorer survival rate for chickens that do hatch.
Riboflavin deficiencies also cause poor hatchability with embryos showing clubbed down. The degree of the deficiency affects the stage at which death of the embryo takes place.
Marginal deficiency of pantothenic acid may permit almost normal hatchability but poor chick viability. A greater deficiency results in heavier mortality at the end of 21 days. An extreme deficiency causes
high mortality as early as twelve to sixteen days with no embryos surviving to hatch.
Biotin, choline, and manganese help prevent a condition known as perosis or slipped tendon.
An acute deficiency of biotin causes high embryo mortality during the period of 72 to 96 hours of incubation.
Manganese deficiency gives rise to embryos with parrot beaks and nutritional chondrodystlrophy, which is a shortening of the long bones of the embryo.
Choline deficiency is unlikely as the hen seems fully able to synthesize her own requirements.
Vitamins and minerals that must be included in the breeder's diet are riboflavin, pantothenic acid, Vitamin B-12, niacin, folic acid, biotin, cholin, Vitamin A, Vitamin D-3, Vitamin E, Vitamin K, manganese, phosphorus, and zinc.
Most commercial breeder mashes and concentrates are sufficiently fortified and contain more than an adequate amount of these essential vitamins and minerals to ensure proper embryo development.
The amount of feed required daily will depend on the body size, the rate of production and temperature.
Mash exposed to sunlight or heat tends to lose part of its nutrition and most of its appeal. Therefore, frequent feeding of fresh feed is important.
Feeding cocks
Early Growth - Feeding chicks is important for development of sound skeleton that is critical for the mature male in the breeding house
From 10 weeks growth rate is critical. Development of the sertoli cells begins around this time and testes development continues through to sexual maturity at 23 weeks. From 15 weeks there is rapid development of the testes and growth profiles must be followed or fertility will be delayed or lost.
Loss of growth rate will delay early fertility and adversely affect late fertility.
Male weight and body condition are controlled by adjusting feed quantity so that a slow constant increase in weight (30g/week) is achieved as the male grows older.
After 30 weeks of age, male weekly body weight gain should be approximately 30 grams when averaged over a three week period.
Normally an adult cock consumes 130-160 grams feed /day Both underfeeding and overfeeding of males are possible, and can cause
problems. Underfeeding is more common after 40 weeks of age.
o Cocks will appear dull and listless, excess feather loss, reduced mating, vent colour will become paler and overall there will be reduced fertility.
Overfeeding of cocks leads to Excessive breast development and excessive weight which can lead to injury of hen while mating, more stress on the cock’s joints and foot pads.
BACK YARD POULTRY FEEDING
Benefits of backyard poultry farming
The backyard poultry farming is more beneficial to small, marginal farmers, land less labourers, tribal and backward class peoples.
Backyard poultry farming generates small income for house hold requirement.
Feeding habit
Backyard poultry usually feed on household wastes, farm products and green vegetation, besides free scavenging for waste grains and insects.
These birds can perform well with diets high in crude fiber. It has better feed efficiency even with diets containing low energy and protein diets.
During the process of scavenging on grass fields these birds will have an access to insects, white ants, green grass, grass seeds, waste grains etc., thereby the supplemental feed requirement is much less than those reared under intensive poultry farming.
Energy needs
If the temperature is below the birds comfort level, additional energy is required to provide internal heat by increased metabolism to maintain body temperature.
Supplemental feeding
Activity also increases metabolism and birds that are allowed to run outside or that scavenge for their feed have a higher requirement for energy.
Feed supplementation in the form of scratch is usually given in the morning /evening to develop habit to reach owner’s place for laying eggs and for night shelter.
Depending on the availability of free range area and also the intensity of vegetative growth, the requirement of supplemental feed varies between 25 to 50 g / bird / day.
Backyard birds can also perform well on whole grain feeding under scavenging conditions.
For better shell quality, shell grit or limestone has to be supplemented at the rate of 5 - 7 g / bird / day during laying period.
Birds that get all their nutrients from scavenging may eat an excess of protein, if insects, worms, larvae etc. are available. Hence supplemental feeding of energy in the form of carbohydrate (cereal grains etc.) is needed.
Fenced or backyard poultry fed household or garden waste may lack both energy and protein for good growth or egg production. In such cases
supplementation with both cereal grains and some form of protein supplement is required.
Importance of grit
Birds that eat whole seeds, grains, vegetable material or fibre must have insoluble grit or small stones in their gizzard to grind the hard or fibre material. Limestone particles are not satisfactory as grit. Birds that forage pick up their own grit.
Small chicks require small stones 2 to 4 mm. Hens 0.5 to 1.5 cm.
MODULE-17: FEEDING OF POULTRY - CERTAIN MANAGEMENT MEASURES
Learning objectives
This module provides learner with additional inputs on poultry feeding management.
FEED EFFICIENCY IN POULTRY
Feed Efficiency in Poultry
Together with growth rate, days to market and mortality, feed efficiency has been considered as one of the important parameters in assessing the potential of bird strain or feeding program.
Feed efficiency is calculated by dividing feed intake (in g or kg) by weight gain (in g or kg) in broilers and dividing feed intake (in g or kg) by egg production / weight (in g or kg) of dozen eggs produced in layers.
Feed efficiency or feed conversion ratio = feed intake/weight gain
Feed efficiency or feed conversion ratio = feed intake/egg production
In some countries, the efficiency is calculated as weight gain or egg production (in g or kg) divided by feed intake (in g or kg) .
Feed efficiency = weight gain/feed intake
Feed efficiency = Egg production/feed intake
Whatever system is used, measures of feed efficiency are useful in describing feed intake in relation to growth rate / egg production.
Feed efficiency is, therefore, a useful measure of performance as long as all other factors affecting growth, production and feed intake are either minor or do not vary from flock to flock.
Factors influencing feed efficiency
The following are the factors that influence feed efficiency
Dietary Energy Level
The single largest factor affecting feed efficiency is energy level of the feed. Bird eat to full fill their energy requirement. As the energy level of the diet is reduced, birds eat more feed. As the birds eat more feed at constant growth rate, then feed efficiency
starts to deteriorate.
Male vs Female Birds
The feed efficiency of female broilers will usually be higher (less efficient) than male birds of corresponding weight, after about 30 days of age.
The reason for this is that female birds tend to deposit proportionally more fat in the carcass.
Therefore it is usually uneconomical to grow female broilers much beyond 45 days .
Likewise with heavy male birds, feed efficiency is greatly influenced by the growth of fat vs muscle.
Bird Age
As birds get older, their feed efficiency will deteriorate. This situation is simply due to the fact that heavy birds use increasing
quantities of feed to maintain their body mass, and less is used for growth.
Environmental Temperature
The chickens maintenance needs are greatly influenced by the temperature of its environments.
After initial brooding, the bird must use some of its feed to maintain its body temperature.
Under ideal conditions of around 20-25ºC, the bird uses a minimum of feed to maintain body temperature.
In cooler conditions, more diet energy must be used to maintain body heat, (and so less feed is used for growth) and consequently feed efficiency will deteriorate.
Feed intake will increase by about 1% for each 1ºC below 20ºC. Between 20-25ºC, the bird will eat about 1% less per 1ºC increase in temperature, and so here feed efficiency will improve.
Above 25ºC (depending upon acclimatization), heat stress conditions can occur, and here feed efficiency will again deteriorate because now the bird is using energy to stay cool (panting, etc.).
Under these conditions, efficiency of feed further deteriorates because the bird is reluctant to eat feed, and so proportionally more feed is directed towards maintenance, and less can be used for growth.
Bird Health
Unhealthy bird is likely to have poor feed efficiency. The main reason for this is that feed intake is reduced, and so again
proportionally more feed is directed towards maintenance. With enteric diseases there can be more subtle changes in feed utilization because various parasites and microbes can reduce the efficiency of digestion and absorption of nutrients.
Medicated Feeds
Poultry feeds are available with several types of medications for preventing or treating diseases.
Coccidiostats or antibiotics are the two most common medications added to feeds.
Coccidiosis is prevented by feeding a coccidiostat, or drug added to feed at low levels and fed continuously to prevent coccidiosis.
Examples of coccidiostats added to the ration include Monensin sodium, Lasalocid, Amprolium, and Salinomycin.
Antibiotics are also be added to some poultry feeds. Antibiotics help broiler performance. They are usually added at low levels to
prevent minor diseases and produce faster, more efficient growth.
Examples of antibiotics fed in the feed are Penicillin, Bacitracin, Chlortetracycline, and Oxytetracycline.
The recommended withdrawal periods have to be followed before using the meat or eggs from the treated birds.
SOME REPRESENTATIVE FEED MIXES
Given below are examples of feed mixes for differant categories of poultry
Ingredients Inclusion level kg/100 kg feed
Broiler starter
feed
Broiler finisher
feed
Layer chick feed
Layer grower
feed
Layer feed
Maize 50 55 54 40 53.5
Groundnut oil cake
30 25 25 5 20
Deoiled rice bran
– 5 2.5 12 5
Wheat bran 10 6 8 10 6
Fish meal 8 6.5 8 6 5
Lucerne meal
– – – – 3
Mineral mix 2 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.5
Vitamin mix 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01
DL Methionine
0.10 – – – –
L lysine HCL 0.15 – – – –
Coccidiostat 0.05 – – – –
Shell grit 0 – – – 5
SALT TOXICITY
Poultry require both sodium and chlorine. There is some sodium and chlorine in feedstuffs, but both must be added to the feed, usually as salt. The recommended level is 0.25 to 0.3% added salt (2.5 to 3 kg per tonne).
If feed ingredients or drinking water contains salt, the amount of added salt must be reduced.
In chicks
Chicks cannot tolerate salt as well as adults. Chicks are frequently poisoned by salt in the drinking water. Water for young chicks should not contain salt and many chicks die from salt
poisoning at levels below 0.1% (0.9% is the level found in animal tissue). Chicks can be poisoned by eating salted fish and particularly by the brine
used to preserve fish. 20g salt/kg DM in the diet of chicks is regarded as the maximum permissible
level.
In hens
Hens can tolerate larger amounts of salt if plenty of water is available Salt poisoning poses severe problem especially where fresh drinking water
is limited. Salt toxicity is manifested as increased thirst, watery droppings and
sometimes oedema. When the concentration of salt in the diet of hens exceeds 40 g/kg DM and
the supply of drinking water is limited, then death may occur.
YOLK OR SKIN PIGMENTATION
The right color of the broiler skin and of the egg yolk is widely known as an important quality attribute.
Each region of the world has established its own particular specifications for this parameter.
So that the optimum pigmentation for the broiler skin and the egg yolk depends on cultural traditions or preferences
o Traditionally, the poultry keepers have been incorporating red and yellow pigments (natural or synthetic), in the birds feed.
o Synthetic cantaxanthin has been used for decades as active pigment to provide a yellow-orange color to the broiler skin, and to provide intense orange and even rose hues to egg.
o Traditional sources of yellow xantophylls are: alfalfa, yellow corn, yellow corn gluten, and marigold meal concentrates.
o There are also natural red sources as the capsanthin (paprika or red pepper).
o The figure below illustrates the deep yellow egg yolk from bird fed yellow maize incorporated feed
FEEDING MANAGEMENT DURING SUMMER
Summer management of poultry is very important in tropical regions of the world. One of the important criteria during summer management of poultry is feed management.
The following guidelines could be adopted for efficient feeding management in poultry during summer
Adequate water for all birds is essential during periods of hot weather. Increasing the watering space for floor birds by adding more waterers
and by locating them in areas where water is not usually found can encourage increased water consumption.
The electrolyte balance in birds is altered during heat stress due to panting. Panting increases carbon dioxide loss in the bird, which reduces the bird’s ideal water intake. By adding electrolytes to the feed or water, birds increase their water intake, which aids in keeping a constant body temperature and maintains an effective system of evaporative cooling.
Supplementation of vitamins (A, D, E and B complex) in drinking water is effective in combating heat stress mortality in broilers.
In breeding poultry, Vitamin C supplementation is effective in controlling decline in egg production and eggshell quality in laying hens and sperm production in breeder males.
Feed consumption rates usually go down in summer and birds may not be consuming enough of the nutrients to maintain growth or production at the desired level. Hence adjusting the feed formulation to take into account reduced consumption may be necessary.
Feed withdrawal during the hot part of the day can also help reduce mortality. The birds should not be fed again until after the temperature has dropped below 90 degrees in the evening. Feed withdrawal should not be used as a routine practice or growth rates will be reduced. It should be used only in emergency situations.
Maintaining bird comfort during periods of extremely hot weather is essential in all types of poultry operations.
Through the use of proper ventilation, good bird and house management, and proper feeding and watering programs, the stress and mortality due to high temperatures can be minimized.
LOW COST FEED
Feed costs account for 60-70 per cent of the cost of commercial poultry production.
Increased and more efficient use of locally available feed resources would reduce the cost of production.
Various low cost rations can be formulated that are suitable for meat and egg production.
These should be simple and make maximum use of low cost local materials. A maximum of five ingredients should be used.
Some low cost ingredients, depending on local availability and cost, include
Coconut and oil palm cakes Broken rice, broken wheat, millet and sorghum
Milling byproducts like husk, bran, grain screenings Cassava starch waste, or sweet potato starch waste and yam waste can
also be used as energy sources Animal protein feeds such as offal meal, prawn waste Oystershell or other grit Animal wastes such as poultry litter
MODULE-18: FEEDING OF UNCONVENTIONAL FEEDS
Learning objectives This module will provide a brief introduction on unconventional feed
resources.
NON-CONVENTIONAL / UNCONVENTIONAL FEEDS
Non-conventional / unconventional feeds are those that are not traditionally used in livestock feeding or not normally used in commercially produced
rations for livestock.
Necessity for its use
Shortage of feeds and fodder has been considered as the major constraint in livestock feeding. The heavy pressure on land and other aspects of forage production necessitates search for suitable alternatives to bridge the gap between the demand and supply of feeds and fodder. The estimates have shown that the shortage of animal feeds and fodder in terms of nutrients is 77% in DCP and 62% in ME. In order to mitigate such huge shortage of feeds and fodder’s a number of non-conventional materials such as by-products and wastes from agriculture, forest, and slaughterhouse and from a number of agro-industries have been identified. Often they are found to be potential source of energy, protein and/or minerals and have been explored to replace the expensive conventional dietary ingredients and supplements.
CONSTRAINTS / LIMITATIONS IN USE OF NON-CONVENTIONAL FEEDS
Many of the unconventional feeds often contain certain anti-nutritional factors, which needs suitable physical, chemical and/or microbiological treatments to minimise or to eliminate their ill effects.
o The most common and simple process to denature the anti-nutritional factors includes
Sun drying Decortications Roasting Water soaking
In addition to the presence of anti-nutritional factors, these non-conventional feed resources are also constrained by
Seasonal supply Poor nutritional value Bulkiness Availability limited to a certain locality Poor palatability Processing formalities including preconditioning Fear psychosis of the farmers Malpractice Uncoordinated research and development efforts.
New technologies are to be developed in order to adopt such non-conventional products in large scale feed preparations.
CLASSIFICATION
The non-conventional feed stuffs can be generally grouped as
Roughages and concentrates.o Succulento Dry
Concentrateso Vegetable orgino Animal origin.o Protein sources o Energy sources.
Other miscellaneous non-conventional feeds.
MODULE-19: FEEDING OF UNCONVENTIONAL FEEDS - MONOGASTRICS
Learning objectives The module will help learner in gathering information on various
unconventional concentrate feeds.
NON-CONVENTIONAL PROTEIN SOURCES
Protein Sources
The commonly available vegetable and animal protein sources of unconventional origin and their protein content are furnished below.
They can form cheaper protein supplements if care is taken to ward off the anti nutritional principles present in them by suitable means.
These protein sources have also been recommended at various levels for inclusion in feed mixtures and rations of pig and poultry.
Non-conventional protein sources
Sl. No.
Feed resources Protein%
Remarks
1. Sunflower meal 25 -30 Partial replacement of GNC in layer ration.
2. Niger cake 36 Partially replace GNC in swine and poultry ration.
3. Guar meal 40-45 Upto 20% in chicken ration if toasted and mixed with 0.1-0.2% cellulase enzyme. 50% replacement of GNC in layer ration.
4. Karanja cake 30 Expeller variety not suited for chicken.Extracted verity can replace til cake to the extent of 30% on protein equivalent basis in starter and growing chicks.
5. Neem cake 34-48 Water washing reduces bitterness
Has to be introduced gradually.
Processed neem seed meal can be included upto 10% level in chicks and layers rations.
6. Rubber seed cake 30 10 and 20% level in concentrate mixture of pigs . Upto 30% level for growing animals.
10% level in poultry ration.
7. Sunhemp seed 30 Mixed with other palatable feeds after crushing and fed.
8. Dhaincha seed 30-33 Mixed with other palatable feeds after crushing and fed.
9. Cassia tora seed - Boiled seeds added to ration of swine.
10 Kapok seed 26 Can be used as proten source at low level.
11. Kidney bean chuni 16.3-20-5
Protein supplements for young animals.
12. Soundal seeds - Upto 30% level in the ration for adult animals.
13. Thummba seed cake 20 Water soaking for 6-8 hours is required.
14. Tamarind seed powder 15-20% can be added below 5 % in swine and poultry ration,
15. Poultry by-product meal 50-60 Good substitute for fishmeal and an excellent source of protein for chickens.
It provides some unidentified growth factor.
16. Feather meal 80-86 Should be used with judicious supplementation for amino acid deficiencies.
17. Poultry excreta 30 Not generally recommended formonogastrics.
18. Incubator waste/ Hatchery by-product meal
- 3-6% level for broiler chicks.
Can replace fishmeal upto 33% in chick’s ration.
19. Liver residue meal 65 5-10% level in poultry ration.
20. Frog meal - Can replace fishmeal twice by weight in poultry ration.
21. Dried poultry manure 31 10-15% in chick and broiler rations.
22. Cow dung meal - 10% replacement of maize in grower or layer rations.
Sun dried sheep dung meal at 5% level in starter mash.
23. Shrimp shell powder (prawn waste)
32-43 Can replace fishmeal at 5% level in broiler of chick rations.
24. Crab meal 25-30 Can replace fishmeal.
Ca and P content and ratio need to be adjusted.
25. Squilla meal 37.6 High Ca feed (10%).
26. Processed fish ensilage 31.18 -
The other non-conventional protein sources include meals from insects (house fly larvae, silk worm larvae meal, white ants), snails, earth warms (live or dead), etc
NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES
Energy Sources
Spent brewers’ grains and other distillery waste are good source of animal nutrients. The fresh spent Brewers’ grains contain 24% dry matter, 18.8% crude protein, 14.6% DCP and 54.6% TDN. It forms a good supplement (upto 50%) for concentrate mixture for equines.
Potato waste: It is a good energy source. Spent coffee waste: After the extraction of instant coffee from coffee beans,
the left over material is the spent coffee waste. It is a good energy source but has poor digestibility.
Corn steep liquor, a by-product of maize starch industry is found to be a rich source of digestible crude protein (40%), soluble sugars (22.3%) and phosphorus.
The other non-conventional energy sources of importance, their energy or TDN content along with level of inclusion in different rations are furnished below
Non-conventional energy sources
Sl. No
Source Nutritive value ME K cal / kg TDN %
Remarks
1. Cassava root NFE 85% 10% level in chick and broiler feeds; 20% in layer feed.
3. Tapioca starch waste
TDN 64% Can replace 50% maize in swine ration.
4. Tapioca thippi ME 2450 K cal / kg Can be used in pig rations similar to tapioca starch waste.
5. Tapioca milk residue
ME 8990 K cal / kg Up to 20% for chicks.
6. Palm flour Up to 17.5% in chick ration.
Up to 11.5% in layer ration.
7. Triticale ME 2043-3357 K cal / kg Can replace maize by 50-100%
9. Oak kernel Can replace up to 5% maize in chick feed.
MISCELLANEOUS NON-CONVENTIONAL FEEDS
The non-conventional materials of animal feed value that are not covered in the protein or energy groups are
o Coconut pith, kokam cake, decaffeinated tea waste, sunflower straw, kosum cake, cocoa pods, maize cob pith, nahar seed meal, palm karnel meal, cashew apple meal, celery seed, tannery waste, banana stem, mango fruit waste, silk cotton seed, dried yeast sludge, azolla, kitchen disposals and left over in the restaurants have also been identified for use in animal feed.
Chalk powder, marble, lime and filter-press mud waste has been found to be good calcium supplements for animals.
Dicalcium phosphate (feed grade: 23.25% Ca and 18% P), calcined bone meal (37% Ca and 16% P), sterilised bone meal (31% Ca and 14% P) and a number of such products are available for use as feed supplements.
MODULE-20: FEEDING OF DUCKS
Learning objectives This module will provide information on the nutrition and feeding
management of ducks.
FEEDING OF DUCKS
Duck rearing in India
Feeding practices of ducks will depend on the number of ducks raised. If only a few ducks are kept by a household, and access to areas for foraging
is present, ducks survive, grow and lay eggs by consuming available food such as green plants, insects, snails, frogs, and table scraps.
Under such conditions, ducks grow very slowly and produce a small number of eggs.
In India ducks are mostly managed in the free range system. Ducks mostly forage and feed on small insects, snails and certain plants.
Differences between ducks and chicken
The digestive system of duck is slightly different from chicken in that they do not have crop and their pro ventriculus is cylindrical and make the feed passage rate quicker than that of chicken.
Ducks also possess a bill in place of a beak and are capable of separating feed mixed in water.
Ducks bill is not well adapted for dry mash feeding as dry mash sticks on to the bill and the duck tries to remove it by shaking or washing out in water.
Regardless of how ducks obtain their food, whether it be by scavenging, or consuming a complete ration, the food consumed must contain all the nutrients, in an available form, that are needed for maintenance, growth and reproduction.
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT OF DUCKS AND FEEDSTUFFS IN DUCK RATION
Nutrient requirements of ducks
The following table gives the nutrient specifications for differant categories of ducks
Nutrient Starter (0-8 weeks)
Grower (9-20 weeks)
Breeder Laying period
Protein (%) 20 17 16
Calcium (%) 1 1 3
Fat (%) 5 5 5
Methionine (%) 0.35 0.3 0.3
Phosphorus (%) 0.45 0.4 0.4
Manganese (mg/kg)
60 50 40
Niacin (mg/kg) 55 40 55
Pantothenic acid (mg/kg)
15 10 20
Pyridoxine (mg/kg)
3 3 3
Riboflavin (mg/kg)
10 6 10
Vitamin A (mg/kg) 3100 1720 4130
Vitamin D3 (mg/kg)
300 22.5 62.5
Vitamin K (mg/kg)
2.5 2 2.5
Energy (kcal/kg) 2850 2850 2650
Feedstuffs for duck ration
Feed ingredients commonly used for preperation of chicken feed can be used for preparing duck feeds.
Some feed ingredients contain substances that are toxic to ducks, and should not be included in duck rations.
Groundnut meal (peanut meal) is often contaminated with aflatoxin, a toxin to which ducks are highly sensitive. Groundnut meal should not be used unless tests have proven it to be free of aflatoxin.
Groundnut oil cake exhibiting mould growth
Ducks can tolerate only 0.03 ppm of aflatoxin compared to chicken that can tolerate upto 0.2 ppm.
Rapeseed meal is another feedstuff that is potentially toxic to ducks. Some older varieties of rapeseed meal contain erucic acid and goitrogens at levels high enough to be harmful to poultry. Ducks are much more sensitive to erucic acid than are chickens and turkeys.
FEEDING DIFFERANT CATEGORIES OF DUCKS AND WATERING OF DUCKS
Feeding meat type breeders
Meat-type ducks, such as Pekins, that are kept as breeders will become excessively fat if fed all they will eat during their development prior to lay.
It is therefore necessary to limit their daily intake of feed to an amount that will supply all the necessary nutrients .
Spreading of the feed will prevent overconsumption and all ducks will get their share of feed.
Feed can be spread out in long food troughs, or on the ground if the area is dry and clean.
Feeding laying breeders
Layer rations contain a higher level of calcium than other duck rations A level of 3.00% of the diet is adequate for most breeds of ducks including
high egg producing breeds. When enough calcium is included in the ration, it is not necessary to feed
oyster shells in addition.
Watering ducks
Plenty of clean drinking water should be available to ducks at least 8-12 hours per day.
Not providing water at night helps to maintain litter in a dry condition. This applies to breeder ducks or market ducks over 3 weeks of age.
This practice is not harmful and has no effect on performance during periods of moderate temperatures.
During periods when temperatures are above 90°F, drinking water should be available in the evening until the temperature has dropped below 80°F, or else made available all night.
Ducks do not require water for swimming in order to grow and reproduce normally.
Providing some water for wading or swimming can be beneficial, especially in hot climates.
Average feed consumption of ducks
Age (weeks)
Cumulative feed (kg)
0-1 0.15
1 0.55
2 1.30
3 2.25
4 3.25
5 4.55
PREPERATION OF DUCK FEED
Feed can be presented to the ducks in different forms
Mash or Pellets
Ducks grow faster, and utilize their feed more efficiently, when fed pelleted rations than when their feed is in mash form.
Pelleting of duck feed is common practice in commercial duck production. Feeding ducks with dry mash is not recommended as it forms a sticky paste
when mixed with saliva, which cakes and accumulates on the outer ridges of the mouth. In attempting and to free their bills of caked feed, ducks make frequent trips to water to wash their bills, causing feed wastage.
Feeding mash also reduces feed intake, and in the case of market ducks, reduces their growth rate.
For small flock owners who are not able to pellet feeds, wet mash can be fed.
Water is mixed with the mash just before feeding. Enough water is added to form a thick mush without making it watery.
Pellet size
When pelleted feeds are fed to ducks it is important to avoid feeding pellets that are too large in diameter or too long for ducklings to swallow.
o For newly hatched ducklings, pellets should be not have a diameter more than 4.0 mm and length more than 7.9 mm.
o After two weeks of age, ducklings can consume pellets of 4.8 mm in diameter and 12.7 mm in length.
MODULE-21: NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT FOR MICE, RAT, RABBIT AND GUINEA PIG
Learning objectives The module describes nutrition and feeding of rats and mice.
INTRODUCTION
There are a number of factors that determine the nutrient requirements of laboratory animals such as:
o The type of animal - herbivore, carnivore or omnivoreo Specieso Sexo Ageo Physiological status
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT IN DIETS FOR RAT AND MICE
The following table gives the nutrient requirements for diets of rat and mice. The high BMR of these animals causes their high need for energy.
The protein requirement is higher for mice than rat. The quality of protein also should be good.
Gross composition of diets for rats and mice
Nutrient Rats Mice
Maintenance
Growth Gestation Lactation
Metabolisable energy Kcal/kg
3800 3800 3800
Protein % 12 18 18-20
Fibre % 5 5 5
Methionine % 0.2 0.6 0.5
Lysine % 0.1 0.7 0.4
Calcium % 0.5 0.5 1.2
Phosphorus % 0.4 0.4 0.9
Iron mg/kg 35 35 255
BIS specifications for compounded feeds for laboratory mice and rats
S. No
Characteristic Requirements
1. Moisture (Max)% 10
2. Crude protein (Min)% 24
3. Crude fat (Max)% 5
4. Crude fibre (Max)% 6
5 Total Ash (Max) 9
6. Acid insoluble ash (Max)% 1
7. Calcium (Min) 0.6
8. Available phosphorus (Min) 0.3
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT FOR GUINEA PIG
The Guinea pig is a herbivorous animal. It is a hind gut fermenter and practices coprophagy.
The following is the nutrient requirement for a guinea pig dieto ME Kcal/kg 2800o Protein (%) 18o Fibre (%) 15o Calcium (%) 0.8-1o Phosphorus (%) 0.4-0.7o Zinc (mg/kg) 20o Iron (mg/kg) 50o 1 gram of vitamin C per kilogram of ration has to be supplemented as
Vitamin C is dietary essential in guineapig.
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT -RABBITS
The rabbit is a monogastric hebivore, hindgut fermentor, practicig coprophay.
The following table gives the nutrient requirements for different categories of rabbits.
The energy requirementi pressed as DE or ME. Protein is expressed ascrude protein.
Rabbits are able to tolerate upto 15% crue fibre.
Components of feed
Unit Growing
rabbits(4-12
weeks)
Lactating doe+young under
mother
Pregnant doe,not
lactating
Resting
adults(males
)
Mixed breeding doesplus
fatteners
Crude proteins
% 16 18 16 13 17
Amino acids
Methionine + cystine
% 0.60 0.60 - - 0.60
Lysine % 0.65 0.75 - - 0.70
Arginine % 0.90 0.80 - - 0.90
Threonine % 0.55 0.70 - - 0.60
Tryptophane % 0.18 0.22 - - 0.20
Histidine % 0.35 0.43 - - 0.40
Isoleucine % 0.60 0.70 - - 0.65
Phenylalanine + tyrosine
% 1.20 1.40 - - 1.25
Valine % 0.70 0.85 - - 0.80
Leucine % 1.05 1.25 - - 1.20
Crude fibre % 14 12 14 15-16 14
Indigestible crude fibre
% 12 10 12 13 12
Digestible energy
kcal/kg
2500 2600 2500 2200 2500
Metabolizable energy
kcal/kg
2400 2500 2400 2120 2410
Fats % 3 3 3 3 3
Minerals
Calcium % 0.40 1.10 0.80 0.40 1.10
Phosphorus % 0.30 0.80 0.50 0.30 0.80
Potassium % 0.60 0.90 0.90 - 0.90
Sodium % 0.30 0.30 0.30 - 0.30
Chlorine % 0.30 0.30 0.30 - 0.30
Magnesium % 0.03 0.04 0.04 - 0.04
Sulphur % 0.04 - - - 0.04
Cobalt ppm 0.1 0.1 - - 0.1
Copper ppm 5 5 - - 5
Zinc ppm 50 70 70 - 70
Iron ppm 50 100 50 50 100
Manganese ppm 8.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 8.5
Iodine ppm 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Fluorine ppm 0.5 - - - 0.5
Vitamins
Vitamin A UI/kg 6000 12000 12000 6000 10000
Vitamin D UI/kg 900 900 900 900 900
Vitamin E ppm 50 50 50 50 50
Vitamin K ppm 0 2 2 0 2
Vitamin C ppm 0 0 0 0 0
Vitamin B1 ppm 2 - 0 0 2
Vitamin B2 ppm 6 - 0 0 4
Vitamin B6 ppm 2 - 0 0 2
Vitamin B12 ppm 0.01 0 0 0 0.01
Folic acid ppm 5 - 0 0 5
Pantothenic acid
ppm 20 - 0 0 20
Niacin ppm 50 - - - 50
Biotin ppm 0.2 - - - 0.2
NRC
MODULE-22: SIGNIFICANCE OF CARBOHYDRATES IN LABORATORY ANIMAL NUTRITION
Learning objectives
This module briefly explains the nutritional significance of carbohydrates in laboratory animal nutrition.
INTRODUCTION - CARBOHYDRATES
Chemically carbohydrates are organic substances containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They are widely distributed in plants, and synthesised
by photosynthesis. They may be classified as sugars and non sugars.
o Sugars may be monosacharides or disaccharides.o Non sugars include all the polysaccharides.
SIGNIFICANCE OF CARBOHYDRATES
Functionso energy sourceo building block for other nutrientso dietary excess stored as fat
The main dietary carbohydrates are starch, cell wall polysaccharides (cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectin), some monosaccharaides (glucose, fructose, galactose, etc.) and oligosaccharides (sucrose, lactose, alpha-galactosides, etc.).
o Starches (cereals), cooked starches and some oligosaccharides are mainly digested in the small intestine of monogastric animals by enzymes of the salivary glands, pancreas and intestinal brush border.
o The total digestibility of these carbohydrates is almost 100%,o Cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectin and some oligosaccharides are partly
digested by the micro flora of the large intestine.o Fiber total digestibility varies considerably and depends on the nature
of the fiber and the animal species
MODULE-23: SIGNIFICANCE OF PROTEINS, AMINO ACIDS AND LIPIDS IN LABORATORY ANIMAL NUTRITION
Learning objectives This module briefly explains the nutritional significance of carbohydrates,
protein and fats.
SIGNIFICANCE OF PROTEINS
Most expensive ingredient in ration proteins are broken down in the stomach during digestion by enzymes known as proteases into smaller polypeptides to provide amino acids for the body, including the essential amino acids that cannot be biosynthesized by the body itself.
Thus, protein is a s ource of Essential Amino Acids (number, type and level of amino acids required varies with animal species)
When fed in excess, converted to energy, fat
INDISPENSABLE AMINO ACIDS OR ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
Amino acids that cannot be synthesised in the animal body or synthesised only to a limited amount are referred to as indispensable or essential amino acids.
The following ten indispensable amino acids are required for growth in rat:1. Arginine2. Histidine3. Isoleucine4. Leucine5. Lysine6. Methionine7. Phenylalanine8. Threonine9. Tryptophan10. Valine
SIGNIFICANCE OF LIPIDS
Fats are important source of stored energy in plants and animals and are characterised by their high energy value (1 gram fat = 9.3 Kcal or 39.1 KJ).
Components of biological membrane. Carrier for fat soluble vitamins – A, D, E and K. Useful as electron carrier. Useful source of metabolic water. Deposits of fat underneath the skin exert insulating effect to the body thus
protecting it from excessive heat or cold. The mesenteric fat acts as a padding to protect the internal organs.
Sources of essential fatty acids – linolenic, linoleic and arachidonic acids. Normal breakdown products of fatty acids such as acetic acid and bile acids
form important building blocks of biologically active materials like cholesterol, sex hormones and steroids.
MODULE-24: SIGNIFICANCE OF MAJOR MINERALS IN LABORATORY ANIMAL NUTRITION
Learning objectives The module discusses the importance of major minerals in laboratory animal
nutrition.
CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS
Calcium and phosphorus are the most abundant minerals in the animal body.
Functions
Structural component of body. (Skeleton and teeth) 99% of the calcium in the body is present in the bones and teeth. Calcium is essential for the activity of a number of enzyme systems including
that necessary for the transmission of nerve impulses and for the contractile properties of muscle.
It is also concerned in the coagulation of blood. Phosphorus occurs in close association with calcium in bone. It occurs in phosphoproteins, nucleic acids and phospholipids. It plays a vital role in energy metabolism in the formation of sugar-
phosphates and adenosine di- and triphosphates.
Sources of calcium and phosphorus
Shell grit, limestone, are very good calcium supplements Fish meal, bone meal and legumes, are good sources of calcium and
phosphorus.
If calcium and phosphorus are deficient in the diet of young then satisfactory bone formation cannot occur and the condition known as rickets is produced. The symptoms of rickets are misshapen bones, enlargement of the joints, lameness and stiffness. Enlargement of the osteochondral joints in the ribs produces a condition called as Rickety Rosary. Pigeon chested appearance is also another symptom.
In adults calcium and phosphorus deficiency produces osteomalacia, in which the calcium in the bone is withdrawn and not replaced. In osteomalacia the bones become weak and are easily broken.
Low dietary intakes of phosphorus have also been associated with poor fertility.
Phosphorus deficiency can also cause pica or depraved appetite.
Calcium: Phosphorus ratio
The calcium phosphorus ratio considered most is generally within the range 1:1 to 2:1.
SODIUM, POTASSIUM AND CHLORINE
Functions
Most of the sodium of the body is present in the soft tissues and body fluids. Sodium is concerned with the acid-base balance and osmotic regulation of
the body fluids. Sodium is the chief cation of blood plasma and other extracellular fluids of
the body. The sodium concentration within the cells is relativeely low.
Sodium also plays a role in the transmission of nerve impulses and in the absorption of sugars and amino acids from the digestive tract.
Potassium plays a very important part, along with sodium, chlorine and bicarbonate ions, in the osmotic regulation of the body fluids and in the acid-
base balance. Potassium functions principally as the cation of cells. Potassium plays an important part in nerve and muscle excitability, and is
also concerned in carbohydrate metabolism. Chlorine is associated with sodium and potassium in acid-base relationships
and osmotic regulation. Chlorine also plays an important part in the gastric secretion, where it
occurs as hydrochloric acid as well as chloride salts.
Deficiency symptoms
A deficiency leads to a lowering of the osmotic pressure, which results in dehydration of the body.
Symptoms of sodium deficiency include poor growth and reduced utilization of digested proteins and energy.
Weakness, paralysis, increased urination, irregular heartbeat (arrhythmia), orthostatic hypotension, muscle pain, tetany.
A dietary deficiency of chlorine may lead to an abnormal increase of the alkali reserve of the blood (alkalosis) caused by an excess of bicarbonate, since inadequate levels of chlorine in the body are partly compensated for by increases in bicarbonate.
Sources
Animal products, especially meat and foods of marine origin, are rich sources of sodium.
Cholrine is present in nature in association with sodium as sodium chloride All green roughages are good sources of potassium.
SULPHUR
Most of the sulphur in the body occurs in proteins containing the amino acids - cystine, cysteine and methionine.
The two-vitamin biotin and thiamin, the hormone insulin and the important metabolite coenzyme A also contain sulphur.
The structural compound chondroitin sulphate is a component of cartilage, bone, tendons and the walls of blood vessels. Sulphur-containing compounds are also important in elements of the respiratory process from haemoglobin through to cytochromes.
Sulpur requirements of animals are satisfied through the protein supplementation
MAGNESIUM
Functions
Magnesium is closely associated with calcium and phosphorus. Magnesium is the commonest enzyme activator.
Deficiency symptoms
In rats fed on purified diets the symptoms include increased nervous irritability and convulsions. Hypertension, cardiovascular disease, Vitamin K deficiency, depressed immunity, depression, diabetes, erectile dysfunction, increased levels of stress, insomnia and migraine.
Sources
Most of the feeds that are fed to animals are rich sources of magnesium.
MODULE-25: SIGNIFICANCE OF TRACE MINERALS IN LABORATORY ANIMAL NUTRITION
Learning objectives The module discusses the importance of trace minerals in laboratory animal
nutrition.
IRON
Functions
More than 90 per cent of the iron in the body is combined with proteins, the most important being haemoglobin. Iron also occurs in blood serum in a protein called transferrin, which is concerned with the transport of iron from one part of the body to another.
Ferritin, a protein containing iron, is present in thee spleen, liver, kidney and bone marrow and provides a form of storage for iron. Haemosiderin is a similar storage.
Deficiency symptoms
Haemoglobin synthesis is affected and results in anaemia.
Sources
Green leafy materials, most leguminous plants and seed coats. Foods of animal origin, such as meat, and fish, are excellent sources of iron.
Absorption
Iron is absorbed throughout the gastro-intestinal tract, but mainly in the duodenum and jejunum. Absorption is poor and is, to a large extent, independent of the dietary source.
The mucosal block theory is still widely accepted.
COPPER
Functions
Copper is present in certain plasma proteins such as ceruloplasmin. Copper is also a component of other proteins in blood. One of these, erythrocuprein, occurs in erythrocytes where it plays a role in oxygen metabolism.
The element is also known to play a vital role in many enzyme systems; for example, it is a component of cytochrome oxidase, which is important in oxidative phosphorylation.
Copper is necessary for the normal pigmentation of hair.
Deficiency symptoms
These include anaemia, poor growth, bone disorders, scouring, infertility, depigmentation of hair, gastro-intestinal disturbances and lesions in the brain stem and spinal cord.
Sources
Copper is present in adequate amount in most of the concentrate sources. Animal origin protein sources are good sources of copper
IODINE
Functions
Iodine is involved in the synthesis of the two hormones, triiodothyronine and tetraiodothyronine (thyroxine) produced in the thyroid gland.
Deficiency symptoms
Enlargement of the thyroid gland, termed endemic goitre, and is caused by compensatory hypertrophy of the gland.
Sources of Iodine
The richest sources of this element are foods of marine origin such as seaweeds and fish.
MANGANESE
Functions
Manganese is important in the body as an activator of many enzymes such as hydrolases and kinases and as a constituent of arginase, pyruvate carboxylase and manganese superoxide dismutase. Manganese through its
activation of glycosyl transferases, is required for the formation of the mucopolysaccharide which forms the organic matrix of bone.
Deficiency symptoms
Manganese deficiency has been found to cause retarded growth, skeletal abnormalities, ataxia of the newborn and reproductive failure.
Sources
Wheat bran, dried yeast and most vegetable protein concentrate, especially cottonseed cake and linseed cake, are good sources of magnesium.
ZINC
Functions
High concentrations of zinc have been found in the skin, hair. Several enzymes in the body are known to contain zinc; these include carbonic anhydrase, pancreatic carboxypeptidase, lactate dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase and thymidine kinase. In addition zinc is an activator of several enzyme systems.
Deficiency symptoms
Subnormal growth, depressed appetite, and parakeratosis.
Sources of zinc
Yeast is a rich source, and zinc is concentrated in the bran and germ of cereal grains. Animal protein products such as meat and fish are usually richer sources of the element than plant protein supplements.
SELENIUM AND MOLYBDENUM
Selenium
A biochemical role of selenium is that it is a component of gluthathione peroxidase, an enzyme which catalyses the removal of hydrogen peroxide, thereby protecting cell membrances from oxidative damage.
Glutathione peroxidase forms a second line of defence after vitamin E, since some peroxidases remain even if vitamin E levels are adequate. Selenium has a sparing effect on vitamin E by ensuring normal absorption of the vitamin.
Selenium preserves the integrity of the pancreas and thereby ensuring satisfactory fat digestion. Selenium also reduces the amount of vitamin E required to maintain the integrity of lipid membranes and aids the retention of Vitamin E in plasma.
Vitamin E spares selenium by maintaining the element in its active form and preventing its loss. It reduces the production of hydroperoxides and thus the amount of glutathione peroxidase needed to protect cells.
Molybdenum
A component of xanthine oxidase, Molybdenum participates in the reaction of the enzyme with cytochrome C and also facilities the reduction of cytochrome C by aldehyde oxidase.
MODULE-26: SIGNIFICANCE OF FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS IN LABORATORY ANIMAL NUTRITION
Learning objectives The module discusses the importance of vitamins in laboratory animal
nutrition.
VITAMIN A AND D
Vitamin A
Sourceo Oils from livers of certain fish (Cod and Halibut) egg yolk, milk fat.o Precursors or pro vitamins in the form of Carotenoids which can be
converted to vitamin A in plants.o Foods rich in carotenoids include carrot, papaya, mangoes and green
leafy vegetables Functions
o Vitamin A combines with a protein opsin to form Rhodopsin – which is a photoreceptor for light at low light intensities.
o Vitamin A is involved in the formation and protection of epithelial cells (anti-infective vitamin).
o It is essential for normal bone formationo It is essential for protein metabolism.
Deficiencyo Roughened hairo Scaly skino Excessive watering from eyeso softening, cloudiness of the cornea leading to xerophthalmiao Nyctolopia or night blindnesso Constriction of the optic nerve canal leads to blindness.
Vitamin D
Sourceso Liver oils of fishes such as cod and halibut (rich source)o Egg yolk and sundried grains.
o Provitamin - Ergosterol in plant sources and in animal sources and 7-dehydrocholestrol
Deficiencyo In young deficiency of vitamin D causes rickets and in adults it causes
Osteomalacia. Rickets: Calcium and Phosphorus deposition in bones is
affected and the bones are weak, more prone to fractures and deformities. The conditions commonly seen are bowing of legs, swollen knees and arching of back. Occasionally there is paralysis. Rickety Rosary – enlargement of Osteochondral junction in ribs are also noticed
Osteomalacia : Resorption of the bone allready laid down. Bones become weak, more prone to fractures and deformities. It can occur in pregnant and lactating animals, which require increased amount of calcium and phosphorus.
VITAMIN E AND K
Vitamin E
Sourceso Greens, cereal grains, vegetable oils, fats, and nuts, oil seeds and
legumes. Functions
o Vitamin E functions in the animal mainly as biological antioxidant; in association with the selenium-containing enzyme glutathione peroxidase, it protects cells against oxidative damage caused by free radicals.
o Vitamin E also plays an important role in the development and function of the immune system.
Deficiency symptomso Vitamin E deficiency causes muscle degeneration (myopathy).
Nutritional myopathy is also known as muscular dystrophy.o In some instances sterility is also caused due to its deficiency.
Vitamin K
Sourceo Green leafy vegetables, Egg yolk, Liver, Fish and synthesised by
bacteria in GI tract. Functions
o Vitamin K is needed for the synthesis of prothrombin in the liver Deficiency
o Low Prothrombin level in blood leads to haemorrhagic conditions. Vitamin K deficiency causes anemia and delayed clotting time of blood
MODULE-27: SIGNIFICANCE OF WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS IN LABORATORY ANIMAL NUTRITION
Learning objectives The module discusses the importance of water soluble vitamins in
laboratory animal nutrition.
THIAMINE, RIBOFLAVIN AND NIACINThiamine
Sourceso Yeast, germ of cereal grains and also in aleurone layer. Beans,
leafy vegetables, egg yolk, liver and kidney. Pork is rich in thamine.
Functionso Thiamine diphosphate is a coenzyme involved in oxidative
decarboxylation of pyruvate to acetyl coenzyme A & of alpha ketoglutarate to succinyl COA in TCA cycle.
Deficiencyo Causes Beri beri.
Weight loss Impaired sensory perception Weakness and pain in the limbs Irregular heart rate Edema
Riboflavin
Sourceso Synthesised by yeast, bacteria and fungi.o Rich sources are liver, yeast, milk and green leafy vegetables.
Functionso It is a constituent of flavoproteins.o They are involved in amino acid and carbohydrate metabolism.
Deficiencyo Poor appetite, retarded growth, vomiting, skin eruptions and
eye abnormalities.
Niacin
Sourceso It can be synthesised from amino acid Tryptophan in the body
tissues. o Rich sources of the vitamin are liver, yeast and groundnuts. In
cereals the vitamin is present in the bound form. Function
o Nicotinamide functions in the animal body as the active group of two important coenzymes, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
(NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP).
Deficiencyo Dermatitis
VITAMIN B6 AND B12
Vitamin B6
Sourceso Widely distributed yeast, pulses, cereal grains, liver and milk .
Functiono Pyridoxal phosphate plays a central role as a coenzyme in the
reactions by which a cell transforms nutrient amino acids into mixtures of amino acids and other nitrogenous activities of transaminases and decarboxylases.
Deficiency symptomso Deficiency affects the growth rate.o Convulsions may also occur.o In addition, reduced appetite and anemia may develop.
Vitamin B12
Sourceso Vitamin B12 is synthesized exclusively by microorganisms and its
presence in foods is of microbial origin.o The main natural sources of the vitamin are foods of animal origin,
liver being a particularly rich source. Functions
o The coenzymic forms of vitamin B12 function in several important enzyme systems.
o Isomerases, dehydrases and enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of methionine from homocysteine.
Deficiency symptonso Irreversible damage, especially to the brain and nervous system.
PANTOTHENIC ACID AND FOLIC ACID
Pantothenic acid
Sourceso Rich sources are liver, egg yolk, groundnuts, peas, yeast and
molasses.o Cereal grains and potatoes are also good sources of the vitamin.
Functiono Pantothenic acid is a constituent of coenzyme A, which is the
important coenzyme of acyl transfer.
Deficiency symptomso Pantothenic acid deficiencies are considered to be rare in practice
because of the wide distribution of the vitamin.
Folic acid
Sourceso Folic acid is widely distributed in nature; green leafy materials and
cereals are good sources of the vitamin. Functions
o After absorption into the cell, folic acid is converted into tetrahydrofolic acid which functions as a coenzyme in the mobilization and utilisation of single-carbon groups
Deficiency symptomso Poor growtho Anaemiao Poor bone developmento Congenital malformations including neural tube defects
BIOTIN AND CHOLINE
Biotin
A part of the vitamin B complex, biotin is chemically 2-keto-3, 4 imidazolido 2-tetrahydrothiophene-n-valeric acid.
Sourceso Biotin is widely distributed in foods; liver, milk, yeast, oilseeds and
vegetable are rich sources. Functions
o Biotin serves as the prosthetic group of several enzymes which catalyse the transfer of carbon dioxide from one substrate to another.
o In animals there are three biotin-dependent enzymes of particular important:
pyruvate carboxylase, accetyl coenzyme A carboxylase and propionyl coenzyme A carboxylase.
Deficiency symptomso Foot lesionso Alopecia (hair loss) o Dry scaly skin.o Avidin, a protein present in the raw white of eggs can induce biotin
deficiency, which combines with the vitamin and prevents its absorption from the intestine.
Choline
Sourceso Green leafy materials, yeast, egg yolk and cereals are rich sources of
choline. Function
o Essential structural component of body tissues.o It is a component of lecithins which play a vital role in cellular
structure and activity.o It also plays an important part in lipid metabolism in the liver by
preventing the accumulattion of fat.o It serves as a donor of methyl groups in transmethylation reactionso Is a component of acetylcholine which is responsible for the
transmission of nerve impulses.o Choline can be synthesized in the liver from methionine and the level
of methionine in the diet therefore influences the exogenous requirement for this vitamin.
Deficiency symptomso Slow growth and fatty infiltration of the liver
VITAMIN C
Sources
Citrus fruits and green leafy vegetables.
Functions
Plays an important role in the oxidative reduction reaction of living cells. Formation of collagen and intercellular cement substance (Capillaries, teeth,
bone) Metabolism of tyrosine Absorption of Fe and incorporation of plasma Fe into ferritin. Hydroxylation of deoxycorticosterone, tryptophan, phenylalanine
Essentiality
Vitamin C is dietary essential only in man, other primates, guinea pig red vented bulbul and fruit eating bat These species lack the enzyme L-gulonolactone oxidase. Other species synthesise vitamin C from glucose.
Deficiency
Causes Scurvyo Weaknesso Bleedingo Loosening of teetho Swollen jointso Hemorrhages.
MODULE-28: DIET FORMULATION, PREPERATION AND FEEDING PRACTICES OF MICE, RAT AND GUINEA PIG
Learning objectives
The module provides learner with information on the uniqueness in guinea pig nutrition and feeding.
INTRODUCTION TO DIET PREPARATION
The feeding of rat, mice and guinea pig can be by using of three types of diets they are
Natural diets: This diet is prepared from natural ingredients. It comprises of a blend of cereals, legumes, oilcakes, fruits, vegetables, roughages etc
Semi synthetic diets: This diet is prepared from a combination of natural ingredients and is purified (starch, sugar, casein, fat, vitamins and minerals).
Synthetic diets or purified diet: It is prepared from a combination of purified protein, amino acids, carbohydrates, fats, minerals and vitamins.
RAT AND MICE FEEDING Rats and mice are omnivores they eat primarily plant material but are
also know to eat some meat products. They possess continually growing incisors which wear down. Good-quality fresh, clean water must be readily available at all times.
Pellets are preferred. The pellets should be 3-4 mm in diameter and no longer than 8 mm.
Diets containing seeds and nuts are not recommended because they contain too many fats and oils, provide inadequate protein levels and are not necessarily balanced.
Food-delivery system
The food can be "dispensed" from a specially designed wire or mesh cage top that provides a generous depression into which the dry food
is supplied and through which the food can be eaten.
Sample diet
A sample diet that could be prepared for feedin rat and mice is given below
IngredientQuantity
(g)
Ground wheat 230
Wheat middling 100
Ground corn 245
Corn gluten meal 30
Soyabean oil 25
Dehydrated alfalfa meal
40
Soyabean meal 120
Fish meal 100
Dried molasses 35
DCP 12.5
Ground limestone 5
Iodized salt 7
Salt 5
Non fat dry milk solids
50
Feed intake rat and mice
Adult mice will eat 4-5 grams of feed per day. Adult rats will eat 12-15 grams of feed per day.
Type of feed
Pellet feed preferred due to gnawing Pellet size - 3-4 mm in diameter and no longer than 8 mm.
Last modified: Wednesday, 18 April 2012, 04:35 PM
GUINEA PIG FEEDING
Guinea pigs are herbivores and require plenty of grass hay and greens and limited concentrate.
They have continuously growing incisors and molars which wear down with the normal action of eating.
Guinea pigs produce nutrient rich cecotropes which they eat directly from the anal area.
Guinea pig feed
Generally ration for guinea pigs contains 18-20% protein, 16% fiber and about 1 gram of vitamin C per kilogram of ration.
On storage of feed about half of the vitamin C content is degraded and lost within 6 weeks of manufacture .
Dark leafy greens are important to guinea pigs due to their requirement for an external source of vitamin C.
The minimum daily requirement for vitamin C in the guinea pig is 10-30 mg per day.
Guinea pigs can easily get this amount with the feeding of 1/2 to 1 cup of fresh leafy greens daily.
Supplementing vitamin C in the water is not very effective due the rapid breakdown of the vitamin when it is exposed to light and heat and the fact that some vitamin C products have a very bitter taste.
Water
It is to be kept free from contamination by providing it in water bottles. Guinea pigs contaminate and clog their water bottles by chewing on the end of the sipper tube and "backwashing" food particles into it.
Guinea pigs do not tolerate changes in the presentation, taste, odor, texture or form of their food and water.
Any changes in the food itself should be made gradually.
Recommended nutrient allowances for growing guinea pigs
Nutrient content Sample Diet
ME Kcal/kg 2800 Ingredient g/Kg
Protein (%) 18 Alfalfa meal 350
Fibre (%) 15 Ground wheat 236
Calcium (%) 0.8-1 Ground oats 252.5
Phosphorus (%)
0.4-0.7
Soyabean meal 120
Zinc (mg/kg) 20 Ground limestone 10
Iron (mg/kg) 50 Iodized salt 7.5
DCP 5
Soybean oil 15
Minerals and vitamins
4
Feed Consumption
Growing guinea pigs: 20 -30 g Adult guinea pigs: 30 – 50 g Pregnant and lactating: 40 – 60 g
MODULE-29: DIET FORMULATION, PREPERATION AND FEEDING PRACTICES OF RABBIT
Learning objectives
The module enables learner to gain information on nutrition and feeding of rabbits.
RABBIT FEEDING
Rabbits are herbivores and require plenty of roughage and limited concentrates. They have continuously growing incisors and molars which wear down with the normal action of eating.
As in guinea pigs they produce nutrient rich cecotropes which they eat directly from the anal area.
The colon uniqueness
The proximal colon has dual function, if the contents of the caecum enter the colon in the early morning, they undergo few chemical changes and purely become pellets coated with mucus. These pellets gather into clusters and are known as soft or night pellets or Caecotrophes.
At other times of the day the solid part of the food containing fibres over 0.3 mm long forms hard pellets and is excreted. Hard pellets are expelled directly, but the soft pellets are recovered from the anus immediately upon being expelled.
To do this, the rabbit twists itself around, sucks in the soft faeces, and then swallows them without chewing.
By the end of the morning there are large numbers of these pellets inside the stomach which comprises almost ¾ of the total contents. Soft pellets follow the same digestion pattern as normal feed.
Some parts of the feed may be recycled up to 4 times. This process of recycling faeces in order to fully digest the feed is known as caecotrophy. The soft pellets are mucus-coated.
Half the pellets consist of imperfectly broken-down food and gastric secretions The other half consists of bacteria - contain a large amount of high-value proteins and water-soluble vitamins.
Feeding rabbits through their stages of development
Rabbits need to be fed differently at different stages of their growth to ensure healthy development, digestion, and weight. Throughout a rabbit's life, avoid any sudden changes in diet; new foods should always be introduced gradually.
Fresh clean water should be available at all times. Water bottles are recommended.
Feeding kits
A baby rabbit or kit, feeds solely on its mother's milk for about the first three weeks. During the first few days, the milk contains high levels of antibodies that help protect the kit from disease.
After three weeks, the kit will begin nibbling on any feed offered to its mother. By 7 weeks of age, kits can be fed feed similar to that of an adult. Weaning is practiced by 8 weeks of age.
Feeding Juveniles
Between weaning and 7 months of age, the young rabbit can have an unlimited amount of feed both roughage and concentrate.
Feeding young adults
Young adult rabbits from age 7 months to 1 year should be introduced to grass/ hays, and it should be available all day long. At this stage they will require little concentrate.
Mature adults
Mature adult rabbits should be fed hay/grass. The concentrate can be reduced in maintenance rabbits.
Feeding pregnant and lactating does
Hay / grass is fed adlibitum and concentrate can be fed upto 200 g /doe /day
Feed intake Rabbits
Growing rabbits (After weaning) 100g Resting Does 150g Does in Gestation 250g Nursing Does (until litter is 3 weeks of age) 250g Does with litter of 7 or 8 (3 to 8 weeks) 1000g
FEEDSTUFFS USED FOR RABBIT
Dry matter intake
For maintenance is 3.8 to 4% of body weight per day and it increases based on growth and production.
Feedstuffs commonly used for rabbits
Green roughages: Grasses, weeds and leafy vegetable.
Root crops: Carrots, sweet potatoes, turnips and beets. Cereal grains: Oats, wheat, barley, sorghum, corn and rice.
Milled feed: Bran.
Hays: Leguminous or non leguminous. Protein supplements: Any oilcake or pulses or animal products. Salt.
Complete feed for rabbits
Rabbits can be fed complete feeds in a pelleted form given below is an example of ingredient composition of complete feed.
Cow pea hay
30 g
Maize 28 g
DORB 25 g
GNC 15 g
Min mix 1.5 g
Salt 0.5 g
This feed provides a TDN of 68% and DCP of 16%.
Quantity to fed per day
Growing rabbits (After weaning): 100 g
Resting Does: 150 g Does in Gestation: 250 g Nursing Does (until litter is 3 weeks of age): 250 g Does with litter of 7 or 8 (3 to 8 weeks): 1000 g
Chewing items
A feed that requires little chewing produces uneven tooth wear, causing enamel to grow on the sides of the teeth. These spikes can cause severe oral pain and excessive salivation.
They also cause reluctance to chew, inability to close the mouth, and reduced food intake. In addition to roughages rabbits can be provided with chew sticks made of wood or any safe material. Feed efficiency for rabbits is 2.5:1.
MODULE-30: FEED SUPPLEMENTS - ENERGY SUPPLEMENTS
Learning objectives The module will provide learner with information on various energy
supplements available for inclusion in monogastric rations.
ENERGY SUPPLEMENTS
Cereal grains
Cereal grains are essentially carbohydrate concentrates, the main component of the dry matter being starch. The crude protein is the most variable component, usually ranging from 8-12%, deficient in certain essential amino acids, particularly lysine and methionine. The oil content varies from 2-5% cereal oils are unsaturated the main acids being linoleic and oleic and because of this they-tend to become rancid quickly and also produce a soft body fat. The crude fibre content is highest in oats and rice, which contains “husk or hull”, formed from the inner and outer palsae and is lowest in the ‘naked’ grains like wheat and maize.
The cereals are all deficient in calcium, containing less than 0.15%. The phosphorus content is higher, being 0.3-0.5%, but part of this is present as phytates. Cereal phytates have the property of being able to immobilize dietary calcium. The cereal grains are deficient in vitamin A with the exception of yellow maize, which is rich in pro-vitamin A. They are good sources of vitamin E and thiamin, but have a low content in riboflavin.
Commonly fed cereals are maize, barely, oats, wheat, rice etc.
Maize or Corn: (Zea maize)
Maize appears in a variety of colours, yellow, white or red. Yellow maize contains a pigment, cryptoxanthin, which is a precursor of vitamin A. Though an excellent source of digestible energy, maize is low in protein. Maize contains about 65% starch, is low in fibre and has a high metabolisable energy value. The crude protein content ranges from 8-13%. The maize kernel consists of two main types of protein. Zein occurring in endosperm, is quantitatively the most important but this protein is deficient in the essential amino acids, tryptophan and lysine. The other protein of maize glutelin occurs in the endosperm and also in the germ, is a better source of these two amino acids. Recently plant breeders have produced new varieties of maize with amino acid components different from those present in normal maize; one such variety is Opaque-2, which has a high lysine content. The difference between this variety and normal maize is primarily attributed to the zein: glutelin ratio. A newer variety Floury-2 has both increased methionine and lysine content.
Barley (Hordeum vulgare)
A palatable, but fibrous feed. The crude protein of barley grain ranges from about 6-14% with average values of 9-10% with oil content less than 2%. Barley forms the main concentrate food for fattening pigs in the United Kingdom, producing a good carcass with hard fat of high quality. Barley is low in lysine, variety Notch I and Notch II are rich in lysine, but low in yield. Barley should always have the awns removed before they are offered to Poultry or swine. Barley is usually steam rolled (flaked), crimped or coarsely ground before feeding.
Oats has the high crude fibre (10 – 18%) than maize and hence lower TDN. The crude protein content ranges from 7-15%, deficient in methionine, histidine and tryptophan. Glutamic acid is the most abundant amino acids. Oats are usually given ground to pigs and poultry.
Wheat (Triticum aestivum)
The crude protein ranges from 6-12%, though it is normally between 8 and 14%. The most important proteins present in the endosperm are a prolamin (gliadin) and glutelin (Glutenin). The mixture of protein present in the endosperm is often referred to as gluten. Glutenin contains about three times as much lysine that are present in gliadin. The amino acids present in wheat gluten are the non-essential acids glutamic acid (33%) and proline (12%). Wheat gluten varies in properties and it is mainly the properties of the gluten, which decide whether the flour is suitable for bread or biscuit making. All glutens posses the property of elasticity. Strong glutens are preferred for bread making and form dough, which traps the gases produced during yeast fermentation. This property of gluten is considered to be the main reason why finely ground wheat is unpalatable to animals. Wheat if finely milled forms a pasty mass in the mouth, and may lead to digestive upset.
Millets
Millets are cereals, which produced small grain and have higher percentage of fibre. e.g. Sorghum, Bajra, etc.
Sorghum (Sorghum Vulgare)
Sorghum is similar to maize is chemical composition except that sorghum is slightly higher in protein and low in oil than maize. Whole grain can be given to sheep, pig and poultry but are usually ground for cattle.
Bajra (Pennesetum typhoides)
It resembles sorghum in its nutritive value contains 8-12% crude protein, is rich in tannin content. As the seeds are hard, they should be ground or crushed before being fed to cattle.
Oats (Avena sativa)
MILLING BY-PRODUCTS
Bran
It is the outer coarse coat of the grain, separated during processing e.g. Rice bran, wheat bran, maize bran etc.
Rice bran
Rice bran is valuable product containing 12-14% protein and 11-18% oil. The oil is particularly unsaturated and may become rancid very quickly. Presently the oil is removed from the rice bran and a product known, as deoiled rice bran is available in market for livestock feeding.
Wheat bran
Wheat bran is popular food for horses contain more fibre. Its popularity as a food for ruminants and horses bring due to its well-known physical property. When made into a mash with warm water, it acts as a laxative, but when given dry it tends to counter act scouring. Because of the fibrous nature and low digestibility bran is not commonly given to pig and poultry.
Flour
Soft, finely ground meal of the grains consists primarily of gluten and starch from endosperm e.g. Corn flour, wheat flour and rice flour etc. Flour contains about 16% protein and 1 – 1.5% crude fibre.
Germ
It is the embryo of any seed, rich in protein and fat.
Gluten
When flour is washed to remove the starch, a tough, substance remains, which are known as gluten e.g., corn gluten. Gluten feed is generally not feed to non-ruminants due to bulkiness, poor quality protein and unpalatability.
Grain Screening
Small imperfect grains, weed seeds and other foreign material of value as a feed that is separated through the cleaning of grain with screen is called grain screening. The nutritive value depends on the composition.
Hulls
Outer covering of the grain, generally not utilized as livestock feed.
Middling
A by-product of flour milling industry comprising several grades of granular particles consisting of varying proportion of bran, endosperm and germ.
Polishing
By-product of rice, consisting of a fine residue that accumulates during polishing of rice kernel contains about 10-15% protein, 12% fat and 3-4% crude fibre. It is an excellent source of energy and vitamin B complex. Due to high fat content rancidity can pose problem.
MODULE-31: FEED SUPPLEMENTS - PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTS
Learning objectives
This module provides information on protein supplements that could be used for feeding monogastrics.
PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTS
Protein supplements contain more than 18 % protein. They can be from animal origin or plant origin.
PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTS OF PLANT ORIGIN
Oil seed cake/meal
Groundnut or peanut oil meal Soybean oil meal Linseed meal Coconut meal Cotton seed meal Safflower meal Sunflower seed meal Mustard cake Sesame seed meal Rape seed meal Palm kernel meal etc.,
Groundnut oil cake or peanut oil meal
It is most widely used high protein feed that can be included upto 50% of the ration.
It has about 45% protein and 10% oil in expeller variety. It is deficient in lysine, methionine and cystine. The ME content is around 2500 Kcal/Kg. Particularly in warm rainy season liable to contain a toxic factor – Aflatoxin a
metabolite of fungus Aspergillus flavus.
Soybean oil meal
The protein (44%) contains all the indispensable amino acids, but the concentrations of cystine and methionine are sub-optimal.
The cake is used for all kinds of livestock including poultry upto 30% of the ration.
As with most other oil seeds, raw soyabeans have a number of toxic, substances. They include goitrogenic material, the kunitz anti-trypsin factor, the Bowman-Brik chymotrypsin inhibitor, Haemogglutinin and Lectins, these inhibitors and other factors like saponins are inactivated by proper heat treatment (roasting or toasting) during processing.
Soyabeans also contain genistein, a plant estrogen, which may account, in some cases for part of the high growth inducing properties.
Linseed Meal
The protein (CP 40%) of linseed meal is having a lower methionine and lysine content. Linseed meal has only a moderate calcium content but rich in phosphorus part of which is present as phytase. It is a useful source of Vitamin, riboflavin, nicotinamide, pantothenic acid and choline. Linseed meal produces soft body fat and gives a very good sleek appearance to the animal. Linseed meal can be included only upto 10 % in poultry diet and it is not a good protein supplement for poultry.
Coconut meal (Copra meal)
The crude protein content is low (20-26%) and poor in lysine and histidine. The oil content of coconut meal varies from 2.5 to 6.5% the higher oil meals
tends to get rancid and thus will cause diarrhoea. Hence low oil content type should be preferred.
Due to poor quality of protein and high fibre,its use should be restricted in swine and poultry rations. If it is fed to monogastric, it should be supplemented with lysine and methionine
Another important property of coconut oil cake is it can absorb ½ its own weight of molasses so it is popular in feed compounding.
Cotton seed meal
The protein of cotton seed meal ( CP 40%) is of good quality, but has the common disadvantage of oil seed residues of having a low content of cystine, methionine and lysine. The calcium content is low and as the calcium to phosphorus ratio is about 1:6 deficencies of calcium may easily arise. Pigs and poultry do not readily accept the meal largely owing to its dry dusty nature. Cotton seed contains 0.3 to 20g/kg dry matter of a yellow pigment known as gossypol. Gossypol is a polyphenolic aldehyde which is an antioxidant and polymerisation inhibitor and is toxic to simple stomached animals. The general symptoms of gossypol toxicity are depressed appetite and loss of weight, death In poultry layers gossypol causes olive green discolouration of egg yolk. Cyclopropenoids are also present in cotton seed meal and they cause pink discolouration of egg white in layers. To counter act the effect of gossypol ferrous sulphate can be added 1 to 4 parts per one part free gossypol.
The meal is produced after removal of most of the hull and oil from safflower seed. In decorticated form it has about 40-45 per cent protein while the value goes down to about 18-20 if not decorticated. The 18-20 per cent protein safflower meals contains about 60 per cent hulls which limits its energy value and utilization in non-ruminants
Safflower Meal andSunflower seed meal
The meals are useful sources of protein (30%) which is low in lysine but has about twice as much methionine as does soya protein.
The meal is palatable but is laxative and has a very short shelf life. Decortication is difficult in sunflower seeds, hulls can only be partially
removed hence sunflower meal meal has high crude fibre (22%). ME is 1700 Kcal/Kg. This can be used in Swine ration upto 2.5 to 5 per cent and in adult poultry
ration upto 10 per cent, it is not to be included in ration of young birds.
Mustard cake (Sarson)
Widely used in many parts of Northern India for cattle feeding. Nutritive value is much less than that of ground nut cake. D.C.P. and T.D.N.
values are 27% and 74% respectively. It should preferably be mixed with other, more well-liked feeds. The deoiled type can be used for poultry upto 10 per cent of the ration and for pigs the amount may go as high as 20 per cent.
The calcium and phosphorus content are much higher, being about 0.6 per cent and 1.0 per cent.
Sesame seed meal ( Til Cake)
Sesame seed meal is produced from what remains following production of oil from sesame seed and the meal is extensively used for all classes of livestock including poultry. Contains about 40% protein rich in leucine, arginine and methionine and low in lysine. The residual oil in sesame seed meal is rich in PUFA, hence rancidity develops quickly and rancid meal is unpalatable. It also leads to the production of soft body fat. It is rich in phytic acid making the phosphorus unavailable. Sesame seed hulls are rich in oxalates hence decortication is a must. It is not to be fed to young pigs and poultry, in adults it can be included upto 5% of ration.
ANIMAL PROTEIN CONCENTRATES
Animal protein concentrates are as below
Fish meal Meat meal Blood meal Hatchery waste Milk products
Fish meal
Fish meal is the product obtained by drying and grinding whole fish or parts of various species. Fish meals are produced in two ways. The first is by processing fish in steam jacketed vessels, which may be either a batch process carried out under vaccum or a continuous process not employing reduced pressure. In both the cases heating is carriedout in steam jacketed vessels. In the flame drying process the meal is dried in a revolving drum by hot air from a furnace at one end of the drum.
The quality of the protein (CP 50 –60%) in fishmeal is high. Processing conditions, particularly the degree and length of time of heating are probably the major reason for decreasing protein quality. Fishmeal protein
has a high content of lysine, methionine and tryptophan and is a valuable supplement to cereal-based diet. Fish meal has high mineral content (Total ash 10-20%, Ca 8%, P 3.5%), good source of vitamin B complex and have an enhanced nutritional value because of growth factor known collectively as the Animal protein factor (APF). Fish meal should be tested for salt content, as excessive salt may lead to salt toxicity in monogastric animals and birds.
Fishmeals find their greatest use with simple-stomached animals. They are used mostly in diets for young animals whose demand for protein and the indispensable amino acids is particularly high and for whom the growth-promoting effects of APF are valuable.
Meat meal
It is the product obtained by drying and grinding carcasses and parts of carcasses of warm blooded land animals. It should be free from hair, feathers, horn, hoof and skin and contents of stomach and viscera. Meat meal contains 60-70% protein with 9% fat, various unidentified beneficial factors have been claimed to be present in meat meal, among them. The enteric growth factor from the intestinal tract of swine, the ‘Ackerman’ factor. However, the low methionine and tryptophan levels in meals affect their protein quality.
MODULE-32: FEED ADDITIVES
Learning objectives This module gives a detailed account on the various feed additives that could
be used for feeding monogastrics.
SUPPLEMENT Vs ADDITIVE
What is Supplement?
The term, supplement, refers to feedstuffs that are used to improve the value of basal feeds. They can be used in large quantities, such as protein supplements, or in extremely small quantities, such as trace minerals.
While formulating ration, attention is first given to its dry matter, proteins and energy requirements. After this micronutrients such as individual amino acids, minerals, and vitamins are added to correct any deficiency in the ration.
What is an Additive?
An additive is a substance that is added to a basic feed, usually in small quantities, for the purpose of fortifying it with certain nutrients, stimulants or medicines other than as a direct source of nutrient.
In general, the term “feed additive” refers to a non-nutritive product that affects utilisation of the feed or productive performance of the animal. Feed additives and implants can be classed according to their mode of action.
ADDITIVES THAT ENHANCE FEED INTAKE
Antioxidants
Antioxidants are compounds that prevent oxidative rancidity of polyunsaturated fats. Rancidity once develops, may cause destruction of vitamins A, D and E and several of the B complex vitamins. Breakdown products of rancidity may react with lysine and thus affects the protein value of the ration. Ethoxyquin or BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene) can serve as antioxidant in feed.
Flavouring Agent
Flavouring agents are feed additives that are supposed to increase palatability and feed intake. There is need for flavouring agents that will help to keep up feed intake.
o When highly unpalatable medicants are being mixedo During attacks of diseaseso When animals are under stress, ando When a less palatable feedstuffs is being fed either as such or being
incorporated in the ration. Ruminants prefer sweet compounds. Additionally cattle and
goats respond positively to salts of volatile fatty acids. Horses will often refuse musty feed when there is so little mould that the owner fails to detect it.
Additives that enhance the colour or quality of the marketed product
Poultry man will often enhance the yellow colour by incorporating xanthophylls into broiler feed. Among various additives, arsanilic acid, sodium arsanilate and roxarsone are added for the purpose.
Additives that facilitate digestion and absorption
Grito Poultry do not have teeth to grind any hard grain, most grinding takes
place in the thick musculated gizzard. The more thoroughly feed is ground, the more surface area is created for digestion and subsequent absorption. Hence, when hard, coarse or fibrous feeds are fed to poultry, grit is sometimes added to supply additional surface for grinding within gizzard. When mash or finely ground feeds are fed, the value of grit become less. Oyster shells, coquina shells and limestone are used as grit.
Buffers and Neutraliserso During maximum production stage ruminants are given high doses of
concentrate feeds for meeting demands for extra energy and protein requirement of the animal. The condition on the other hand lowers the pH of the rumen. Since, many of the rumen microbes cannot tolerate low pH environment, the normally heterogeneous balanced population of microbes become skewed, favouring the acidophilic (acid-loving) bacteria. The condition often leads to acidosis and thereby upsets normal digestion.
o The addition of feed buffers and neutralisers, such as carbonates, bicarbonates, hydroxides, oxides, salts of VFA, phosphate salts, ammonium chloride and sodium sulphate have been shown to have beneficial effects. Recently the use of baking soda (NaHCO3) has been shown to increase average daily gain by about 10 per cent, feed efficiency by 5 to 10 per cent, and milk production by about 0.5 liter per head per day.
Enzymeso Enzymes are protein which have the property of catalysing specific
biochemical reactions. They are found in all plants and animals and are responsible for growth and the maintenance of health.
o Microorganism also produce enzymes and in recent years it has been possible to produce enzymes using microorganism on an industrial scale, extract and use these enzymes in a wide range of processes for the production of feed and natural products.
o Poultry feeds are largely composed or plant and vegetables materials and there are enzymes developed to degrade, modify or extract the plant polymers found in some of the cereals and their by-products. The enzymes can be used to improve the feeding of poultry in the following way:
By improving the efficiency of the utilisation of the feed. By upgrading cereals by-products or feed components that are
poorly digested.
By providing additional digestive enzymes to help poultry to withstand stress conditions eg. Hot climates.
o Some of the cereals are compounds of polymers either of glucose (beta glucan) or arabinose and xylose (pentosan or hemicellulose). These polymers are not well digested by poultry and this can be result in loss of energy in two ways:
Energy may be lost become these polymers hinder the digestion of starch by coating starch granules and preventing the action of starch digesting enzymes in the intestine.
Energy may be lost because the animals own enzymes are not capable of degrading the polymers and therefore they pass through the digestive system untouched.
o By adding microbial enzymes to the feed these polymers can be degraded and their energy value made available to the bird.
o The dual role of enzymes has been demonstrated in trials with barley based feed supplemented with beta-glucanase, where the apparent increase in available energy was far in excess of that available in the beta-glucan of the barley. Inm this case not only was the problem of sticky dropping completely eliminated but the chicken’s rate of growth was equivalent to that observed normally with feeds containing a higher energy density (eg. Wheat based).
Choice of enzymeo Because of feed is normally composed of a single raw material of
constant quality, it is important that the correct choice of enzyme product be made. Even in the case of a relatively well defined problem such as that in barley, the use of multi enzyme activity products in an advantage.
o The enzymes should fulfil the following criteria for practical application:
o The enzymes must be active at the pH of the animals digestive system and capable of surviving transit through the stomach.
o They must be in a physical form in which they can be safely and easily mixed into all forms of animal feed.
o The products should be or a high standarised activity that will remain stable both before and after incorporation into the feed or pre-mix.
o The enzymes must be capable of surviving normal pelleting conditions.
Additives that promotes growth and production
Antibiotics
These are substances which are produced by living organisms (mould, bacteria or green plants) and which in small concentration have bacteriostatic or bactericidal properties. They were originally developed for medical and veterinary purposes to control specific pathogenic organisms. Later it was discovered that certain antibiotics could increase the rate of growth of young pigs and chicks when included in their diet in small amounts. Soon after this report a wide range of antibiotics have been tested and the following have been shown to have growth promoting properties:
penicillin, oxytetracycline (Terramycin), chlortetracycline, bacitracin, streptomycin, tyrothricin, gramicidin, neomycin, erythromycin and flavomycin. Increased weight gain is most evident during the period of rapid growth and then decreases. Differences between control and treated animals are greater when the diet is slightly deficient or marginal in protein, B-vitamins or certain mineral elements.
Mode of Action of Antibioticso Antibiotics “spare” protein, amino acids and vitamin on diets
containing 1 to 3 per cent less protein, but balance experiments have often failed to show increased nitrogen retention. Growth stimulation has been greatest when the antibiotic penicillin supplement has been added to a ration containing no protein supplements of animal origin or to a ration low in vitamin B12. Under hygienic conditions growth increases are small.
o Intestinal wall of animals fed antibiotics is thinner than that of untreated animals which might explain the enhanced absorption of calcium shown for chicks.
o Reduce or eliminate the activity of pathogens causing “subclinical infection.”
o Reduce the growth of micro-organisms that compete with the host for supplies of nutrients.
o Antibiotics alter intestinal bacteria so that less urease is produced and thus less ammonia is formed. Ammonia is highly toxic and suppresses growth in non-ruminants.
o Stimulate the growth of micro-organisms that synthesise known or unidentified nutrients.
Following points should be kept in mind while using antibiotics for animal feeding:
o Antibiotics should be used only for (a) growing and fattening pigs for slaughter as pork or bacon; (b) growing chicks and turkey poults for killing as table poultry.
o Antibiotics should not be used in the feed of ruminant animals (cattle, sheep and goats), breeding pigs and breeding and laying poultry stock.
o While adding antibiotics at the recommended level, care should be taken that they are thoroughly and evenly mixed with the feed.
o For best results, antibiotics should be used with properly balanced feeds. Also, the feeds containing antibiotics should be fed only to the type of stock for which they are intended.
o Antibiotics are not a substitute for good management and healthy living conditions, or for properly balanced rations.
Probiotics
It is defined as a live microbial feed supplement, which beneficially affects the host animals by improving its intestional microbial balance. The probiotic preparation are generally composed of organisms of lactobacilli and/or streptococci species, few many contain yeast caltones.
They benefit the host by:
o Having a direct antagonistic effect against specific group of undesirable or harmful organism through production of antibacterial compounds, elementary or minimising their competition of nutrients.
o Altering the pattern of microbial metabolism in the gastro intentional tract.
o Stimulation of immunity.o Neutralisation of entrotoxins formed by pathegenic organism.
Thus resulting in increased growth rate, improved feed efficiency.
Arsenicals
Additives that alter metabolism
Hormones
These are chemicals released by a specific area of the body (ductless glands) and are transported to another region within the animal where they elicit a physiological response.
Extensive use is being made of synthetic and purified estrogens, androgens, progestogens, growth hormones and thyroxine or thyroprotein (iodinated casein) to stimulate the growth and fattening of meat producing animals. There is concern, however, about possible harmful effects of any residues of these materials in the meat or milk for the consumers.
The whole question whether hormones should be used as growth promoters is still debatable but it seems logical that with any feeding system the economic advantages, however great should never take precedence over any potential risk to human health. These substances may induce cancer in human beings if taken over a prolonged period through products of the treated animals. The use of such substances in poultry rearing has been prohibited by law in U.S.A.
Implants
Implants are hormone or hormone like products that are designed to release slowly, but constantly, the active chemicals for absorption into the bloodstream. These are implanted subcutaneously in the ear.(eg.) diethylstilbesterol (DES).
Additives that affect the health status of livestock
Antibloat compounds : Surfactants such as poloxalene is used as a preventive for pasture bloat,several other products have been shown to be highly effective to prevent bloat are also available in the market.
Antifungal additives : Mould inhibitors are added to feed liable to be contaminated with various types of fungi such as Aspergillus flavus, Penicillium cyclopium etc. Before adding commercial inhibitors all feedstuff should be dried below 12 cent moisture. Propionic, acetic acid and sodium propionate are added in high moisture grain to inhibit mould growth.
Antifungals such as Nystatin and copper sulphate preparations are also in use to concentrate feeds to prevent moulds.
Anticoccidials: Various brands of anticocidials are now available in the country to prevent the growth of coccidia which are protozoa and live inside the cells of the intestinal lining of livestock.
Antihelmintics: Under some practical feeding conditions anthelmintics have also been used. The compounds act by reducing parasitic infections.
Anticaking agents
Anticaking agents are anhydrous substance that can pick up moisture without themselves becoming wet. They are added to dry mixes to prevent the particles clumping together and so keep the product free flowing.
They are either anhydrous salts or substance that hold water by surface adhesion yet themselves remain free flowing:
o Salt or long chain fatty acids.o Calcium phosphateo Potassium and sodium ferryocyanideo Magnesium oxideo Salts silicic acid – Al, Mg, Ca, Salt.o Sodium aluminium silicateo Sodium calcium aluminium silicateo Calcium aluminium silicate
Humectantso These are substance which are required to keep the product moist, as
for example, bread and cakes. Anticaking agents immobilise moisture that was picked up. Humectants are not or much use in poultry feed.
Firming and crisping agentso These are substance that preserve the texture or vegetable tissues
and by maintaining the water pressure inside them, keep them turgid. It prevents a loss of water from the tissues.
Sequestrantso Certain metals – copper, iron can act as pro-oxidant catalytic and
there fore need to the immobilised. Sequestrants are compounds added to do this.
o These compounds should have affinity to metal ions and should prevent the metal in becoming engaged in oxidative action. Most effective sequestrants EDTA.
Ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid. Calcium salt of EDTA works satisfactorily as a sequestrants
without interferring with trace mineral metabolism. Sweeteners
o It is common constitution of food but yet used as additives. Eg. Sugar.o Some are poorly digestible, may cause digestive upsets.o Saccharin – extensively used during World War I. It is a compound
without any calorific value.o Additives such as humectants, firming and crisping agents,
sweeteners, emulsifiers, stabilisers, acid, buffers are not commonly used in poultry feeds.
MODULE-33: DOG NUTRITION
Learning objectives The module gives a comprehensive information on dog nutrition and feeding.
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS
The requirements of various nutrients discussed here areo Energyo Watero Proteino Carbohydrateo Fat
Energy
Factors influences on energy requirements
Physiological Stateo Compared to adult dog, growing puppies require two to four times
more energy per kg of body weight. As the puppy approaches adulthood, energy requirement is reduced.
o Similarly for reproducing females, energy requirements at the end of gestation and during early lactation is two to four times greater than that of adult maintenance requirements.
Breed Differenceso Small breed dogs grow to a mature weight, which is up to 30 times
greater than their birth weight. Therefore small breeds require more food per Kg of body weight compared to large breeds.
o To relate energy needs to body size, energy standards for dogs are usually established by body weight.
Mature body weights
Energy requirement (M.E. per Kg. of body weight per day).
Less than 10Kg 50 K cals
Between 10 and 20 Kg
30-40 K cals
Greater than 20 Kg
20-30 K cals
Environmento Dogs housed outdoors and exposed to extreme weather have changes
in their caloric requirements.
o During hot weather, energy needs decrease and less food may be required. Conversely, during cold weather energy needs increase to maintain body temperature and more food may be required.
Activityo During hard work, individual dogs' energy requirements will be
increased above that of maintenance. Hardworking dogs require more energy intake per Kg of body weight during periods when they are training or working.
o When the animal is not training or working, their energy requirement is lower and a maintenance-type food may be fed.
o Feeding high-calorie, nutrient dense foods to dogs when they are not training or working could contribute to excessive weight gain.
Regulation of feed intakeo Animals eat to meet their energy needs. The intake of all nutrients is
influenced by the amount of energy present in the diet.o The energy content of the diet generally limits the amount of food an
animal will consume.
Calculation of Energy requirements in Dogs
Adult Maintenance - ME requirement = K x W Kg0.67
K = 132 Inactive, 145 Active, 200 Very Active, 300 Endurance performance.
Post Weaned 2 x Adult maintenance
40 % Adult Body weight 1.6 x Adult maintenance
80 % Adult Body weight 1.2 x Adult maintenance
Late Gestation 1.25 – 1.5 x Adult maintenance
Lactation 3 x Adult maintenance
Prolonged physical work 2 –4 x Adult maintenance
Decreased Environmental temperature
1.2 – 1.8 x Adult maintenance
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Water
Water requirement is determined by the amount of food that the animal consumes. A general guideline is that animals require 1 ml of water for each kcal of energy.
A dog-requiring 1000 kcals per day, therefore, would require 1000 ml of water. As food intake increases, an animal's water intake also increases. When the water content of a diet increases, the animal usually drinks less water.
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Protein
Dietary proteins that are digested in the stomach and small intestine are broken down to form free amino acids, which are then absorbed into the bloodstream.
Amino acids are distributed to all cells of the body where they are utilized to build body proteins. Out of the twenty amino acids involved in the synthesis of proteins in the body only ten of these are essential for dogs.
Essential amino acids include: arginine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine , tryptophan, valine.
Protein Requirements
A dog's protein requirement depends upon the life stage and activity of the dog. Puppies need more protein than adult dogs.
Protein needs of a puppy can be met by a high quality protein providing 20 to 25% of dietary calories. Severe protein deficiency in dogs results in poor food intake, growth retardation or weight loss, subnormal concentrations of blood proteins, muscle wasting, emaciation and death.
Less severe deficiency can cause a rough, dull hair coat, compromised function of the immune system and poor milk production in reproducing bitches. During periods of stress, the protein requirement may be increased. In animals fed diets containing more protein than is needed, extra protein is metabolized and used for energy.
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Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are sugars, starches and dietary fiber. Dietary fibers are carbohydrates which are not completely digestible. Carbohydrates are supplied in the diet by cereal grains and sugars, such as glucose, sucrose , and lactose.
When animals consume diets containing more carbohydrates than are needed, excess carbohydrate energy is stored in the form of glycogen in the liver and muscles and is converted to fat and stored in adipose tissues.
During periods of fasting, stress, or exercise, glycogen is broken down to glucose and delivered to the bloodstream where it is distributed to all body tissues.
Fibre
Dietary fiber has numerous effects within the gastrointestinal tract. Fibers have a high water-holding capacity and contribute to easy passage of digesta.
Moreover it contributes to bulk leading to stomach distention and causes the animal to eat a lesser amount. Dietary fiber decreases digestion and absorption of fat, vitamins and minerals.
As a protective mechanism, fiber can bind to some toxins and prevent their absorption into the bloodstream. Excessive dietary fiber is associated with loose stools, flatulence, increased stool volume and frequency, and decreased dietary caloric density.
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Fat
Fats are concentrated forms of energy. Fat digestion is more complex than that of protein or carbohydrates.
Healthy dogs and cats can digest fats with great efficiency, approximately 90-95%.
Fat Requirement
Fat supplies essential fatty acid linoleic acid. This is essential by dogs for maintaining healthy skin and haircoat, and serves as a carrier for fat-soluble vitamins. Fat also contributes to the palatability.
Extra fat is generally stored in the body within the adipose tissue. Animals fed diets too low in fat may develop signs that include dry, coarse hair and flaky, dry and thickened skin.
NUTRIENT CONTENT FOR DOG FOODS
Nutrient content for dog foods having 3.5 kcal/ME/g DM Source: Association of American Feed Control Officials
Nutrients DM Basis Growth Reproduction Mantenance
Units
Protein % 22 18
Arginine % 0.62 0.51
Histidine % 0.22 0.18
Isoleucine % 0.45 0.37
Leucine % 0.72 0.59
Lysine % 0.77 0.63
Methionine + Cystine
% 0.53 0.43
Phenylalanine + Tyrosine
% 0.89 0.73
Threonine % 0.58 0.48
Tryptophan % 0.20 0.16
Valine % 0.48 0.39
Fat % 8.0 5.0
Linoleic Acid 18:2
% 1 1
Minerals
Calcium % 1.0 0.6
Phosphorus % 0.8 0.5
Ca:P Ratio 1 to 1 1 to 1
Potassium % 0.6 0.6
Sodium % 0.3 0.06
Chloride % 0.45 0.09
Magnesium % 0.04 0.04
Iron mg/kg 80 80
Copper mg/kg 7.3 7.3
Manganese mg/kg 5 5
Zinc mg/kg 120 120
Iodine mg/kg 1.5 1.5
Selenium mg/kg 0.11 0.11
Vitamins
Vitamin A IU/kg 5000 5000
Vitamin D IU/kg 500 500
Vitamin E IU/kg 50 50
Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)
mg/kg 1.0 1
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
mg/kg 2.2 2.2
Pantothenic Acid mg/kg 10 10
Niacin mg mg/kg 11.4 11.4
Vitamin B6 Pyridoxine)
mg/kg 1.0 1.0
Folic Acid mg/kg 0.18 0.18
Vitamin B12 mg/kg 0.022 0.022
Choline mg/kg 1200 1200
COMMON FEEDSTUFF USED FOR DOGSMeat and meat by-products
Raw lean meat: Contain water 70-67%, protein 20-22% and fat 2-9% it is also a good source of minerals.
Offal meat: Include liver, kidney and spleen, meat. Quality and nutrient content is variable. Generally they are low in calcium, adverse Ca:P ratio 1:15 to 1:30. Liver is a good source of Vitamin A, D and B Complex with good quality protein.
Fish: White fish has 2% fat and its composition is similar to lean meat. Fatty fish has 5-18% fat. Fish has good quality protein, has high iodine content and a better Ca:P ratio.
Other animal by-products
Include blood meal, meat meal, meat and bone meal. Protein quality is variable depending upon the raw material and extent of heat treatment.
Ash and mineral content are also variable. Sterilized bone meal is commonly used. It contains 32% Ca and 14% P.
Dairy products
Include cream, skimmed milk, whey, cheese, etc. The lactose present in dairy products are not digested well as secretion of enzyme lactase is minimal.
Hence dairy products in dog and cat food should not be included at high level. Dairy products are also poor in Fe and vitamin D.
Eggs
It is a good source of Fe, B2, folic acid, B12, Vitamin A and D. Eggs do not have Vitamin C and Carbohydrate.
Eggs are also poor source of Niacin. Raw egg white contains Avidin.
Cereals and cereal by-products
Cereals are used as source of energy. They include rice, barley, oats, wheat and corn. Contains 12% moisture, 9-14% protein, 2-5% fat and about 70-80% carbohydrate as starch.
Wheat, oats and barley have a higher protein content and less fat than rice and maize. Rich in thiamine and Niacin. Phosphorus is in the form of phytase hence not available to the extent of 70%.
Fat and oils
Fats and oils have high energy density. Animal fats are liked by cats and dogs. They add flavor and palatability to other foods. Vegetable oils are rich in vitamin E.
Vegetables
Vegetables can be grouped aso Green leafy vegetables: Eg. Cabbage, cauliflower. Which have
high waterand fibre content,are good source of B vitamin however cooking destroys B Vitamins.
o Roots and tubers: It include potatoes, carrots, turnip, tapioca, rich in starch. Can be cooked and fed not to be fed raw.
o Leguminous vegetables: Rich in protein, good source of B complex vitamin. Anti nutritional factors like Trypsin inhibitors, Heamagglutinin are present in some of them but are destroyed by heat treatment.
TYPES OF DOG FOOD
Prepared foods are some times fed to companion animals. The prepared food can be classified on the basis of its moisture percent. They are
o Dry food (5-12%),o Semi-moist food (15-30%) ando Canned food (70-85%).
Dry food
Different dry foods for different physiological status are available. Available as biscuits, mixtures and meal or flakes.
May be complete food or complementary food, formulated as mixers intended for feeding as part of the diet with protein rich foods such as fish meats, fish. They are generally rich in carbohydrates.
Crude fat is 5-10% on dry basis. Mixtures are generally cereal based with very little protein concentrates may or may not be supplemented with minerals / vitamins.
The loss of vitamin during processing may be minimal since the temperature is not very high while processing. They have long shelf- life provided properly stored. The concentration of nutrients is high and feed intake is less.
Digestibility is acceptable but less than semi-moist or canned foods. The main disadvantage of the dry food is that they are much less palatable than moist foods. Cats may accept extruded biscuit forms but not meals or flakes.
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Semi-moist food
Has good digestibility (80-85%). Meat and vegetable protein are included. It is protected from spoilage with addition of glycerol or propylene glycol.
Most acceptable to dogs and cats. Moisture content is generally 15 to 30%, can be stored for several months with reduced water activity.
The low water activity is achieved by the inclusion in the recipes of humectants such as sugar, salt, propylene glycol or glucose which ‘tie-up’ the water.
Meat, meat by-products, soya, vegetable protein concentrates, cereals, fats and sugars are used in these type of products.
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Canned food
Most convenient to use, highly attractive for dogs and cat. Canned products are primarily meat or fish based product or meat, fish and cereal products. These food are reliable, safe and convenient to serve.
They are highly palatable, particularly when carbohydrate is less. Separate foods for dog and cat are available. Cat foods can be given to dogs but not vice-versa.
Most canned foods are balanced foods. Digestibility is good. Nutrient density is low because of high moisture content. Generally not given as a sole food but given mixed with biscuits or mixtures.
Safe, long shelf life. Meat, meat by-product, vegetable protein, cereals, are the main ingredients.
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Home made foods
In developing countries like ours, feeding of companion animals with commercial foods are not popular for economic reasons.
Pets are fed with home made foods or left overs of food consumed in a family. It is therefore essential to ensure that the dietary nutrient requirements are met through such feeding practice.
Judicious inclusion of appropriate food items to supplement deficit nutrients in the home made or left over food can over come nutritional deficiency disorders and support healthier life. The following is an example of home made food for dogs.
Example of home made food for dog
Food item Body diet
20kg
25kg
30 kg
Egg 2 2 2
Milk (ml) 200 250 300
Beef (g) 200 300 400
Rice (g) 150 200 200
Vitamin A, D + + +
B complex + + +
Salt iodized (g)
2.5 2.5 2.5
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Home made dog food vegeterian
A 100 % vegetarian dog food may be prepared provided it satisfies all the essential nutrient requirement for the dog.
Example
Food item Quantity
Soy protein meal / pulses (g)
200
Milk (ml) 200
Rice (g) 200
Vitamin A, D +
B complex +
Salt iodized (g) 2.5
Classification of pet food based on the nutrient content
Complete food: Complete food is a food that provides all the nutrients required by the animal for 24 hours.
Complementary food: Complementary food is a food that provides only a part of the nutrients required by the animal for 24 hours and the rest is met from additional supplement.
Mixer biscuit: Mixer biscuit provides only essential nutrients. Snack / treat: Snack / treat are foods to entertain / reward pet animals.
FEEDING SCHEDULE OF DOGSPuppy feeding schedule
Puppies may get enough nutrients from milk during the first 3 or 4 weeks of life.
Cows milk is not a substitute as the composition varies. In the event of feeding orphan puppy or kitten, feeding puppy or kitten under insufficient mother’s milk, cow milk can be used with appropriate modification to simulate mother’s milk.
Young puppies should be fed four or six times daily at equal time intervals, as nearly as possible.
Age in days
Frequency of feeding Milk g / day as per body weight (Kg)
0.5 1 2 3 4 51-7 Once in 2 hours 45 90 180 270 360 450
7-14 Once in 3 hours 60 120 240 330 480 570
14-21 Once in 3 hours till evening 75 150 300 450 600 750
21 and above
Once in 3 hours omit evening feeding
75 150 300 450 600 750
Milk substitute
Cow milk800 ml
Cream 200 ml
Egg yolk 1 no.
Steamed bone meal
6 gram
Vitamin A 2000 IU
Vitamin D 500 IU
Citric acid 4 gramCalculating the volume of milk to feed an orphan pup
AgeVolume to
feed per 100g of body weight
Body Weight
Volume / day
No of feedings /
day
Volume per
feeding
10 days
15 ml/100 g X 200 g = 30 ml 5 = 6 ml
20 days
20 ml/100 g X 300 g = 60 ml 5 = 12 ml
Feeding of dogs
Weight of Dogs
Frequency of Feeding/day
Feed offered
2-5 kg Twice a day 100 gm cereals (cooked)
100 gm meat (cooked)
100 ml milk + biscuits
5-10 kg Twice a day 200 gm cereals (cooked)
200 gm meat (cooked)
150 ml milk + biscuits
10-20 kg Twice a day 500 gm cereals (cooked)
500 gm meat (cooked)
300 ml milk + biscuits
Puppies
After weaning
3-4 ½ Adult feed
Older pups 2 ½ Adult feed (gradually increase frequency of feeding)
Cereals: Cooked rice, bread, chapathi
Meat: Beef, mutton, chicken, fish or egg
Pregnant, lactating bitches: Increase cereals 100-200 gm/ dayFeeding frequency
3 weeks to 3 months
– 4-5 times feeding/day
3-5 months – 3 times a day5-10 months – 2 times a dayAdult dogs – Once a day for maintenanceLactating animal – Increased energy, protein, etc.
Old dogs – Digestion is poor, improve the quality of feed, decreased quantity
Most pet animal live indoors, generally not pregnant or lactating, not involved in heavy work or excessive exercise.
Generally adults will be having enough appetite to eat all they require in one meal per day. Advantages of offering single meal are that it will be large enough to give a feeling of fullness.
Easily controllable, minimum chances of error. Under or over feeding is less likely. Can choose a most convenient time to feed the animals.
There is no disadvantage in feeding more frequently than once a day provided the intake is limited to daily needs.
Feeding two or three times at the same time as family meals lead the animals to over fed and resulting in obesity. Avoid late evening meals since dogs need to excrete urine or faces within few hours of feeding.
Average daily consumption of food
Body weightDry
matter2.5–5 kg 3–3.5 %
5– 10 kg 2.5–3%
10 kg and above
2–2.5%
FEEDING MANAGEMENT OF DOGS
Make sure that puppies consume colostrum within the first 36 to 48 hours after birth.
Feed at same place, by same person at same time. Left over should be removed after half an hour. Water should be available through out the feeding time. No snack is to be fed. Young and lactating should be fed separately. Avoid sudden changes in food. Feeding and watering vessels should be clean. Make sure that the label in commercially manufactured foods has the
guarantee of any regulating agency. Be certain that the food has an expiration date. Store food in a sealed container in a cool, dry place. If the dog has a special dietary requirement that cannot be met by
commercial foods, consider feeding homemade diets. Feed the dog according to correct body weight and condition, and consider
factors such as growth, adult maintenance, level of activity, gestation, lactation, and age.
When changing foods, mix 1/4 of the new food to 3/4 of the old food, and increase gradually to prevent gastric upsets.
Watch the dog's stool, weight, and coat while changing foods. Allow approximately 20 minutes for the dog to clean the bowl.
