Amicus Brief Southwest Asia

United Nations World Court of Historical Affairs

Post-Classical Situation ReportThe United Nations is charged with the maintenance and order of world affairs. Keeping in line with this mission to provide stability and justice in the world the UN Council on Historical Affairs has compiled the

following brief to serve as an overview of cultural affairs on the planet from 600 C.E. to 1450 C.E.

The UNWCHA will be charged with hearing evidence from the seven regions of the planet outlining their behaviors in creating frameworks of socio-cultural behaviors to provide for their people.

In the interest of full disclosure this amicus brief will provide litigation teams with all information already gathered by the court on each of the seven cultures. The following is that evidence.

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The Nile, Euphrates and Tigris rivers are each obvious in this satellite image.  These rivers are the population centers for both ancient and modern nations in the Middle East.  Also notice the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf which are essential to trade throughout this region. 

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Muhammad and Islam unites the Arab Tribes• Muslims must read the Quran in Arabic• All Muslims pray in Arabic

Levant and Irag • Arabs flooded into as part of early conquests of Islam• 661 CE: Ummayad Caliphs move capital to Damascus

Arabs compromise ruling military elite• Established garrison towns

Ramla, ar-Raggah, Basra, Kufa, Mosul, Samarra All eventually became major non-military cities

• Enjoyed special privileges• Proud of Arab ancestry, sponsored poetry, culture of pre-Islamic Arabia• Intermarried with local women, children raised within Arab culture

Abd al-Malik established Arabic as the Caliphate's official language in 686. • Reform greatly influenced the conquered non-Arab peoples • Fueled the Arabization of the region.

Tensions lead to a new Dynasty• Arabs had a higher status among non-Arab Muslim converts • Converts still had obligation to pay heavy taxes caused resentment. • Caliph Umar II demanded that all Muslims be treated as equals but nothing

happened• Discontent swept the region and a bloody uprising occurred

Abbasids came to power Moved capital to newly constructed city of Baghdad Abbasids were also Arabs and descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas Abbasids had the support of non-Arab Islamic groups. Islam and Arabic as the language of administration The Levantine and Iraqi populations were eventually Arabized.

North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula• In 8th Century, Arabic armies conquered the region• Arab Muslims settled the old Roman, Vandal, Carthaginian towns• Berbers remained dominant inland

Military Conquest• Whole tribes mobilized to conquer Arabia; pushed into Persia, Byzantines• Arabs settled as garrison units on desert, arable land borders• Whole garrison towns constructed to administer empire• Whole tribes resettled to maintain military control

Muslim Pilgrimage• One of the Five Pillars of Islam

Originally was to be a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, replaced by Mecca All Muslims must try at least once in life to make journey to Mecca

• Shia-Sunni Split Shia developed holy sites of dead martyrs and saints Faithful made regular pilgrimages to venerate heroes

• The Hajji and the Gadis

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Learned Muslims often traveled between cities teaching, dispensing justice

Itinerant preachers, wanders such as gadis (judges) and sufis (mystics) Commerce and Intellectual Migration

• Arab Empire encouraged commerce, trade Empire becomes one long linked trade route of exchanges Arabs become trade diaspora at first but intermarry spreading Arab

culture, language• Arab Centers of Learning in Major Cities

Islam encouraged intellectual pursuits, caliphs built schools and libraries Centers of Learning in Cordoba, Cairo, Damascus, Baghdad attracted

travelers• Bedouin Migration

Overcrowding of Arabia, constant warfare led Arab Bedouin tribes (Banu) to migrate

Sahara, Libyan and Central Asian deserts witness migrations

• 639 CE: Arabs conquer Egypt from Byzantines Egyptians were largely Monophysite Christians Coptic Christians were heavily persecuted by the Byzantines and seek

Muslim protection Arabs establish military garrisons at Fustat (al Cairo) Many Egyptians began to convert to Sunni Islam for economic, political

reasons• Muslim Egypt was ruled by outsiders

Fatimid Dynasty (Shia Dynasty descendent from Muhammad’s daughter Fatima

Ayyubid Sultans: Kurdish sultans of the Abbasid Caliphs Mameluks: Circassian-Turkish slave soldiers loyal first to Abbasids and

later independent• Distinguish between the settled farming lands of the Nile and the deserts

The Bedouin migrated into the desert regions but did not settle the Nile lands

Often came for economic reasons and used by Arabs to police border regions

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Islam: The DetailsThe Early Years:

• Muhammad's return to Mecca – Conquered Mecca, 630 – Imposed a theocratic government dedicated to Allah – Destroyed pagan shrines and built mosques

• The Kaa'ba – The Kaa'ba shrine was not destroyed – In 632, Muhammad led the first Islamic pilgrimage to the Ka'ba

• The Five Pillars of Islam – Obligations taught by Muhammad, known as the Five Pillars – The Five Pillars bound the umma into a cohesive community of faith– Profession of faith, prayer, tithing, pilgrimage, fasting at Ramadan

• Islamic law: the sharia – Emerged during the centuries after Muhammad – Detailed guidance on proper behavior in almost every aspect of life – Drew laws, precepts from the Quran – Drew traditions from Arabic culture, Hadith– Through the sharia, Islam became a religion and a way of life

The Expansion of Islam:• The caliph

– Upon Muhammad's death, Abu Bakr served as caliph ("deputy") – Became head of state, chief judge, religious leader, military commander– First four called Orthodox caliphs because they were original followers

• The expansion of Islam – 633-637, seized Byzantine Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia – 640's, conquered Egypt and north Africa – 651, toppled Sassanid dynasty – 711-718, conquered the Hindu kingdom of Sind, Iberia, NW Africa – Success due to weakness of enemies, vigor of Islam

• Dar al Islam– The Islamic world where the Sharia is in force, Islam dominates– Dar el Harb is the land of the unbelievers, or non-Muslims

• The Shia and Sunnis – The Sunnis ("traditionalists") accepted legitimacy of early caliphs

• Were Arab as opposed to Islamic• Did not feel caliphs had to be related to Muhammad

– The Shia sect supported Ali (last caliph and son in law of Muhammad)• A refuge for non-Arab converts, poor; followers in Irag, Iran• Felt caliphs should be directly related to Muhammad

– Two sects struggled over succession; produced a civil war, murder

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The Umayyad Dynasty:• The Umayyad dynasty (661-750 C.E.)

– New caliph won civil war; murdered Ali; established dynasty– Established capital city at Damascus in Syria – Ruled for the interests of Arabian military aristocracy

• Policy toward conquered peoples – Dhimmis were the conquered Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians– Levied jizya (head tax) on those who did not convert to Islam– Even the converts did not enjoy wealth, position of authority

• Umayyad decline – Caliphs became alienated from Arabs by early 8th century – By the mid-century, faced strong resistance of the Shia faction – The discontent of conquered peoples also increased– Umayyad family slaughtered; only one son escaped to Spain– Formed breakaway Umayyad Dynasty in Spain

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The Abbasid Dynasty:• Abu al-Abbas

– A descendant of Muhammad's uncle; allied with Shias and non-Arab Muslims – Seized control of Persia and Mesopotamia during 740's – Shattered Umayyad forces at a battle in 750; annihilated the Umayyad clan

• The Abbasid dynasty (750-1258 C.E.) – Showed no special favor to Arab military aristocracy – Empire still growing, but not initiated by the central government

• Abbasid administration – Relied heavily on Persians, Persian techniques of statecraft – Central authority ruled from the court at Baghdad, newly built city – Governors ruled provinces; Ulama, qadis (judges) ruled local areas

• Harun al-Rashid (786-809 C.E.) – Represented the high point of the dynasty – Baghdad became metropolis, center for commerce, industry, and culture

• Abbasid decline – Struggle for succession between Harun's sons led to civil war – Governors built their own power bases, regional dynasties– Local military commanders took title of Sultan – Popular uprisings and peasant rebellions weakened the dynasty – A Persian noble seized control of Baghdad in 945 – Later, the Seljuk Turks controlled the imperial family

An Urban Civilization:• Arab Urban History

– Pre-Islamic Arabs were both urban, bedouin • Mecca, Medina, Yemeni cities, cities of Palmyra, Arab Petropolis• Center of the city was a market place often shared with religious center• Cities designed with human-environment interaction in mind• Nomads came to city to trade, city often settled by whole tribes• Arabs had settled in cities in Syria, Iraq, Jordan

– Arabic cities linked to wider world through merchants, trade– Arab cities exposed to Jews, Persians, Monophysites, Sabeans

• Arabic Empire and Urban Growth– Islam as a culture requires mosque, merchant: very urban in outlook

• Capital moved from Mecca to Damascus by Umayyads• Arabs founded military cities on edges of desert to rule empire

– As empire grew, needed something more permanent• Abbasids moved capital from Damascus, Kufa to Baghdad• Other designed for purpose cities include Fez, Cairo, Tunis

– Increasing agricultural production contributed to growth of cities • Cities: centers for administration, industry, trade, education, faith• Many different ethnic minorities settled in Muslim cities (quarters)• Mosque at center surrounded by suk, square, in decreasing social order

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Changed Economics:• Merchants, pilgrims, travelers exchanged foods across empire• The exchange and spread of food and industrial crops

– Indian plants traveled to other lands of the empire – Staple crops: sugarcane, rice, new varieties of sorghum and wheat – Vegetables: spinach, artichokes, eggplants – Fruits: oranges, lemons, limes, bananas, coconuts, watermelons, mangoes – Industrial crops: cotton, indigo, henna

• Effects of new crops – Increased varieties and quantities of food – Industrial crops became the basis for a thriving textile industry– Foodstuffs increased health, populations of cities

• Agricultural experimentation – Numerous agricultural manuals – Agricultural methods and techniques improved– Improved irrigation

A Vast Trade Zone:• Camels and caravans

– Overland desert trade traveled mostly by camel caravan – Caravanserais (motel, corrals) in Islamic cities– Trading goods usually luxury in nature

• Maritime trade based on technological borrowing – Arab, Persian mariners borrowed

• Compass from the Chinese • Lateen sail from southeast Asian, Indian mariners • Astrolabe from the Hellenistic mariners

– Organization and dominance of trade • In North Africa across Sahara, down Nile, SW Asia, to India• Eastern Mediterranean, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Arabia Gulf down coasts• Many cities grew rich from trade• Entrepreneurs often pooled their resources in group investments • Different kinds of joint endeavors

• Banks – Operated on large scale and provided extensive services – Letters of credit, or sakk, functioned as bank checks

• Exchange of Ideas included Islam, technology, culture

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Other Islamic Regions:• Al-Andalus

– Islamic Spain, conquered by Muslim Berbers – Claimed independence from the Abbasid dynasty – Participated in commercial life of the larger Islamic world – Products of al-Andalus enjoyed a reputation for excellence – Cordoba was a center of learning, commerce, architecture– After death of Abd al Rahman III broke up into petty kingdoms– A unique blended culture

• Arab, Latin, German, Islamic, Christian, Jewish • Very tolerant and integrated society

– Warred for 700 years with Christian kingdoms in north• North Africa

– Strong followers of Shia, broke with Abbassids – Berbers followed many puritanical Shia like movements– Eventually Fatimids conquered Egypt, formed rival caliphate

• Central Asia– Largely Turkish, Persian and Islamic but not Arabic– Tended to be distant from Baghdad and more tolerant– Integrated into trans-Eurasian trade network

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Women’s Changing Status:• Pre-Islamic Arab Women

– Arabs as nomads allowed women many rights– Women often poets, tribe leaders– Some evidence of matrilineal tribes

• The Quran and women – Quran enhanced rights, security of women– Forced husbands to honor contracts, love women– Allowed women to own property, protected from exploitation

• What produced the change – Foreign Contacts changed the perspective

• Adopted veiling from Mesopotamia, Persia• Isolation from India through purdah, harem

– Muslim rights for women • Often weaken through Hadith, traditions• Often reduced, ignored• Patriarch beliefs reinforced by conquest • Yet Quran, sharia also reinforced male domination• Role of Hadith, Arab traditions reinforced male domination

Islamic Cultural Traditions:• Quran, sharia were main sources to formulate moral guidelines • Constant struggle between what is Arabic and what is Islamic

– Use of Arabic script as only language of Islam strengthened trend– Persians, Turks, Indians, and Africans struggled for acceptance

• Promotion of Islamic values – Ulama, qadis, and missionaries were main agents – Education also promoted Islamic values

• Sufis – Islamic mystics, effective missionaries – Encouraged devotion by singing, dancing – Led ascetic, holy lives, won respect – Encouraged followers to revere Allah in own ways – Tolerated those who associated Allah with other beliefs

• The hajj – The Kaa'ba became the symbol of Islamic cultural unity – Pilgrims helped to spread Islamic beliefs and values

Islamic Cross-Cultural Influences:• Persian influence on Islam

– After Arabs most prominent of Muslims, resisted Arabization • Cultural traditions often borrowed heavily by Islam• Became early followers of Shia

– Government and regionalism• Many advisors (vizer is Persian word) to Caliphs were Persian• Cultured, diplomatic language of Abbassid court became Persian

– Literary achievements • Omar Khayyam was greatest of Medieval Muslim poets

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• The Arabian Nights largely in a Persian style• Turkish influences

– Central Asian nomads converted to Islam, developed literary culture– Invaded SW Asia and made caliphate dependent on Turkish nomads– Formed military might, leadership of late Abbassid state

• Indian Influences– Purdah and harem borrowed from Hindus – "Hindi numerals," which Europeans called "Arabic numerals"

• Greek Influences – Muslims philosophers especially liked Plato and Aristotle; Greek math – Effort of harmonizing two traditions met resistance from Sufis

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A. The Islamic Heartland in the Middle and Late Abbasid Era

The vast Abbasid Empire gradually disintegrated between the 9th and 13th centuries. Revolts spread among the peasants, slavery increased, and the position of women was further eroded. Divisions within the empire opened the way for Christian crusaders from western Europe to invade, and for a short time, establish warrior kingdoms in the Muslim heartlands. Political decline and social turmoil were offset for many by the urban affluence, inventiveness, and artistic creativity of the Abbasid age.

B. An Age of Learning and Artistic Refinement

The avid interest in Muslim ideas and material culture displayed by European knights and merchants in this era cautions us against placing too great an emphasis on the political divisions and struggles that were so prominent in the later Abbasid era. It also invites comparison with neighboring civilizations, such as those in India and western Europe that were much more fragmented and racked by warfare in late Abbasid times. In the midst of the political turmoil and social tensions of the Abbasids, Muslim thinkers and artisans living in kingdoms from Spain to Persia created, refined, and made discoveries in a remarkable range of fields. Their collective accomplishments mark one of the great ages of human ingenuity and creativity. Their thought and techniques influenced their counterparts in all the civilized centers of the Eastern hemisphere from the Sudan of Africa to Iberia and western Europe, and from India to relatively isolated China.

C. The Coming of Islam to South Asia

From the 7th century onward, successive waves of Muslim invaders, traders, and migrants carried the Islamic faith and elements of Islamic civilization to much of the vast south Asian subcontinent. By the 12th and 13th centuries, Muslim dynamics ruled much of north and central India. Muslims conquests and growing numbers of conversions provoked a variety of Hindu responses. They also prompted efforts on the part of followers of both religions to reconcile their differences. Although these measures resulted only in an uneasy standoff between the two communities, Islamic influences had clearly become a major force in south Asian historical development. They added further layers of richness and complexity to Indian civilization as well as some of its most enduring linkages to the peoples and cultures of neighboring lands.

D. The Spread of Islam to Southeast Asia

The spread of Islam to India set the stage for its further expansion. Arab traders and sailors regularly visited the ports of Southeast Asia long before they converted to Islam. From the 13th century, traders and Sufi mystics spread Islam to Java and much of the rest of island Southeast Asia. As was the case in

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India, conversion was generally peaceful, and the new believers combined Islamic teachings and rituals with elements of local religions that had spread to the area in preceding centuries.

E. Conclusion: The Legacy of the Abbasid Age

Although problems of political control and succession plagued the kingdoms and empires that divided the Muslim world, the central position of Islamic civilization in global history solidified during the Abbasid rule. Its role as the go-between for the civilizations of the Eastern Hemisphere grew as Arab trading networks expanded to new areas. More than ever, it enriched the lives of nomadic peoples, from the Turks and Mongols of Central Asia to the Berbers of North Africa and the camel herders of the Sudan. Islam’s contributions to the growth and refinement of civilized life greatly increased. From its cities and universities and the accomplishments they generated in the fine arts, sciences, and literature to its vibrant religious and philosophical life, Islam pioneered patterns of organization and thinking that affected the development of human societies in major ways for centuries to come.

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IslamIslam is one of the three great monotheistic faiths, which has had an impact upon the world and history that is immeasurable. It was Islam, which preserved many of the great texts of Greek knowledge from which the West would later learn. Islam produced great scientists and philosophers. Islamic mathematicians developed the numbering system we use today including algebra. Muslim explorers and traders traveled the world, bringing their faith with them, as their exchanged the goods and ideas.

Islam is an Arabic verb meaning to submit and a Muslim is one who submits. Islam is the religion of submission to God. Islam does not agree with concept of a chosen people found in Judaism nor with the Christian abandonment of strict monotheism in the doctrine of the trinity. For Islam, God is one and He alone is worthy of worship. The basics of Islam may be summed up in the Five Pillars:

1. The daily confession that there is one God and Mohammed is His prophet2. The conduct of prayer five times daily, facing Mecca3. The month-long fast of Ramadan4. Zakat or giving alms to the poor (ideally ¼ of the Muslim's income)5. Making the hajj or the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a Muslim’s life

The Koran is the major scripture holy to all Muslims. It is the collection of revelations given by the angel Gabriel to the prophet Mohammed, which is the final authoritative revelation given by God to the world. The "Old" and "New" Testaments of the Jews and Christians are considered to have been corrupted at some time in the past. For instance, in that Christians believe Jesus to be the Son of God and worship him (whom Muslims believe is a man and prophet), Muslims feel Christians have perverted the word of God. Owing to the beauty of the Arabic prose in which it is written, Muslims believe that it is impossible to translate the Koran to another language. The only thing that can be done is the translation of the meaning of the Koran. Thus, Muslims are encouraged to learn to read Arabic. Also important is a collection of traditions about the Prophet known as the Hadith. Sufi mystics use other collections of traditions. While there are other collections of books and teaching about Islam, which are respected, only the Koran is considered the inspired word of God. Additionally, because the Muslims have the first Korans, there is little conflict over original meaning, unlike the Christians and Jews, who do not have their original holy books.

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JudaismTraditionally, historic Judaism was founded by Moses approximately 3,300 years ago. The patriarch Abraham is also considered the founder of the Jewish people. But most modern scholars believe Judaism coalesced from various associated tribes in Palestine more than 3,000 years ago.

Historically, the Judaism based on the Books of Moses, historical books, and prophetic books, which Christians call the Old Testament, and which Jews call the Tanakh, did not come into printed existence until around 600 BCE when the Jews were in exile in Babylon.

The earliest teachings of Judaism revolved around eretz yisrael, or the land of Israel, and geography is central to Judaism. In the Hebrew language of the "Old Testament", whenever the scriptures speak of a Jew entering the land, he "ascends". Whenever a Jew departs, he "descends". The Torah threatens exile from the land as the punishment for disobedience (Deuteronomy 28). Until the last 2,000 years of exile, the land was essential to the religion. Many of the laws of the Torah are only applicable when Israel is in the land. To emphasize the importance of the land to the fathers, each Pesach, or Passover is ended with the exclamation, "Next year in Jerusalem!" And have you ever wondered why hell is hot – deserts surround Israel and the Twelve Tribes were punished for sins by God and made to wonder in the desert for forty years under Moses. Besides, who would not want a land flowing with milk and honey as opposed to one of heat, scorpions, and rocks?

Judaism is usually considered an ethnic religion because of its association with a specific land. The Hebrew calendar is based on the agricultural cycle of Palestine. In that autumn is when the grains were harvested, the two holiest of Jewish holidays, Rosh Hashanah (New Year) and Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement) are both autumnal holidays associated with plenty and the end. Other holidays such as Sukkot (Feast of Booths) celebrate the Final Gathering of the Fruits, and prayers, especially for rain are offered. And because of the association of the human body with dirt and dust, the dead must be interred within one day of death.

The Torah mandated many practices, which were dictated by the environment. For example, the prohibitions against animals classed as unclean, such as pigs, affects what animals are raised. The very strict separation of meat from dairy products affects the handling and distribution of food products. Both milk and pork spoil quickly in hot climates. Historically, the Torah mandated a total rest of all farmland throughout Israel every seven years. In fact, the failure to observe this commandment is cited by the rabbis as being one of the contributing reasons for the first exile.

Although Judaism is primarily an ethnic religion, it does have universalizing elements. In the Second Temple era (approximately 2,000 years ago) there was active proselytization. However, the political atmosphere of the times eventually led Jewish leaders to discourage further proselytization. However, converts have made significant contributions to the faith. Judaism was the first major monotheistic religion. This monotheism eventually gave birth to two other world religions; namely, Christianity and Islam. The Jewish people were given the mission by God in the Hebrew Bible (referred to as the "Old

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Testament" by Christians) to be a blessing to the world. The three major tenets of Judaism are God, Torah, and Israel.

The books of the Tanakh, or the “Old Testament” are recognized as canon. Tanakh is an acronym for the three Jewish divisions of the Bible: Torah, the five books of Moses containing the Jewish Law; Nevi'im, the books of the prophets; and Ketuvim, the books more commonly known as "the Writings" such as the Psalms and the Proverbs. The Torah takes central stage in Jewish doctrine and way of life: it contains the 613 commandments that God gave to Israel (not the Christian ten). The Talmud Bavli, or Babylonian Talmud, is also authoritative. Various works on Halakhah, or Jewish Law, such as the Shulkhan Arukh are held in high regard.

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Orthodox ChristianityOrthodox Christianity arose as part of the general Christianity observed throughout the Roman Empire. From the beginning, it co-existed with the Roman Catholic tradition, the main difference being its use of Greek instead of Latin for worship. Gradually, the Church of Rome began to assume preeminence over the rest of Christianity, but not necessarily with the acknowledgment or cooperation of the eastern churches.

Eventually, doctrine differences coupled with questions of papal authority led to the "Great Schism" of 1054, when Rome excommunicated the Patriarch of Constantinople, Michael Cerularios. Thus, the question of when Orthodox Christianity was founded depends on who one asks. An Orthodox Christian will tell you 33 AD, but a Roman Catholic will say 1054 AD.

Many of the Orthodox churches consider themselves "Catholic" and some will have the word in their official titles. In Greek, the word “catholic” means universal. The Eastern Orthodox Church was the "One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church" of the Byzantine Empire. The Christians that follow the Eastern Orthodox religion follow the doctrine defined by the first seven ecumenical councils. They recognize Christ as the head of the Church, and their doctrines are founded on the Holy Scriptures, holy tradition, and the decisions of the ecumenical councils. Others prefer the term orthodox because Eastern Rite Christians feel they more closely represent Christ’s intended church on earth.

The Church is also known as "Eastern Orthodoxy" because the most Orthodox are from the eastern regions of Europe and Asia, as in Russia, Greece, the Balkans, and the Coptics of Egypt.

Orthodox doctrine agrees with that of most of the other high liturgy churches as Roman Catholicism and the Anglican Church. In fact it is often hard to see how they differ. The major cause of the Great Schism was the addition of the “filoque” to the Nicene Creed by the Roman Church. The Nicene Creed stated that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father alone, whereas the filoque teaches that the Holy Spirit proceeds from both the Father and the Son. To Western Christians, this has resulted in a stronger notion of the Trinity of God the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit as co-equal and co-eternal, whereas the Orthodox fell God the Father and the Son existed before the Spirit and created it.

Another issue of contention with the Roman Church is the authority of the Pope overall of Christendom, with which the Orthodox could not agree. Orthodox have always felt that while the Pope was the single most important leader of the Church, first among equals so as to speak, he alone could not speak for the Church. God spoke through the general Church councils and synods and his Holy Spirit guided the Church councils, not the Pope. Consequently, whereas the Roman Catholics feel the Pope is infallible, the Orthodox feel the Councils will not err religiously. Another distinct trait of Orthodoxy is the veneration of icons, with which many western Christians cannot agree. While Roman Catholics also venerate icons, at the time of the Great Schism in 1054, many Orthodox Christians opposed the use of icons in worship. Today they accept them. Other differences between Orthodox and Catholics include the Orthodox tradition of married priests, which Roman Catholics discontinued around

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1000, and the use of the local or vernacular language in worship, which until 1964, Roman Catholics did not allow.

Orthodox Christians recognize the New Testament and the Old Testament. In addition to these scriptures, the Church recognizes several other books as canon, not recognized by Protestants and Catholics. These books are known by Protestants as the Apocrypha, and to the Church as the Deuterocanonicals. The Orthodox also use four more books of the Bible than do Roman Catholics. Furthermore, Church tradition as revealed to the people through the councils is regarded as additional sources of divine truth. Because Orthodox Christianity arose in areas with strong political leaders, it did not develop the independence of the Roman Catholic Church. In fact, the church was often considered a department or a bureau under the political influence of the emperors or tsars. Consequently, the Orthodox did not develop the exclusive monopolies over social welfare or educational institutions, which occurred in medieval Western Europe. Moreover, the clergy did not possess a monopoly on intellectual resources because the state and private enterprises maintained schools for the wealthy and talented. Only in areas where political authority collapsed through invasion or conquest, such as in Russia following the Mongol invasion or in Ethiopia, which was cut off from the Christian world by Muslim control of Egypt, did the Orthodox churches ever develop the level of power Roman Catholic clergy possessed. And unlike the Roman Catholics and after their wars with the Monophysites, the Orthodox rarely launched crusades against non-Christians (Jews are a major exception). In fact, the spread of Orthodoxy around the world was more often as not accomplished by missionaries, merchants, and movement of the already Orthodox to new lands to settle.

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