ecotelapsychology.weebly.comecotelapsychology.weebly.com/.../1/0/0/6/100653962/cha… · Web viewReview 3.1. 1Briefly outline the significance of the brain versus heart debate

Student book answersPsychology throughout the agesPages 68–73

Review 3.11 Briefly outline the significance of the brain versus heart debate.

Some people believed that the brain is responsible for intelligent thought, personality, decision-making and consciousness. Others believed that the heart was responsible for these qualities and functions. The beliefs of different cultures in the brain versus heart debate are highlighted through some of their ancient practises with the dead.

2 How did the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks differ in their beliefs about the brain versus heart debate?

• The ancient Egyptians believed that the brain was unimportant, and that the heart was the most crucial part of being – the centre of reason, intelligence and personality.

• The Greeks believed that the brain played an important part in our existence although there were some differences in opinion as to how. Plato believed the brain was the ‘seat of all mental processes’ while Aristotle proposed that thinking took place in the heart and that the brain was a gland for cooling down ‘the forces of life ... that entered the body’.

3 What is meant by the terms monism and dualism? Outline the differences between them.

Monism is the view that the mind is the same thing as the brain.

Dualism is a term used to describe the relationship and connection between the body and the mind.

Differences include: Dualism believes that the mind is a separate entity from the body whereas monism believes that the mind and body is a single entity.

4 Explain the mind–body problem.

The mind–body problem raises two questions:

• How can the mind (non-physical) be related to the brain (physical)?

• How can the mind (non-physical) influence or cause changes in the brain (physical)?

5 Outline Descartes’ views on the mind–body problem.

Descartes viewed the mind and body as two distinct systems called dualism. He believed an interaction exists between the mind and the body; that is the mind creates our real experience of the world and interacts with our body.

© Oxford University Press 2017 1Oxford Psychology Units 1 & 2 Teacher obook/assess ISBN 9780190304119Permission has been granted for this page to be photocopied within the purchasing institution only.

Student book answersThe influence of different approaches over timePages 73–76

Review 3.21 Define phrenology in your own words.

Phrenology is the study of the lumps, bumps and indentations of the skull to determine a person’s character, intelligence and a range of other areas responsible for a variety of behaviours and functions

2 What were brain organs, and where were they supposed to be located?

Franz Gall believed that mental abilities and personality were controlled by specific brain organs located on the surface of the brain.

3 How many brain organs were thought to exist? Name three.

There were 37 brain organs, (27 identified by Gall, 10 identified by his assistant Spurzheim). They are (any three of those listed below):

Amativeness Parental love Friendship

Inhabitiveness Continuity Vitativeness

Combativeness Destructiveness Alimentiveness

Secretiveness Cautiousness Approbativeness

Self-esteem Firmness Conscientiousness

Hope Spirituality Veneration

Benevolence Constructiveness Ideality

Imitation Mirth Individuality

Form Size Weight

Colour Order Calculation

Locality Eventuality Time

Tune Language Causality

Comparison


Student book answersBrain research methodsPages 76–88

Review 3.31 Which of the neuroimaging devices use X-ray technology?

Computed tomography (CT)

2 Identify which of the neuroimaging devices track oxygenated blood to determine brain activity?

Diffuse optical tomography (DOT)

3 Explain the difference between the tracking of oxygenated blood between the DOT and fNIRS.

DOT tracks the absorption of oxygenated blood to produce a spatial map of the brain while mental processes are taking place in multiple brain networks. The fNRIS is very similar but examines the active brain during tasks that specifically require the frontal lobe, and it is also a portable device.

4 Outline how a researcher could use two of the neuroimaging devices discussed. You may wish to conduct additional research for this question.

Student responses will vary.

5 Which of the neuroimaging devices only provide information on brain structure?

CT scan and MRI scan

Investigate 3.1Complete the following table by using the information contained within this chapter and additional online research.

Neuroimaging Device

Description Applications Advantages Limitations

Positron emission tomography (PET)

Measures the volume and location of blood flow in the brain by tracking a radioactive substance such as glucose that has been injected into a person’s bloodstream

A radioactive substance, or tracer, gives off positrons and a radiation detector camera surrounding the person’s head is able to monitor the areas of the brain from which these ‘positrons’ are emitted

• Provides information about the function and corresponding location of particular areas of the brain during motor and cognitive tasks• Allows researcher to see the brain in action when a person is under the

• Can be expensive to run• Uses radioactive material to show areas of activation and this has a short time limit


Neuroimaging Device


influence of drugs• Provides valuable comparisons of a patient’s mental functioning as their disease progresses

Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)

Uses radioactive tracers and a scanner that detects gamma rays (radiation)

• Takes a succession of 2D images that are combined to form a true 3D computer-enhanced image that is easily manipulated on screen to see the section of the brain from different angles. SPECT tracers are measured directly as they move through the bloodstream

• SPECT cheaper to run than a PET scan• Provides a true 3D image of the brain that can be digitally manipulated on screen for examination

• Scans take longer to complete• Images not as detailed as with PET scan• Uses a radioactive tracer that requires injection into the blood stream

Computerised tomography (CT)

Produces a high-resolution 3D computer-enhanced image of the brain

The patient is injected with a substance known as ‘contrast’ iodine that highlights the brain’s blood vessels and enables the interpretation of the CT image. A quick succession of X-ray images is taken in an arc around the head. These are then combined to produce the 3D representation of the brain on the computer screen.

• Relatively safe, cost-effective procedure• Provides clear 2D images of the structure of brain/body• Enables researchers to view the structure of the brain in both 2D and 3D• Useful in identifying precise location and extent of damage from tumours, stroke or other brain traumas• Can identify areas of abnormality in brain structures among people suffering from psychological disorders

• CT provides detailed high-resolution images of structure but no information about brain activity during cognitive tasks (does not show the function of the brain)• Uses X-ray technology that emits radiation• Frequent use is not recommended • Images in black and white


Neuroimaging Device


Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

Harmless magnetic fields and radio waves produce a computer-enhanced image of brain structure.

The person lies in a chamber that houses a large magnet. The magnet creates a strong magnetic field that organises the protons of hydrogen atoms into parallel lines. The aligned protons produce a faint signal that is processed by a computer, which enhances them to a highly detailed 3D image that can be manipulated to view different angles and areas of the brain.

• Produces detailed 3D computer-enhanced colour images that can be manipulated by the researcher• Uses harmless magnetic fields and radiowaves

• MRI is expensive• Cannot be used on people with internal metal devices such as pacemakers, steel pins and metal joint replacements because the metal interferes with the magnetic image and can pose a physical risk to the person• Does not provide information about cognitive or motor activity (function) – only highly detailed images of the brain and body• Some people find the MRI chamber claustrophobic and require sedation during the procedure

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

Monitors blood flow and oxygen consumption to reveal areas of greater brain activity and function.

As the person is performing a mental task, this technology produces an image every second to show the location(s) and level of brain activation as it happens in ‘real time’. The researcher can accurately monitor which brain regions become active and as they occur. fMRI provides a powerful combination of highly detailed structural images of the brain structures that are activated during cognitive tasks (functional) in

• fMRI produces high resolution computer-enhanced 3D image of the brain and body to 1mm accuracy• Enables researchers to view the blood flow and oxygen consumption of a specific area of the brain• Provides detailed information about the physical structure and shows the brain in action (function)

• Very loud, requiring people to wear earplugs/headphones• Can be claustrophobic in the chamber• Unable to detect which brain receptors are being activated by particular neurotransmitters, drugs and treatment chemicals• Precision of activation is questionable because it does not show the sequence of activation – just the areas involved


Neuroimaging Device


real time.

Diffuse optical tomography (DOT)

Uses dozens of tiny infrared lights on the head to produce images of the brain and other soft tissue.

Tracks the absorption of oxygenated blood. Can produce a spatial map of the brain while mental processes are taking place in multiple brain networks such as those involved in language, daydreaming and maths calculations. Works on the premise that brain structures that are being used will have greater concentrations of oxygenated blood and detects the changes in the colour of brain tissue.

• Non-invasive procedure that tracks oxygenated blood• Provides a spatial map of the brain while mental processes are taking place• Useful for research using normal brains.

No significant disadvantages in using DOT

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

A non-invasive imaging technique that can investigate ongoing human brain activity on a ‘millisecond-by- millisecond’ basis as well as where that activity is located in the brain.

Operates on the premise that the brain produces electrical activity and a measurable magnetic field outside the brain. Because the signal is weak, a superconducting quantum interference device or SQID is used that detects and amplifies the magnetic fields generated by neurons. The MEG can show the location of specific neuronal activity in real time, measuring

• Non-invasive technique that records brain activity (function)• Able to identify region of the brain responsible for generating brain activity• Measurements can be conducted and pinpointed to the nearest millisecond• Useful for neuroscientific research that examines cognitive function and perception• Due to ability to pinpoint location of activity to the

No significant disadvantages in using MEG


Neuroimaging Device


the flow of oxygenated blood (related to active areas of the brain).

nearest millisecond, more accurate than fMRI – especially for brain abnormalities• Person can move their head around during MEG scan

Functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS)

Relatively non-invasive, safe and low-cost method of monitoring brain activity. Works by measuring changes in near-infrared light so that the researcher can monitor blood flow in the frontal part of the brain.

Tracks oxygenated blood and works on the premise that structures that are most active during tasks will have more oxygenated blood flow with greater colour intensity. This information is shown either on a computer screen or a portable device and can be used to track which areas of the brain are active during tasks that specifically require the frontal lobe.

• Uses specific wavelengths of light to monitor changes in oxygenated blood – active areas of the brain

• Great for research assessing cognitive tasks

• Cheap and portable

Cannot detect neural activity deeper than 4 cm.


Investigate 3.2Go online to research how the following psychological approaches use neuroimaging devices in studying the brain and nervous system:

biological

behavioural

cognitive

developmental

Based on your research, outline how neuroimaging devices have contributed to our understanding of what structures of the brain are involved in particular functions. Use examples to illustrate your understanding.

You may present your information in a table, PPT presentation, word document or poster with images.

Students’ responses will vary based on their research.


Student book answersTest your understandingPages 90–91

Multiple choice1 B; 2 C; 3 D; 4 B; 5 A; 6 D; 7 A; 8 A; 9 B; 10 A; 11 D; 12 C; 13 C

SHORT ANSWER14 Over the centuries, different cultures held different beliefs about the role of the brain. Create a timeline

that reflects the changes in beliefs regarding the brain and nervous system.

Timeline information may include:

6000 BCE –Trephination

1700 BCE – Ancient Egyptians believed the brain was unimportant and the heart was the centre of reason, intelligence and personality

460–370 BCE – Hippocrates (Ancient Greek philosopher) treated physical and mental ailments as physiological disturbances

427–347 BCE – Plato (Ancient Greek philosopher) theorised that the mind has three components

384–322 BCE – Aristotle (Ancient Greek philosopher) believed that reasoning and thinking took place in the heart and that the brain was a large gland

130–200 AD – Galen research brain in detail

Mid-17th century – Thomas Willis theorised that cortical structures had functions

1796 – Franz Joseph Gall suggested that personality was linked to the brain and developed phrenology.

15 Explain how case studies, autopsies and surgical procedures have contributed to our understanding of features of the brain.

Case studies provided opportunities for scientists to explore brain function by assessing the impact of damage on living examples. Autopsies provided the opportunity to examine people’s damaged brains after they died (such as in the motor cortex or somatosensory cortex) and their findings could be applied to live people. Surgical procedures such as the corpus callosotomy allowed researchers to gain an understanding of the corpus callosum and hemispheric specialisation.

16 If a researcher wishes to identify which areas of the brain are active while a person is completing a puzzle which two neuroimaging devices would you recommend he/she use? Explain your reasons.

Any of the following examine the function of the brain and location of the area activated: PET scan, SPECT scan, fMRI, DOT, MEG, fNIRS


17 Explain how MEG is used and outline one advantage and one limitation of features of the brain.

MEG is a non-invasive imaging technique that can investigate ongoing human brain activity on a ‘millisecond-by-millisecond’ basis as well as where that activity is located in the brain.

It operates on the premise that the brain produces electrical activity and a measurable magnetic field outside the brain. As the signal is weak, a superconducting quantum interference device or SQID is used that detects and amplifies the magnetic fields generated by neurons. The MEG can show the location of specific neuronal activity in real time, measuring the flow of oxygenated blood (related to active areas of the brain).

Advantage: Non-invasive technique that records brain activity (function). Able to identify region of the brain responsible for generating brain activity. Measurements can be conducted and pinpointed to the nearest millisecond. Useful for neuroscientific research that examines cognitive function and perception. Due to ability to pinpoint location of activity to the nearest millisecond, more accurate than fMRI – especially for brain abnormalities. Person can move their head around during the MEG scan.

Limitation: No significant disadvantages in using MEG.


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ecotelapsychology.weebly.comecotelapsychology.weebly.com/.../1/0/0/6/100653962/cha… · Web viewReview 3.1. 1Briefly outline the significance of the brain versus heart debate