ALCOHOL PROVES TO HAVE A PROTECTIVE EFFECT ON HEALTH MODERATE ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION AND ITS BENEFITS ON PHYSICAL AND MENTAL HEALTH

Jasmine L. HuntOctober 2011

Moderate alcohol consumption increases longevity, improves general health, and decreases risk of heart diseases, stroke, type 2 diabetes, Alzheimer’s disease and other dementia, arthritis, enlarged prostate, osteoporosis, gallbladder disease, cancer (including kidney cancer, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, Hodgkin lymphoma, and thyroid cancer), common cold viruses, intermittent claudication, metabolic syndrome, peripheral artery disease, hepatitis A, kidney stones, macular degeneration, poor physical condition in the elderly, stress and depression, stomach ulcers, duodenal ulcers, and type b gastritis; and lessens the severity of symptoms of essential tremor and menopause. In many instances, heavy drinking and even abstinence has a negative effect on physical and mental health. For certain health issues, beer is more effective than other alcohol because of certain protective compounds such as silicon and 8-prenylnaringenin.

Note: Much of the following content was compiled via the astute and thorough work of Charles W. Bamforth, David J. Hanson, and Jay R. Brooks. Their work on health and beer in particular is extensive, thereby facilitating my collection of such comprehensive data. I am certain that as future research surfaces in this area, it will be sufficiently examined and communicated to us with expertise and passion.

CONTENT:

BACKGROUND

MODERATION

LONGEVITY

GENERAL HEALTH

HEART HEALTH

STROKE

DIABETES

ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE AND OTHER DEMENTIA

ARTHRITIS

ENLARGED PROSTATE

OSTEOPOROSIS

GALLBLADDER DISEASE

CANCER (INCLUDING KIDNEY CANCER, NON-HODGKIN LYMPHOMA, HODGKIN LYMPHOMA, THYROID CANCER, & PANCREATIC CANCER)

COMMON COLD

INTERMITTENT CLAUDICATION

METABOLIC SYNDROME

PERIPHERAL ARTERY DISEASE

ESSENTIAL TREMOR

HEPATITIS A

KIDNEY STONES

MACULAR DEGENERATION

PARKINSON’S DISEASE

POOR PHYSICAL CONDITION IN THE ELDERLY

STRESS AND DEPRESSION

STOMACH ULCERS, DUODENAL ULCERS, & TYPE B GASTRITIS

INTESTINAL HEALTH

MENOPAUSE

BACKGROUND

Beer is healthier than wine. Beer contains more nutrients than does wine. Beer contains some soluble fiber, some B vitamins (notably folate), and a range of antioxidants. It is also the richest source of silicon; silicon in the diet may help in countering osteoporosis. Wine contains more antioxidants than beer, but, do they actually get into the body and reach the parts where they are needed? There are doubts about that; but, it has been shown that the antioxidant ferulic acid is taken up from beer into the body (more efficiently than from the tomato). (Bamforth, 2011)

One 12-ounce regular beer contributes folate, vitamin B6, niacin, pantothenic acid and riboflavin. Beer is also a plant source of vitamin B12, supplying about 3 percent of the recommended daily amount for adults, according to the USDA Nutrient database (although other sources claim higher B12 contents in beer). See chart below (American Dietetic Association, 2011).

According to the National Survey on Drug Use and Health, about 46% of adults (21 years and older) report that they did not consume any alcohol in the past month and 26% report drinking once a week or less (U.S. Department of Justice, 2002).

Bamforth (2004a) examines our drinking habits from a historical perspective citing research from Wechsler and Isaac (1992) showing an “increase in episodes of drunkenness from 25% to 41% for men and from 14% to 37% for women” after the legal drinking age was raised from 18 to 21 in the United States (p. 20). Bamforth (2004a) posits that the increase of the drinking age polarized drinking habits and eliminated moderation.

There are numerous benefits of drinking alcohol in moderation on a daily basis (enumerated on the following pages). There is substantial room for improvement; increasing the number of people who consume alcohol moderately would have a significant impact on our physical and mental health.

MODERATION

Definitions of moderate drinking vary drastically. Many studies use different measures of moderation; this should be noted when considering results and statistics. More often than not in the studies presented in this document, moderation includes frequency and errs on the side of regular consumption (5-7 days a week).

According to the Federal 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, moderate drinking is defined as consuming up to one drink per day for women and two drinks per day for men. The Guidelines define a standard drink as 1.5 fluid ounces of 80-proof (40% alcohol) distilled spirits, 5 fluid

ounces of wine (12% alcohol), or 12 fluid ounces of regular beer (5% alcohol). Each of these standard drinks contains 0.6 fluid ounces of alcohol (USDA et al., 2010).

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) considers moderate drinking as a man consuming four drinks on any day and an average of 14 drinks per week. For women, it is consuming three drinks in any one day and an average of seven drinks per week (Hanson, 2011b).

A standard alcoholic drink is: 12-ounce can or bottle of regular beer 5-ounce glass of dinner wine 1 shot (one and one-half ounces) of 80 proof liquor or spirits such as vodka, tequila, or rum

either straight or in a mixed drink (Hanson, 2011a).

Medical researchers generally describe moderation as one to three drinks per day. It appears that consuming less than about half a drink per day is associated with only very small health benefits. Four or five drinks may be moderate for large individuals but excessive for small or light people. Because of their generally smaller size and other biological differences, the typical woman should generally consume 25 to 30 percent less than the average man (Mulkamal, 2003). And, of course, recovering alcoholics, those with any adverse reactions to alcohol, and those advised against drinking by their physicians should abstain. (Hanson, 2011a)

Drinking patterns appear to be as important as the amounts consumed. “The key to healthy, moderate consumption is a regular, one to three drinks per day pattern” (McDougall, 2004). However, drinking a "week’s worth" of alcohol over a period of a few hours would be unhealthful, even dangerous, and clearly to be avoided. (Hanson, 2011a)

LONGEVITY

The Federal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) confirms that moderate alcohol consumption is a healthy lifestyle behavior that is significantly associated with the reduced risk of mortality (Ford et al., 2011). Researchers at the CDC analyzed data from 16,958 participants in the National Health and Nutrition Examinations Survey III Mortality Study from 1988 to 2006. “Healthy diet, alcohol intake of greater than 0 grams per day, not currently smoking, and adequate physical activity” are behaviors that decrease risk of certain causes of mortality such as coronary heart disease, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and other causes of death (Ford et al., 2011).

A new study conducted at a teaching hospital in the town of Plzen (Pilsen), west Bohemia (in the Czech Republic) “revealed that the moderate consumption of beer slows aging and reduces the likelihood of heart attacks and arteriosclerosis.” The amount of beneficial cholesterol in the men’s blood was increased, the beer improved their organism’s antioxidant protection and

reduced the amount of free radicals that can damage cells and are believed to accelerate the progression of cancer, cardiovascular disease, and age-related diseases. (Brooks, 2006a)

Hoffmeister et al. (1999) suggested that if Europeans stopped drinking beer there would be a decrease in life expectancy of 2 years – and much unhappiness. (Bamforth, 2004b, p. 234)

Moderate drinkers tend to live longer than those who either abstain or drink heavily. (Hanson, 2011a)

The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (2004) has found that the lowest death rate from all causes occurs at the level of one to two drinks each day. (Hanson, 2011a)

Drinking alcohol in moderation (1-2 drinks per day for women and 2-4 for men) was found to reduce risk of mortality significantly according to meta-analysis of 34 studies of alcohol and total mortality among 1,015,835 men and women around the world (Straus, 1979). (Hanson, 2011a)

A Harvard study found the risk of death from all causes to be 21% to 28% lower among men who drank alcohol moderately, compared with abstainers (Camargo, 1997). (Hanson, 2011a)

A large-scale study in China found that middle-aged men who drank moderately had a nearly 20% lower overall mortality compared with abstainers (Yuan, 1995). (Hanson, 2011a)

Harvard's Nurses' Health Study of over 85,000 women found reduced mortality among moderate drinkers (Fuchs, 1995). (Hanson, 2011a)

A British analysis of 12,000 male physicians found that moderate drinkers had the lowest risk of death from all causes during the 13 year study (Doll and Peto, 1994). (Hanson, 2011a)

A large study of about 88,000 people conducted over a period of ten years found that moderate drinkers were about 27% less likely to die during the period than were either abstainers or heavy drinkers. The superior longevity was largely due to a reduction of such diseases as coronary heart disease, cancer, and respiratory diseases (Klatsky et al., 1981). (Hanson, 2011a)

A twelve year long prospective study of over 200,000 men found that subjects who had consumed alcohol in moderation were less likely to die during that period than those who abstained from alcohol (Boffetta & Garefinkel, 1990). (Hanson, 2011a)

A study of more than 40,000 people by the Cancer Research Center in Honolulu found that “persons with moderate alcohol intake appear to have a significantly lower risk of dying than nondrinkers.” (Maskarinec, 1998). (Hanson, 2011a)

An analysis of the 89,299 men in the Physicians' Health Study over a period of five and one-half years found that those who drink alcohol in moderation tend to live longer than those who either abstain or drink heavily (Gaziano, 2000). (Hanson, 2011a)

An Italian study of 1,536 men aged 45-65 found that about two years of life were gained by moderate drinkers (1-4 drinks per day) in comparison with occasional and heavy drinkers (Farchi, 2000). (Hanson, 2011a)

A study of 2,487 adults aged 70-79 years, who were followed for an average period of over five and one-half years, found that all-cause mortality was significantly lower in light to moderate drinkers than in abstainers or occasional drinkers (those who drank less than one drink per week) (Maraldi, 2006). (Hanson, 2011a)

A large prospective study found that older men consuming up to about three drinks per day and older women consuming over one drink per day had a dramatically lower risk of dying than did non-drinkers (McCaul et al., 2010). (Hanson, 2011a)

A large study found that moderate drinkers, even after controlling for or adjusting for numerous factors, maintain their high longevity or life survival advantage over alcohol abstainers (Lee, 2009). (Hanson, 2011a)

A Danish study of about 12,000 men and women over a period of 20 years found that abstaining from moderate alcohol consumption is a health and longevity risk factor. Choosing not to drink alcohol increases the risk of illness, disease and death (Østergaard et al., 2008). (Hanson, 2011a)

A 14-year study of nearly 3,000 residents of an Australian community found that abstainers were twice as likely to enter a nursing home as people who were moderate drinkers. Drinkers also spent less time in hospitals and were less likely to die during the period of the study (McCallum, 2003). (Hanson, 2011a)

A prospective study of middle-aged Chinese men found that the consumption of two drinks per day was associated with a 19% reduction in mortality risk. This protective effect was not restricted to a specific type of alcoholic drink (De Groot and Zock, 1998). (Hanson, 2011a)

Alcohol prevents more deaths than its abuse causes in the United Kingdom, according to research from the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (Dodson, 2004). (Hanson, 2011a)

Scientists at the University of London concluded that light and moderate drinking saves more lives in England and Wales than are lost through the abuse of alcohol. If everyone abstained from alcohol, death rates would be significantly higher (Britton and McPherson, 2001). (Hanson, 2011a)

The Cancer Council of New South Wales concludes that “If the net effect of total alcohol consumption on Australian society is considered, there is a net saving of lives due to the protective effect of low levels of consumption on cardiovascular disease.” (Cancer Council). (Hanson, 2011a)

Moderate drinking and exercise appear to slow down the health deterioration that occurs with aging, according to a study of about 2,500 people aged 65 and older who were followed regularly for about eight years. Those who drank and exercised regularly had fewer difficulties with their daily activities and physical functioning (Wang, 2002). (Hanson, 2011a)

GENERAL HEALTH

The beneficial impact of beer on the body might be through two mechanisms, firstly a direct dose-response effect on different bodily functions and secondly an indirect effect through the impact of components of beer (especially alcohol, but speculatively also some of the hop components, (Cooper, 1994) in boosting the morale and perceived well-being of the drinker (Baum-Baicker, 1985b; Marmot et al., 1993; Pohorecky, 1990; Vasse et al., 1998). Such a mellowing influence counters stress-related illnesses (Morrell, 2000). (Bamforth, 2004b, p. 231)

Guallar-Castillon et al. (2001) found a lower incidence of sub-optimal health in daily moderate drinkers of beer (and wine). (Bamforth, 2004b, p. 231)

Hospitalization is less for daily moderate drinkers (Longnecker and MacMahon, 1988). (Bamforth, 2004b, p. 231)

Moderate drinkers tend to enjoy better health than do either abstainers or heavy drinkers. (Hanson, 2011a)

A nation-wide survey in the U.S. revealed that daily moderate drinkers experienced significantly less acute hospitalization (Longnecker and MacMahon, 1988). (Hanson, 2011a)

A nine year study of indicators of good health found moderate alcohol consumption to be associated with the most favorable health scores (Wiley and Comacho, 1980). (Hanson, 2011a)

A study that examined nearly 10,000 men and women at age 23 and again at age 33 found that the moderate drinkers experience lower levels of poor general health, long-term illness, and psychological distress when compared to abstainers and heavy drinkers (Power, 1998). (Hanson, 2011a)

A study of nearly 20,000 Spaniards found that moderate consumption of any alcohol -- beer, wine, or spirits -- was linked to better overall health, compared to abstinence from alcohol (Rodriguez-Artalejo, 2001). (Hanson, 2011a)

A nation-wide Canadian study found that moderate drinkers who consumed alcohol daily had 15% less disability than the general population (Richman and Warren, 1985). (Hanson, 2011a)

A Dutch study found that moderate drinkers under stress were less likely to be absent from work than were either abstainers or heavy drinkers. The investigators concluded that "abstinence is at least as unhealthy as excessive drinking." (Vasse, 1998). (Hanson, 2011a)

A study of 3,803 individuals age 18 to 101 found that lifelong teetotalers as well as former drinkers are consistently less healthy than light to moderate drinkers (those who consume up to 60 drinks per month). The health superiority of light and moderate drinkers extends to both physical and mental health (Green and Polen, 2001). (Hanson, 2011a)

A review of the research reports that moderate drinking appears to reduce the risk of numerous diseases. "These include duodenal ulcer, gallstones, entric infections, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoporosis, and diabetes mellitus (type II). Compared with abstainers, moderate drinkers exhibit improved mental status characterized by decreased stress and depression, lower abstenteeism from work, and decreased dementia (including Alzheimer's disease)." (Power and Goldberg, 1999). (Hanson, 2011a)

Women who drank a moderate amount of alcohol more regularly than occasional drinkers benefited more. Women who drank five to seven days per week (moderately) were nearly 50% less likely to develop disease than those who drank less regularly (Warner, 2011).

HEART HEALTH

Moderate drinkers are less likely to suffer coronary heart disease and heart attacks (acute myocardial infarctions) than are abstainers or heavy drinkers (Hanson, 2011a).

Pearson and Terry (1994) estimates that if all current consumers of alcohol abstained, another approximately 80,000 cardiovascular disease-related deaths would occur each year (as cited in NIAAA, 2003).

Vast data support that alcohol is key to lowering risk of atherosclerosis (blocking of the arteries by cholesterol) (Bamforth, 2011).

The mechanism by which alcohol counters the risk of atherosclerosis is complex. Alcohol lowers LDL cholesterol in the blood plasma and stimulates an increased level of HDL cholesterol (HDL 2 and HDL 3) and apolipoproteins A-I and A-II (Clevidence et al., 1995; Goldberg et al., 1995 ; Jansen et al., 1995 ; Parker et al., 1996). Alcohol also reduces the risk of blood clotting by lowering the level of fibrinogen in plasma (Stefanick et al., 1995) as well as lessening the aggregation tendencies of blood platelets (Renaud et al., 1992). (Bamforth, 2004b, p. 232)

Mukamal et al. (2003) emphasized that frequency of alcohol consumption is of highest significance. In a study of 38,077 male health professionals over a 12 year period it was shown that men who consumed alcohol 3–4 or 5–7 days per week had a decreased risk of myocardial infarction when compared to those who drank less than once per week. The risk was similar for men taking 10 g alcohol per day or 30 g or more per day, and whether the beverage was beer, red wine, white wine, or liquor was irrelevant. (Bamforth, 2004b, p. 233)

Gaziano et al. (1999) concluded that beer, wine and liquor are equally advantageous (in moderation) for countering atherosclerosis, and similar conclusions were drawn by Renaud et al. (1993), Klatsky (1994), Klatsky et al. (1997), Hein et al. (1996), and Rimm et al. (1996). (Bamforth, 2004b, pp. 233-234)

Gorinstein et al. (2007) measured an increase in blood antioxidant levels and a favorable change in lipid and anticoagulant levels after consumption of 330 ml of beer per day for a month.

An exhaustive review of all major heart disease studies found that "alcohol consumption is related to total mortality in a U-shaped manner, where moderate consumers have a reduced total mortality compared with total non-consumers and heavy consumers." (La Porte, 1985). (Hanson, 2011a)

The main antioxidants in alcoholic beverages such as wine and beer are the polyphenols (Frankel et al., 1993). A major class amongst the polyphenols, the flavanoids, is said to reduce risk of diseases of the cardiovascular system in humans (Hertog et al., 1993). Alcohol per se stimulates the uptake of antioxidants into the body (Ghiselli et al., 2000). (Bamforth, 2004b, p. 234)

Moderate consumption of any alcoholic beverage, including beer, has been shown to increase HDL cholesterol, lower LDL cholesterol and reduce the risk of blood clotting. (American Dietetic Association, 2011)

A new study conducted at a teaching hospital in the town of Plzen (Pilsen), west Bohemia (in the Czech Republic) “revealed that the moderate consumption of beer slows aging and reduces the likelihood of heart attacks and arteriosclerosis.” (Brooks, 2006a)

A Danish study of 50,000 people revealed that “men who drank daily had a 41% reduced risk of coronary heart disease compared with a 7% drop in men who drank once a week.” Oddly, the benefits for women were not as dramatic. For them, “the risk of heart disease fell by a third with a weekly drink but did not fall further in daily drinkers.” The gender bias is believed to be either “hormonal or related to the type of alcohol consumed or there may be differences in the way men and women’s bodies process alcohol.” Lead researcher Professor Morten Gronbaek from the National Institute of Public Health in Denmark said: “One or two drinks in men, or one drink a day in women, would be sufficient for heart disease – you wouldn’t get any more beneficial effects from drinking more.” (Brooks, 2006b)

Lichtenstein (2003) states that 15 million deaths in the late 1990s could be attributed to cardiovascular disease. The American Heart Association has pointed out that coronary heart disease and the related cardiovascular disease is the number-one killer in the US, accounting for almost one in two deaths among Americans and more deaths than are caused by all the forms of cancer combined. The impact on disability and the attendant economic loss are enormous. (Bamforth, 2004a)

Medical research has demonstrated a strong relationship between moderate alcohol consumption and reduction in cardiovascular disease in general and coronary artery disease in particular (Moore and Pearson, 1986). (Hanson, 2011a)

The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism found that moderate drinking is beneficial to heart health, resulting in a sharp decrease in heart disease risk (40%-60%) (NIAAA, 2004). (Hanson, 2011a)

The Director of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism wrote that "Numerous well-designed studies have concluded that moderate drinking is associated with improved cardiovascular health," and the Nutrition Committee of the American Heart Association reported that "The lowest mortality occurs in those who consume one or two drinks per day. (Pearson, 1996). A World Health Organization Technical Committee on Cardiovascular Disease asserted that the relationship between moderate alcohol consumption and reduced death from heart disease can no longer be doubted (Wilkie, 1997). (Hanson, 2011a)

Researchers studied volunteers in seven European countries and found that people who have a daily drink of beer, wine or distilled spirits (whiskey, rum, tequila, etc.) have significantly better arterial elasticity, a strong indicator of heart health and cardiovascular health, than nondrinkers. Moderate drinkers also had significantly better pulse rates than those of abstainers from. (Hanson, 2011a)

A study of 1,795 subjects found that "the risk of extensive coronary calcification was 50% lower in individuals who consumed one to two alcoholic drinks per day than in nondrinkers” (Vliegenhart, 2004). (Hanson, 2011a)

Research demonstrates that moderate alcohol consumption is associated with better endothelial function, which contributes to better heart health and lowers risk of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease (Suzuki et al., 2009). (Hanson, 2011a)

A study of over 3,000 men and women found that those who never drank alcohol were at a greater risk of having high levels of CRP and IL-6 (excellent predictors of heart attack) than were those who consumed alcoholic beverages in moderation (Price, 2004). (Hanson, 2011a)

A National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism review of research studies from at least 20 countries around the world demonstrate a 20- to 40-percent lower coronary heart disease (CHD) incidence among drinkers compared to nondrinkers. It asserts that "The totality of evidence on moderate alcohol and CHD supports a judgment of a cause-effect relationship...

there are cardioprotective benefits associated with responsible, moderate alcohol intake” (Hennekens, 1996). (Hanson, 2011a)

Harvard researchers have identified the moderate consumption of alcohol as a proven way to reduce coronary heart disease risk (Manson, 1992). (Hanson, 2011a)

The Harvard Health Professionals Follow-Up Study of over 44,000 men found moderate alcohol consumption to be associated with a 37% reduction in coronary disease (Rimm et al., 1991). (Hanson, 2011a)

A study of 18,455 males from the Physicians Health Study revealed that those originally consuming one drink per week or less who increased their consumption up to six drinks per week had a 29% reduction in CVD risk compared to those who did not increase their consumption. Men originally consuming 1-6 drinks per week who increased their consumption moderately had an additional 15% decrease in CVD risk (Sesso et al., 2001). (Hanson, 2011a)

A British study of women found moderate consumption of alcohol to be associated with lower levels of cardiovascular risk factors (Razay, 1992). (Hanson, 2011a)

A study of over 5,000 women with type 2 diabetes mellitus found that coronary heart disease rates "were significantly lower in women who reported moderate alcohol intake than in those who reported drinking no alcohol." Women who drank more than 5 grams (about one-third glass) a day reduced their risk of CHD (fatal or nonfatal) by more than half (Solomon, 2000). (Hanson, 2011a)

In a study of nearly 88,000 men, researchers found that drinking reduced risk of coronary heart disease risk among both diabetics and non-diabetics. Weekly consumption of alcohol reduced CHD risk by one-third (33%) while daily consumption reduced the risk by over half (58%) among diabetics. For non-diabetics, weekly consumption reduced CHD risk by 18% while daily consumption reduced the risk by 39% (Ajani, 2000). (Hanson, 2011a)

Light to moderate consumption of alcohol appears to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease by as much as 80% among individuals with older-onset diabetes, according to a study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association (Valmidrid, 1999). (Hanson, 2011a)

The Honolulu Heart Study found a 49% reduction in coronary heart disease among men who drank alcohol in moderation (Blackwelder, 1980). (Hanson, 2011a)

Harvard researchers concluded about coronary heart disease that "Consumption of one or two drinks of beer, wine, or liquor per day has corresponded to a reduction in risk of approximately 20-40%” (Manson, 1996). (Hanson, 2011a)

At a scientific conference, researchers from Korea, Italy, Germany, Poland, the Netherlands, and the United States reported finding striking reductions in death among moderate drinkers, with

heart disease and total mortality rates about one half or less compared to non-drinkers (Trevisan et al., 1997). (Hanson, 2011a)

After over 6,000 participants in the Framingham Heart Study were followed for a period of six to ten years, researchers found that "when consumed in moderation, alcohol appears to protect against congestive heart failure” (Walsh, 2002). (Hanson, 2011a)

The American Heart Association, based on the research evidence, concludes that the "Consumption of one or two drinks per day is associated with a [CHD] reduction in risk of approximately 30% to 50%” (Pearson, 1996). (Hanson, 2011a)

After reviewing the research, Dr. David Whitten reported that "The studies that have been done show pretty clearly that the chances of suffering cardiac death are dramatically reduced by drinking" one or two drinks a day and asserted that "We don't have any drugs that are as good as alcohol (Whitten, 1987). (Hanson, 2011a)

Based on the medical evidence, noted investigator Dr. Curtis Ellison asserted that "abstinence from alcohol is a major risk factor for coronary heart disease” (Vin, 1995). (Hanson, 2011a)

The moderate consumption of alcohol increases the survivability of heart attacks (Hanson, 2011a).

Drinking alcohol in moderation throughout the year before a heart attack or acute myocardial infarction (AMI) has been found to reduce the risk of dying afterward. Moderate drinkers had the lowest mortality rate, reducing their risk by 32%, compared to abstainers. The health benefits were virtually identical for beer, distilled spirits, and wine (Mulcamel, 2001). (Hanson, 2011a)

Men who consume two to four drinks of alcohol after a heart attack are less likely to experience a second heart attack than are abstainers, according to a study of 353 male heart attack survivors. Researchers found that men who consumed an average of two drinks of alcohol per day were 59% less likely than non-drinkers to have another heart attack. Those who drank an average of four drinks per day experienced a risk reduction of 52% compared to abstainers (De Lorgeril, 2002). (Hanson, 2011a)

Research at the University of Missouri-Columbia found that drinking alcohol (beer, wine, or distilled spirits) in moderation reduced the damage to effected tissue following a heart attack (Dayton et al., 2004). (Hanson, 2011a)

A study for a five year period of over 85,000 men who had suffered previous heart attacks found that "moderate alcohol intake was associated with a significant decrease in total mortality" compared to nondrinkers (Gaziano, 1998). (Hanson, 2011a)

Alcohol abstainers who begin drinking reduce their risk of cardiovascular disease (Hanson, 2011a).

During a ten year study of 7,697 non-drinkers, investigators found that 6% began consuming alcohol in moderation. After four years of follow-up, new moderate drinkers had a 38% lower chance of developing cardiovascular disease than did those who continued abstaining. Even after adjusting for physical activity, Body Mass Index (BMI), demographic and cardiac risk factors, this difference persisted. This study is important because it provides additional strong evidence that the reduced risk of cardiovascular disease among moderate drinkers is a result of the alcohol itself rather than any differences in lifestyle, genetics, or other factors (King et al., 2008). (Hanson, 2011a)

A study of men with high blood pressure found that those who averaged one to six drinks per week has a 39% lower risk of death from cardiovascular causes than were abstainers. Those who averaged more (one or two drinks each day) were 44% less likely to experience such death (Malinski et al., 2004). (Hanson, 2011a)

In a study of nearly 88,000 men, researchers found reductions in coronary heart disease risk with increasing frequency of drinking alcohol for both diabetics and non- diabetics. Weekly consumption of alcohol reduced CHD risk by one-third (33%) while daily consumption reduced the risk by over half (58%) among diabetics. For non-diabetics, weekly consumption reduced CHD risk by 18% while daily consumption reduced the risk by 39% (Anani, 2000). (Hanson, 2011a)

Exercising can't replace benefits of drinking in moderation (Hanson, 2011a).

Researchers at the National Institute of Public Health in Denmark studied about 12,000 men and women over a period of 20 years. The investigators found:

The lowest risk of fatal heart disease occurred among those who both drank moderately and exercised. They had a 50% reduced risk compared to non-drinkers who didn't exercise. (Moderate drinking was defined as consuming an average of up to two drinks per day for both men and women. This is twice as high as the US federal recommendation for women.)

A higher risk was found among (a) those who abstained from alcohol but exercised and (b) those who drank in moderation but didn't exercise. In both cases the risk of heart disease dropped about 30% compared to abstaining non-exercisers.

The highest risk was found among those who neither drank nor exercised. Their risk of dying from heart disease was twice as high as those who drank moderately and exercised.

Moderate drinking and exercise are cumulative in their positive effects on the cardiovascular system. Doing one is better than nothing, but doing both is the best choice of all and dramatically reduces the risk death from heart attack. The same is also found for all-cause mortality (Pedersen et al., 2008). (Hanson, 2011a)

The moderate consumption of alcohol appears to be more effective than most other lifestyle changes that are used to lower the risk of heart and other diseases. For example, the average

person would need to follow a very strict low-fat diet, exercise vigorously on a regular basis, eliminate salt from the diet, lose a substantial amount of weight, and probably begin medication in order to lower cholesterol by 30 points or blood pressure by 20 points. But medical research suggests that alcohol can have a greater impact on heart disease than even these hard-won reductions in cholesterol levels or blood pressure. Only cessation of smoking is more effective. Additionally, other medical research suggests that adding alcohol to a healthful diet is more effective than just following the diet alone (Ellison, 1998). (Hanson, 2011a)

The moderate consumption of alcohol promotes good heart health in a number of ways, including the following:Alcohol improves blood lipid profile (LaPorte et al., 1980)

It increases HDL ("good") cholesterol (Ernst et al., 1980) It decreases LDL ("bad") cholesterol (Castelli, 1977) It improves cholesterol (both HDL and LDL) particle size (Mukamal, 2007)

Alcohol decreases thrombosis (blood clotting) It reduces platelet aggregation (Meade et al., 1985) It reduces fibrinogen (a blood clotter) (Mennen, 1999) It increases fibrinolysis (the process by which clots dissolve) (Sumi et al., 1988)

Alcohol acts in additional ways (Ellison, 1993) It reduces coronary artery spasm in response to stress It increases coronary blood flow (Israel et al., 1994)

It reduces blood pressure (MacMahon, 1987) It reduces blood insulin level (Facchini et al., 1994)

It increases estrogen levels (Vliegenthart, 2004)

STROKE

Hypertension is a significant risk factor for stroke. Heavy drinking has been linked to increased blood pressure. In addition, non-drinkers have slightly higher blood pressure than those who are light drinkers, consuming 10 - 20g alcohol per day (Van Gijn et al., 1993). It has been observed that there is a reduced risk of stroke for light to moderate drinkers (Berger et al., 1999; Gill et al., 1988; Palomaeki et al., 1993; Rodgers et al., 1993; Sacco et al., 1999; Stampfer et al., 1988). It is only when drinking is heavy (>6 drinks per day) or at a binge level that the risk of stroke is significant (Hillbom et al., 1999; Juvela et al., 1995; Wannamethee and Shaper, 1996). (Bamforth, 2004b, p. 235)

Thadhani et al. (2002) state that low or moderate alcohol intake leads to a lesser incidence of hypertension in women, irrespective of the alcoholic beverage type. Truelsen et al. (1998) insist that wine is better than beer in this context. (Bamforth, 2004b, p. 235)

A systematic review and meta-analysis of 26 research studies (cohort or case-control) found that consuming two drinks per day is associated with a reduced risk of ischemic stroke (Patra et al., 2010). (Hanson, 2011a)

The National Stroke Association states that alcohol is “reported in some studies to have a protective effect against stroke because it raises levels of high-density lipoproteins (HDL) cholesterol, often called “good” cholesterol. Studies now show that drinking up to two alcoholic drinks per day can reduce your risk for stroke by about half” (National Stroke Association,2011).

A study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association found that consuming one or two drinks a day can reduce the risk of stroke by about half. It also found the protective effects of alcohol to occur among white, African- American, and Hispanic populations and among both men and women. The investigators concluded that their findings support the National Stroke Association Stroke Prevention Guidelines regarding the beneficial effects of moderate alcohol consumption (Sacco, 1999). (Hanson, 2011a)

Research has found that HDL ("good" cholesterol) is protective against stroke and that drinking alcohol in moderation is one of the ways that HDL can be increased (Sacco, 2001). (Hanson, 2011a)

A study of over 22,000 men found that light and moderate alcohol consumption significantly reduces the overall risk of stroke (Berger, 1999). (Hanson, 2011a)

A study published in the American Heart Association's journal found abstainers' risk of stroke to be double that of moderate drinkers (Rodger, 1993). (Hanson, 2011a)

The American Heart Association also reports that moderate consumption of alcohol is associated with dramatically decreased risk of stroke among both men and women, regardless of age or ethnicity (American Heart Association, 1997). (Hanson, 2011a)

The chart below (measuring risk for stoke) shows that abstainers have a much higher risk of stroke than drinkers (Rodgers, 1993). (Hanson, 2011a)

A study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association found that consuming one or two drinks a day can reduce the risk of ischemic stroke by about half. Its findings support the National Stroke Association Stroke Prevention Guidelines regarding the beneficial effects of moderate alcohol consumption (Sacco et al., 1999). (Hanson, 2011a)

A study of 944 residents of a Spanish city found that consumption of up to two alcoholics per day reduced the risk of strokes by 42% (Caicoya, 1999). (Hanson, 2011a)

DIABETES

Moderate drinking reduces the risk of developing diabetes (Bamforth, 2011). Alcohol attenuates the increase in blood glucose concentration in subjects given a glucose load

by increasing the sensitivity of susceptible cells to insulin (Facchini et al., 1994). This in turn reduces demand on the pancreas. Moderate drinkers displayed a reduced risk of developing non-insulin dependent diabetes (Perry et al., 1995). Stampfer et al. (1988) found a lower incidence of noninsulin dependent diabetes in moderate drinkers. Rimm et al. (1995) reported that moderate alcohol consumption by healthy people could be associated with increased insulin sensitivity and a reduced risk of diabetes. (Bamforth, 2004b, p. 236)

Components of beer, including quercetin and the iso-α-acids, inhibit aldose reductase (Shindo et al., 2002). This enzyme is important for removing sorbitol produced from glucose accumulating in diabetics and which causes damage to eyes and kidneys. (Bamforth, 2004b, p. 236)

Researchers examined the results of 15 different studies and found that moderate drinkers are less likely to have type 2 diabetes than are abstainers. Teetotalers and heavy drinkers have equally high risk of the disease. The 15 studies were conducted in the U.S., Japan, Finland, Korea, the Netherlands, Germany and the UK and followed a total of 369,862 men and women for an average of 12 years. Moderate drinkers (those who drank between about a half a drink to four drinks per day) were found to be 30% less likely to develop type 2 diabetes than abstainers or heavy drinkers. Whether drinkers consume beer, wine or distilled spirits makes little

difference, but the pattern of consumption does. It's much better to consume frequently (such as daily) rather than infrequently for maximum health benefits (Kopper et al., 2005). (Hanson, 2011a)

An analysis of 13 studies found that "The results of these studies are consistent with regard to moderate alcohol consumption, indicating a protective effect in the order of 30%." There was no evidence that high consumption of alcohol increased risk of diabetes (Carlsson et al., 2005). (Hanson, 2011a)

An analysis of 32 studies found that “Compared with no alcohol use, moderate consumption (one to 3 drinks/d) is associated with a 33% to 56% lower incidence of diabetes and a 34% to 55% lower incidence of diabetes-related coronary heart disease” (Howard et al., 2005). (Hanson, 2011a)

An analysis of 20 cohort studies found that, compared with lifetime abstainers, a U-shaped pattern exists between alcohol consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes. The researchers concluded that “Our analysis confirms previous research findings that moderate alcohol consumption is protective for type 2 diabetes in men and women” (Baliunas et al., 2009). (Hanson, 2011a)

The American Diabetes Association reports that “In people with diabetes, light-to-moderate amounts of alcohol are associated with a decreased risk of heart disease, probably because alcohol raises HDL cholesterol, the so-called 'good cholesterol” (Wheeler et al., 2003). (Hanson, 2011a)

An analysis of pairs of twins with different drinking patterns found that those who consumed alcohol in moderation had half the risk of developing type 2 diabetes compared to those who consumed less alcohol. The study involved nearly 23,000 Finnish twins (Carlsson et al., 2003). (Hanson, 2011a)

A prospective study of 85,051 women found that the risk of diabetes decreased as the consumption of alcohol increased. Compared with non-drinkers, those who consumed one-third to one drink per day had a 20% reduction in risk and those who consumed over one drink per day had a 40% reduced risk of developing diabetes (Stampfer et al., 1988). (Hanson, 2011a)

A study of almost 21,000 physicians for over 12 years has found that men who are light to moderate drinkers have a decreased risk of Type 2 (non-insulin dependent) diabetes mellitus (Umed et al., 2000). (Hanson, 2011a)

A study of 8,663 men over a period of as long as 25 years found that the incidence of type 2 diabetes was significantly lower among moderate drinkers than among either abstainers or heavy drinkers. These findings persisted after adjusting for age, smoking, blood pressure, HDL cholesterol, waist circumference, parental diabetes, fasting plasma glucose, body mass index

(BMI), serum triglyceride concentration, and cardio-respiratory fitness (Wei et al., 2000). (Hanson, 2011a)

Pre-menstrual women who consume a daily drink of beer, wine or distilled spirits (whiskey, rum, tequila, etc.) have a much lower risk of developing type 2 diabetes than abstainers, according to a study that duplicated similar findings in men. The Harvard study involved about 110,000 women age 25 to 42 over a ten-year period. Dramatic reductions (about 60%) occurred among women who drank between 1/2 and two drinks daily compared with abstainers. The reduction of risk was lower for those who drank less (Tanner, 2003). (Hanson, 2011a)

Drinking alcohol (beer, wine, or distilled spirits) in moderation was associated with a lower risk of developing type 2 diabetes among women age 40-70 in a large study in the Netherlands that followed them for an average of over six years. The authors wrote that the “findings support the evidence of a decreased risk of type 2 diabetes with moderate alcohol consumption and expand this to a population of older women” (Beulens et al., 2005). (Hanson, 2011a)

Research conducted at the University of Padova Medical School in Italy found that consuming alcohol directly improved the action of insulin in both healthy diabetics. Alcohol also improved fatty acid levels (Avogaro et al., 2004). (Hanson, 2011a)

A study of 5,221 men in Britain that followed them for almost 17 years found that that the risk of developing diabetes was lowest for light and moderate drinkers (Wannamethee et al., 2002).

And the list of research evidence about the positive effects of moderate drinking on diabetes continues, for example: Rimm et al., (1995) and Cordain et al., (1997). (Hanson, 2011a)

ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE AND OTHER DEMENTIA

Moderate alcohol consumption may be associated with better cognitive function in the elderly (Cervilla et al., 2000; Dufouil et al., 1997). (Bamforth, 2004b, p. 239)

Ruitenberg et al. (2002) found that light to moderate drinking (1–3 alcoholic drinks of any type per day) is significantly associated with a lower risk of dementia in those aged 55 years and above. (Bamforth, 2004b, p. 239)

Regular consumption of alcohol lowered the risk of incurring Alzheimer’s disease (Cupples et al., 2000). Although there is now some doubt about the significance of aluminum as an agent promoting Alzheimer’s disease (Roberts et al., 1998), silicon, present in abundance in beer, is believed to be a key agent in eliminating aluminum from the body (Bellia et al., 1996). (Bamforth, 2004b, p. 239)

Drinking alcohol primes certain areas of our brain to learn and remember better, says a new study from the Waggoner Center for Alcohol and Addiction Research at The University of Texas at Austin. "Alcohol diminishes our ability to hold on to pieces of information like your colleague's name, or the definition of a word, or where you parked your car this morning. But our

subconscious is learning and remembering too, and alcohol may actually increase our capacity to learn, or 'conditionability,' at that level" (MedicalXpress.com, 2011).

A study in France found moderate drinkers to have a 75% lower risk for Alzheimer's disease and an 80% lower risk for senile dementia (Orogozo et al., 1997). (Hanson, 2011a)

Research on 7,460 women age 65 and older found that those who consumed up to three drinks per day scored significantly better than non-drinkers on global cognitive function, including such things as concentration, memory, abstract reasoning, and language. The investigators adjusted or controlled for such factors as educational level and income that might affect the results, but the significant positive relationships remained (Espeland et al., 2006). (Hanson, 2011a)

Researchers in Australia studied 7,485 people age 20 to 64 years. They found that moderate drinkers performed better than abstainers on all measures of cognitive ability. Sex, race, education and extroversion-introversion failed to account for the findings (Rodgers et al., 2005). (Hanson, 2011a)

Older people who drink in moderation generally suffer less mental decline than do abstainers, another study finds. Over one thousand persons age 65 and older were studied over a period of seven years. Overall, light and moderate drinkers experienced less mental decline than did non-drinkers (Ganguli et al., 2005). (Hanson, 2011a)

Women who consume alcohol (beer, wine or distilled spirits) moderately on a daily basis are about 20% less likely than abstainers to experience poor memory and decreased thinking abilities, according to data from 12,480 women age 70 to 81 who participated in the long-term study (Stampfer et al., 2005). (Hanson, 2011a)

A study of about 6,000 people age 65 and older found that moderate drinkers have a 54% lower chance of developing dementia than abstainers. The type of alcohol beverage consumed (wine, spirits, or beer) didn't make a difference in the protective effects of drinking in moderation (Mulkamal et al., 2003). (Hanson, 2011a)

A study of 7,983 people aged 55 of age or older in The Netherlands over an average period of six years found that those who consumed one to three drinks of alcohol (beer, wine, or distilled spirits) per day had a significantly lower risk of dementia (including Alzheimer's) than did abstainers (Ruitenberg et al., 2002). (Hanson, 2011a)

A study of over 400 people at least 75 years old who were followed for a period of six years found that drinkers were only half as likely to develop dementia (including Alzheimer's disease) as similarly-aged abstainers from alcohol. Abstainers were defined as people who consumed less than one drink of alcohol per week (Huang et al., 2002). (Hanson, 2011a)

Moderate drinking among older women can benefit memory according to research funded by the National Institutes of Health. Moderate drinkers performed better on instrumental everyday tasks, had stronger memory self-efficacy and improved memory performance." The

performance memory tests include such topics as remembering a story, route, hidden objects, future intentions and connecting random numbers and letters. In all cases, the group who drank scored better than those who did not drink. Women who drank alcohol in moderation (defined as consuming up to two drinks of beer, wine or spirits per day) also performed better on attention, concentration, psychomotor skills, verbal-associative capacities and oral fluency (McDougall, 2004). (Hanson, 2011a)

A study of over 6,000 people in the U.K. found that those who consume as little as a single drink of alcoholic beverage per week have significantly greater cognitive functioning than teetotalers. Abstainers were twice as likely as occasional drinkers to receive the lowest cognitive functioning test scores. The beneficial mental effects of alcohol were found when a person drinks up to about 30 drinks per week, and increased with consumption. The researchers did not test the effects of higher levels of alcohol drinking. The research team suggests that alcohol (beer, wine, or liquor) improves mental functioning because it increases blood flow to the brain (Matthews, 2004). (Hanson, 2011a)

Moderate alcohol consumption protects older persons from the development of cognitive impairment, according to a study of 15,807 Italian men and women 65 years of age and older. Among the drinkers only 19% showed signs of mental impairment compared to 29% of the abstainers. The relationship continued even when other factors in cognitive impairment, such as age, education, and health problems were considered (Zuccala et al., 2001). (Hanson, 2011a)

An 18-year study of Japanese-American men found "a positive association between moderate alcohol intake among middle-aged men and subsequent cognitive performance in later life." Moderate drinkers scored significantly higher on the Cognitive Abilities Screening Instrument (CASI), which includes tests of attention, concentration, orientation, memory, and language. Both non-drinkers and heavy drinkers had the lowest CASI scores (Galanis et al., 2000). (Hanson, 2011a)

The moderate consumption of alcohol was associated with superior mental function among older women compared to abstainers in a study of 9,000 women aged 70 to 79 over a period of 15 years. The women's mental function was assessed with seven different tests. After adjusting for other factors that might affect mental function, the researchers found that the women who drank in moderation performed significantly better on five of seven tests. They also performed significantly better on a global score that combined all seven tests. The researchers found that the effect of moderate alcohol consumption on cognitive functioning was the equivalent of being one to two years younger (Harrison, 2001). (Hanson, 2011a)

Drinking alcohol (beer, wine or liquor) in moderation is one of the strategies that can reduce the risk of cognitive decline and dementia in later life according to a review of research conducted by scholars from the School of Aging Studies at the University of South Florida and the University of Alabama at Birmingham. They systematically analyzed the existing research to

identify how dementia can be reduced. Abstaining from alcohol and abusing alcohol are both risk factors for cognitive decline and dementia (Andel et al., 2005). (Hanson, 2011a)

ARTHRITIS

A recent study found that alcohol consumption is associated with a significantly reduced risk of developing arthritic conditions including Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA), Osteoarthritis (OA), reactive arthritis, psoriatic arthritis and spondylarthropathy (European League Against Rheumatism, 2001). (Hanson, 2011a)

A large study in Sweden found that the risk of developing arthritis decreased as the consumption of alcohol increased from light to moderate levels (Turesson, 2007). (Hanson, 2011a)

Data from two other research studies in Scandinavia show that drinking alcohol is associated with a reduction in the risk of rheumatoid arthritis. Two independent case-control studies of rheumatoid arthritis were used. The Swedish study used 1,204 cases and 871 controls and the Danish study used 444 cases and 533 controls. Among alcohol consumers, the quarter with the highest consumption levels had a decreased risk of rheumatoid arthritis of 40-50% compared to the half with the lowest alcohol consumption (Kallberg et al., 2009). (Hanson, 2011a)

A study of 1,877 men and women found that drinking alcohol reduced both the risk and severity of rheumatoid arthritis. Non-drinkers were four times more likely to develop rheumatoid arthritis than people who drank alcohol on more than ten days a month. The risk of developing rheumatoid arthritis decreased according to the frequency of alcohol consumption (Maxwell et al., 2010). (Hanson, 2011a)

Analysis of data from 1,666 patients in Finland indicates that alcohol consumption significantly reduces the risk of developing rheumatoid arthritis (Myllykangas-Lusojarvi et al., 2000). (Hanson, 2011a)

ENLARGED PROSTATE (BENIGN PROSTATIC HYPERPLASIA OR BPH)

Harris and colleagues (2003) report that PSA (an antigen that is diagnostic of prostate problems) was proportionately decreased by an increase in a man’s beer intake. “However Albertsen and Gronbaek (2002) and Tavani et al. (1994) say that there is no link between alcohol consumption (of any type) and prostate cancer.” (Bamforth, 2004b, p. 241)

8-Prenylnaringenin (a unique polyphenol compound found in hops and beer which impart chemo-preventative properties) inhibits enzymes involved in the development of prostate

cancer and also blocks the development of new blood vessels needed for tumor growth (De Keukeleire et al., 2001). (Bamforth, 2004b, p. 241)

According to Emily Ho, a professor and researcher at Oregon State’s Linus Pauling Institute, “xanthohumol, a compound found in hops, inhibits NF-kappaB protein in cells along the surface of the prostate gland.” The bad news — or good, depending how you look at it — is you’ll have to drink seventeen 12-oz. beers to get the amount of xanthohumol that the study showed to be beneficial in fighting prostate problems. (Brooks, 2006c)

An analysis of 19 published studies that included over 120,000 men found that drinking two or more drinks a day was associated with a 35% decrease in risk of developing benign prostate enlargement (Parsons et al., 2009). (Hanson, 2011a)

A dietary study found that men who consume two or more alcoholic drinks per day are 33% less likely to develop BPH than are teetotalers or alcohol abstainers (Kristal et al., 2008). (Hanson, 2011a)

A study of 29,386 men age 40-75 for a period of eight years found that moderate drinkers consuming up to about 3.3 drinks per day experienced a 41% reduction in risk of enlarged prostate (Platz et al., 1998). (Hanson, 2011a)

A study of 882 men (aged 65, 70, 75 and 80 years) found that increased alcohol consumption was strongly associated with decreased risk of benign prostatic hyperplasia (Gass, 2002). (Hanson, 2011a)

A study of 6,581 Japanese-American men for 17 years found that alcohol consumption reduced the risk of obstructive uropathy caused by enlarged prostate. Men who drank an average of 1.3 drinks of alcohol per day experienced a 36% lower risk compared with alcohol abstainers (Chyou et al., 1993). (Hanson, 2011a)

An investigation of 1,369 men in Italy younger than age 75 found that, compared with abstainers, those who consumed fewer than three drinks per day had a 12% lower risk and those who consumed seven or more drinks per day had a 35% lower risk of developing benign prostatic hyperplasia. The patterns of risk reduction were similar for beer, wine, and spirits (Crispo et al., 2004). (Hanson, 2011a)

A population based case-control study of 100 Chinese patients with benign prostatic hyperplasia who were over 60 years of age and a control group of the same size found that men who consumed alcohol experienced a 35% reduction in risk of developing BPH compared with non-drinkers (Ning et al., 2006). (Hanson, 2011a)

In a prospective study a total of 142 patients who were admitted to an outpatient clinic with lower urinary tract symptoms were examined and 68.3% were diagnosed with clinical BPH. Over twice the proportion of patients without clinical BPH were alcohol drinkers, leading the

researchers to conclude that consuming alcohol is a protective factor for clinical BPH (Tarcan et al., 2006). (Hanson, 2011a)

Data from 34,694 participants in the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian (PLCO) Cancer Screening Trial were analyzed. Researchers found that greater alcohol consumption was strongly associated with decreased risk of benign prostatic hyperplasia (Kang et al., 2004). (Hanson, 2011a)

A case-control study of Chinese men found that those who consumed about two to three drinks per day had a 35% reduction in risk and those who consumed over four drinks per day had a 38% reduction in risk of developing an enlarged prostate (Zhi-quan et al., 2007). (Hanson, 2011a)

A study of 2,797 men age 60 or older participating in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III) found that those who drank alcohol daily had a 41% lower chance of lower urinary tract symptoms than non-drinkers (Rohrmann et al., 2005). (Hanson, 2011a)

The development of benign prostatic hyperplasia among 2,036 volunteers was studied by following individual participants for a period of from 12 to 21 years. The results demonstrated that the risk of developing BPH dropped as the level of alcohol consumption increased (Glynn, 1985). (Hanson, 2011a)

This case-control study of 910 Rhode Islanders, plus 2,003 men who served as controls, found that alcohol reduced the risk of developing benign prostatic hyperplasia (Morrison, 1992). (Hanson, 2011a)

Researchers followed, for a mean of nine years, 1,700 men who were part of the population-based Massachusetts Male Aging Study. They examined numerous physical, medical, and behavioral characteristics but found that virtually none, including alcohol intake, was a risk factor for benign prostatic hyperplasia (Meigs et al., 2001). (Hanson, 2011a)

A community-based cross-sectional epidemiological study of 514 men in Korea found that a lower risk of developing an enlarged prostate was associated with an increasing daily consumption of alcohol (Lee et al., 1997). (Hanson, 2011a)

An analysis of 14,897 men who were members of the Kaiser Permanente Medical Care Program found that those who consumed three or more drinks per day had a 25% lower risk of BPH than non-drinkers (Sidney et al., 1991). (Hanson, 2011a)

OSTEOPOROSIS

Rico et al. (2000) suggest that silicon is readily absorbed from beer, thereby protecting against osteoporosis. The hop component 8-prenylnaringenin is claimed to counter osteoporosis (Miyamoto et al., 1998). (Bamforth, 2004b, p. 240)

Mukherjee and Sorrell (2000) show that moderate alcohol consumption has positive effects on bone mineral density in elderly women, and say that this is probably mediated by a decrease in bone remodeling. Xanthohumol and humulone inhibit bone resorption (Tobe et al., 1997; Honma et al., 1998). (Bamforth, 2004b, p. 240)

Powell (n.d.) reported that beer contains high levels of absorbable silicon, which enhances bone and connective tissue formation and ethanol (alcohol) itself inhibits bone loss by blocking circulating homocysteine, which increases fracture risk. The hop component humulone, is known to be able to fight the process of bone resorption as well (Powell, n.d.).

Researchers examined the evidence from 33 studies and found that alcohol consumption increased neck bone density for each drink per day over the range of 0-3 drinks per day; reduced the risk for hip fracture with increasing quantities consumed; and was generally associated with reduced bone loss over time, compared with abstention from alcohol (Berg et al., 2008). (Hanson, 2011a)

A study was conducted using identical female twins, in which one twin drank very little and the other twin drank moderately (one or two drinks each day). Twins were used because they are genetic clones. Because they have the same genes and grew up in the same environment, it's easier to control for any other possible confounding factors. The study found that moderate drinkers had significantly denser bones than the control group of twins consisting of very light drinkers (Williams et al., 2004). (Hanson, 2011a)

The National Osteoporosis Risk Assessment followed over 200,000 postmenopausal women in the U.S. with no previous diagnosis of osteoporosis who were seen at doctors' offices, with no previous diagnosis of osteoporosis. As a result of screening, the study found that 39.6% had osteopenia or low bone density and 7% had osteoporosis. The study found that drinking alcohol reduced the chances of developing osteoporosis (Siris, 2001). (Hanson, 2011a)

Analyses using data from 13,512 persons ages 20 or older found that bone density was higher in men and postmenopausal women compared with those who do not drink (Woise et al., 2007). (Hanson, 2011a)

A population-based cohort study of 5,865 adults aged 65 years and older from four U.S. communities found that moderate drinking was associated with a significant decrease in risk of hip fracture. Compared with long-term abstainers, moderate drinkers of beer, wine or spirits had a 22% lower chance of developing osteoporosis. Alcohol consumption was also associated with bone mineral density of the total hip and femoral neck in a stepwise manner, with approximately 5% higher bone density among consumers of 14 or more drinks per week than among abstainers (Mulkamal et al., 2007). (Hanson, 2011a)

GALLBLADDER DISEASE (GALLSTONES OR CHOLELITHIASIS)

Those consuming alcohol in moderation—and especially daily—develop fewer gallstones. (Bamforth, 2011)

Alcohol speeds up the rate of emptying and filling of the gall bladder and so people with moderate alcohol intake develop fewer gallstones (Leitzmann et al., 1999). Again it appears that frequency of intake is an important factor, with daily intake of alcohol having the most benefit. (Bamforth, 2004b, p. 236)

A prospective study of 1,290,413 United Kingdom women followed them for an average of over six years. Drinking alcohol was found to decrease the risk of developing gallstone disease. Women who drank 15 or more units of alcohol per week has a 41% reduced risk compared with those who drank one to two units per week. A unit equals ten mL of absolute alcohol (Liu et al., 2008). (Hanson, 2011a)

Information on 58,462 adults age 25 years and over who were randomly selected for the Italian National Health survey was analyzed. After controlling for age sex and other variables, researchers found that those who consumed up to about 1.3 glasses of alcohol each day experienced a 17% decrease, those who consumed from 1.3 to 2.8 glasses daily had a 33% decrease, and those who drank more than 2.8 glasses of alcohol each day enjoyed a 42% drop in risk for gallstone disease, compared with abstainers (La Vecca et al., 1994). (Hanson, 2011a)

Analysis of data from 88,837 women aged 34 to 59 who were followed for four years after completing a detailed questionnaire about food and alcohol intake revealed that those who drank alcohol daily had a 40% decrease in their risk of developing gallbladder disease (Maclure et al., 1989). (Hanson, 2011a)

A study of 29,584 people enrolled in an epidemiological survey of the general population of Italy found that daily moderate alcohol consumption by men significantly lowered their risk of developing gallstone disease compared with non-drinkers (Attili et al., 1998). (Hanson, 2011a)

A total of 80,898 women in the U.S. were followed for 20 years, with alcohol consumption being measured every two to four years. The resulting finding was that alcohol consumption decreased the risk of developing gallstone disease. As consumption increased, the risk decreased. Compared with women who did not drink, those who drank an average of up to one drink per day experienced a 14% decrease in risk whereas those who drank an average of four or more drinks per day had a 38% reduced risk of developing gallstone disease. In addition, as frequency of consumption increased risk decreased dramatically. Beer, wine and spirits all reduced risk (Leitzmann et al., 2003). (Hanson, 2011a)

CANCERS

Evidence suggests that alcohol consumption needs to be really rather substantial for it to be a causative factor in cancer. A 1989 report of the Committee on Diet and Health of the National Academy of Sciences warns against excessive consumption of alcohol, rather than avoidance. (Bamforth, 2004b, p. 240)

Some research suggests that the consumption of alcoholic beverages (including beer) may actually lessen the incidence of certain cancers. (Bamforth, 2004b, p. 240)

Certain substances found in beer might counter cancer. Several unique polyphenol compounds have been found in hops and beer and which impart chemo-preventative properties in part by inhibiting cytochrome P450 (Henderson et al., 2000). The compounds include xanthohumol, 8-prenylnaringenin and isoxanthohumol. (Bamforth, 2004b, p. 241)

Hop extracts at very low concentration effi ciently inhibit breast cancer cells (Zava et al., 1998).However, “Freudenheim et al. (1995) and Zhang et al. (1999) report no relationship between alcohol consumption and breast cancer, but Ferraroni et al. (1998) say that there is an increased risk, especially for wine as opposed to beer. Hebert et al. (1998) report an increased risk of breast cancer recurrence in beer drinkers.” (Bamforth, 2004b, p. 241) However, reports linking a causal relationship between alcohol consumption and breast cancer may not have separated “moderate alcohol consumption” from higher levels of consumption, thus inaccurately deeming any level of alcohol consumption as increasing risk.

KIDNEY CANCER

An analysis of data from 12 prospective studies that included 760,044 men and women who were tracked for seven to 20 years found that moderate drinkers are about 30% less likely to develop kidney cancer than are abstainers (Lee et al., 2007). (Hanson, 2011a)

A prospective study of 59,237 Swedish women age 40-76 found that those who consumed at least one drink per week had a 38% lower risk of kidney cancer than did abstainers or those who drank less. For women over 55, the risk dropped by two-thirds (66%) (Rashidkhani et al., 2005). (Hanson, 2011a)

A study of a large cohort of Finnish males found that risk of kidney cancer declined as total consumption of alcohol increased (Abir et al., 2005). (Hanson, 2011a)

Data from 88,759 women who were tracked for 20 years and from 47,828 men who were observed for 14 years indicate that alcohol reduces the risk of kidney cancer in both men and women (Lee et al., 2006). (Hanson, 2011a)

Compared with nondrinkers, men who drank one or more drinks per day had a 31% lower risk of kidney cancer among 161,126 Hawaii–Los Angeles Multiethnic Cohort participants (Setiawan et al., 2007). (Hanson, 2011a)

A study of postmenopausal women in Iowa over a 15-year period found that those who drank alcohol, compared with nondrinkers, had a significantly lower risk of developing kidney cancer. This relationship persisted after taking into account many other confounding factors (Nicodemus et al., 2004). (Hanson, 2011a)

NON-HODGKIN LYMPHOMA

A review of findings from nine international studies demonstrates that drinking alcohol reduces the risk of non- Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL) by 27%. The protective effect of alcohol did not vary by beer, wine, or distilled spirits consumption (Morton et al., 2005). (Hanson, 2011a)

A prospective study of 473,984 participants (285,079 men and 188,905 women) found that drinkers had a significantly lower risk of developing non-Hodgkin's lymphoma than did nondrinkers. For example, those who consumed over 28 drinks per week, the risk of developing non-Hodgkin lymphoma was about 25% lower than among nondrinkers. This relationship existed for beer, wine and distilled spirits (Lim et al., 2007). (Hanson, 2011a)

A cohort of 35,156 women aged 55-69 years who were studied over a nine-year period found that alcohol consumption was associated with a significantly lower risk of developing non-Hodgkin lymphoma compared with abstaining and the amount of alcohol consumed, rather than the form (beer, wine, or distilled spirits), appeared to provide the protection against the cancer (Chiu et al., 1999). (Hanson, 2011a)

In a population-based case-control study of adults from four U.S. Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results Study centers, researchers found that those who drank alcohol had a significantly lower risk of developing non-Hodgkin's lymphoma than did nondrinkers (Nelson et al., 1997). (Hanson, 2011a)

In a multi-center case-control study in Spain, France, Germany, Italy, Ireland and Czech Republic, researchers found that alcohol consumption significantly reduced the risk of developing non-Hodgkin lymphoma among men and among people living in non- Mediterranean countries (Besson et al., 2006). (Hanson, 2011a)

HODGKIN LYMPHOMA

A multi-center case-control study of subjects in Spain, France, Italy, Germany, Ireland and the Czech Republic found results “consistent with previous studies, suggesting a protective effect of alcohol on HL” (Besson et al., 2006).

Alcohol reduced the risk of Hodgkin's lymphoma (HL) for both men and women, but more so for men, whose risk was lowered by 53% in a population-based case-control study was conducted in Germany (Nieters et al., 2005). (Hanson, 2011a)

A protective effect of alcohol consumption on risk of Hodgkin's lymphoma among non-smokers in Italy was reported in a population-based case-control study (Gorini et al., 2007). (Hanson, 2011a)

Drinking alcohol reduced the risk of Hodgkin's lymphoma among both smokers and non-smokers in an analysis of data from a series of case-control studies in northern Italy (Deandrea et al., 2007). (Hanson, 2011a)

A common symptom of Hodgkin lymphoma is pain in the lymph nodes (Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research (MFMER), 2011). This is reduced following the consumption of alcohol.

THYROID CANCER

A prospective study of over one and one-quarter million (1,280,296) women in the U.K. confirmed the finding that drinking alcohol significantly reduces the risk of developing of thyroid cancer (Allen et al., 2009). (Hanson, 2011a)

Data from almost one-half million (490,000) men and women in the U.S. found that increased alcohol consumption decreased the risk of thyroid cancer (Meinhold et al., 2009). (Hanson, 2011a)

A country-wide population-based case-control study in New Caledonia found that the incidence of thyroid cancer was negatively associated with drinking alcohol among both men and women (Guignard et al., 2007). That is, consuming alcohol was found to be associated with a lower risk of developing thyroid cancer. (Hanson, 2011a)

A study of women identified through the Cancer Surveillance System (CSS), a population-based cancer registry in Washington State, found that higher levels of alcohol consumption were associated with lower risk of developing thyroid cancer (Rossing et al., 2000). (Hanson, 2011a)

“According to the American Cancer society, pancreatic cancer is the fourth leading cause of cancer death in the United States and has a very low five year survival rate. Cancer of the pancreas is about 96% to 100% fatal” (Hanson, 2011b).

“Drinking alcohol is not a risk factor for developing pancreatic cancer. On the other hand, the moderate consumption of alcohol is associated with better health and greater longevity than is either abstaining from alcohol or drinking abusively” (Hanson, 2011b).

Michaud et al. (2001) found no significant association between alcohol intake and risk of pancreatic cancer.

Schmidt (1991) showed that the drinking of distilled spirits, (but not wine or beer) is a risk factor for pancreatitis. (Bamforth, 2004b, p. 236)

COMMON COLD

Research has found moderate drinkers to be more resistant than abstainers to five strains of the common cold virus. Those who consumed two to three drinks daily had an 85% greater resistance. Those drinking one to two drinks daily had a 65% lower risk and those who drank less than daily had a 30% lower risk than abstainers (Cohen et al., 1993). (Hanson, 2011a)

INTERMITTENT CLAUDICATION (IC)

In a study of 18,339 observations, researchers found that drinking alcohol in moderation significantly reduces the risk of intermittent claudication. IC is associated with a two- to four-fold increased risk of death from cardiovascular disease (Djousse et al., 2009). (Hanson, 2011a)

METABOLIC SYNDROME

To examine the relationship between alcohol consumption and metabolic syndrome, a meta-analysis was conducted of seven studies with 22,000 participants. Metabolic syndrome is a dangerous cluster of risk factors that increase the risk for coronary artery disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes. The analysis found that drinking alcohol in moderation significantly reduced the prevalence of metabolic syndrome. The positive effects existed among men who consumed up to a little over three drink per day and among women who consumed up to one and one-half drinks each day (Alkerwi et al., 2009). (Hanson, 2011a)

PERIPHERAL ARTERY DISEASE

Harvard researchers found moderate drinkers to be almost 1/3 less likely to suffer Peripheral Artery Disease (a significant cause of death among the elderly) than those consuming less than one drink per week (Camargo et al., 1997). (Hanson, 2011a)

ESSENTIAL TREMOR

Boecker et al. (1996) found that for those who have essential tremor, alcohol consumption suppressed the amplitude of tremors (but not the frequency).

HEPATITIS A

Desenclos et al. (1994) examined the effect of consuming alcohol and food contaminated with Hepatitis A (specifically from contaminated oysters). High concentrations of alcohol may inhibit the absorption of hepatitis A by membranes. Their research also suggests that alcohol, especially high-alcohol concentration beverages, increases gastric acid and may inactivate Salmonella and Shigella.

KIDNEY STONES

Approximately 12 percent of the US population will form a stone at some time; furthermore, 30-50 percent of men develop another stone within 5 years of their first kidney stone (Curhan et al., 1996).

Beer is superior to water alone in “flushing out” the kidneys, thereby protecting the kidney against stones (Curhan et al., 1996, 1998; Krieger et al., 1996; Shuster et al., 1985). Hirvonen et al. (1999) report that every bottle of beer consumed per day reduces risk of kidney stones by 40%. (Bamforth, 2004b, p. 239)

“Beer specifically has been associated with additional health outcomes, including lowering the risk of kidney stones in men compared to other alcoholic beverages, possibly due to its high water content and diuretic effect,” …“Compounds in hops may also slow the release of calcium from bone that is implicated in kidney stones. Additionally, beer drinkers seem to have a more protective effect towards greater bone mineral density due to the high content of silicone in beer.” (American Dietetic Association, 2011)

In a study by Curhan et al. (1996), male patients with kidney stones, 40-75 years of age, were observed over a 6 year span. Risk of developing kidney stones was significantly more predictable considering consumption of specific beverages. “The risk of stone formation decreased by… 21% for beer and 39% for wine,” for each 240-ml (8-oz) serving consumed daily (Curhan et al., 1996). Beverage type, not just additional fluid intake alone, has a preventative effect on kidney stone formation.

In another study, Curhan et al. (1998) examined the association between consumption of specific beverages and risk for kidney stones in women, 40-65 years of age. Beer and alcohol were associated with reduced risk of developing kidney stones; wine had an even greater benefit (decreasing risk by 59%) for each 240-ml (8-oz) serving consumed daily (Curhan et al., 1998).

Soucie et al. (1996) suggest that the regional differences in occurrence of kidney stones may be related to consumption of alcohol. For example, residents of Utah have a higher prevalence of kidney stones than residents of neighboring states. State-specific differences, also seen in southeastern states, may be linked to reduced consumption of alcohol in these areas (Soucie et al., 1996).

Hirvonen et al. (1999) studied a group of Finnish male smokers (aged 50-69 years) and the associations between their diet and risk of kidney stones. “Beer consumption was inversely

associated with risk of kidney stones; each bottle of beer consumed per day was estimated to reduce risk by 40%” (Hirvonen et al., 1999).

MACULAR DEGENERATION

Moderate consumption of wine and beer reduces the incidence of macular degeneration (Obisean et al., 1998).

PARKINSON'S DISEASE

Hellenbrand et al. (1996) suggest that intake of beer and spirits is not associated with the development of Parkinson’s disease.

POOR PHYSICAL CONDITION IN THE ELDERLY

Nelson et al. (1994) found that white women, 65 years or older who currently consume a moderate amount of alcohol, have better physical function (muscle strength, agility, coordination, gait and balance) compared with nondrinkers.

Moderate drinking and exercise appear to slow down the health deterioration that occurs with aging, according to a study of about 2,500 people aged 65 and older who were followed regularly for about eight years. Those who drank and exercised regularly had fewer difficulties with their daily activities and physical functioning (Wang, 2002). (Hanson, 2011a)

Moderate consumption of beer stimulates appetite and promotes bowel function in the elderly (Dufour et al., 1992). (Bamforth, 2004b, p. 239)

STRESS AND DEPRESSION

Lipton (1994) found that light-moderate and moderate drinkers had less depression in the presence of stress than those who were light or heavy drinkers. Lipton (1994) suggests that moderate alcohol use may suppress the effects of stress.

Moderate drinkers are said to be more outgoing and enthusiastic about life, less stressed, perform some tasks better after a drink, enjoy fewer incidences of depression, and fare better when elderly, including better cognitive function (Baum-Baicker, 1985).

In a study assessing whether alcohol consumption reduces anxiety and panic, Kushner et al. (1996) found that subjects who consumed a moderate dose of alcohol reported a significantly reduced state of anxiety and panic. However, this effect often causes those with panic disorder to abuse alcohol in an effort to increase the benefit.

STOMACH ULCERS, DUODENAL ULCERS, AND TYPE B GASTRITIS

The bacterium that induces stomach and duodenal ulcers and can lead to type B gastritis, Helicobacter pylori, is inhibited by alcohol so there are reports of reduced chance of ulcers and gastritis through moderate drinking. (Bamforth, 2011)

Alcohol consumption has a protective effect against active infection with Helicobacter pylori. (Brenner et al., 1997, 1999, 2001; Ogihara et al., 2000). The hop β -acid lupulone inhibits growth of H. pylori (Ohsugi et al., 1997). (Bamforth, 2004b, p. 236)

INTESTINAL HEALTH

Water-soluble melanoidins from roasted malt promote the activity of detoxifying enzymes (NADPH-cytochrome c reductase and glutathione S transferase) in intestinal cells (Faist et al., 2002). (Bamforth, 2004b, p. 236)

MENOPAUSE

Hops (as opposed to beer per se) are more effective than other widely used plant preparations in alleviating post-menopausal symptoms (Dixon-Shanies and Shaikh, 1999). Hop extracts suppress menopausal hot flushes (Goetz, 1990). (Bamforth, 2004b, p. 237)

REFERENCES

American Dietetic Association. (2011). The Buzz on Beer: A Toast to Good Health during American Heart Month. ADA Times, February 10.

Bamforth, C. W. (2004a). Beer: Health and Nutrition. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

Bamforth, C. W. (2004b). Draft of "Beer: Health and Nutrition" supplied by Charles Bamforth. Unpublished at the time.

Bamforth, C. W. (2011). The Goodness of Beer. Retrieved 2011, from Craft Beer: http://www.craftbeer.com/pages/stories/craft-beer-muses/show?title=the-goodness-of-beer

Baum-Baicker, C. (1985). The psychological benefits of moderate alcohol consumption: A review of the literature. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 15, 305-322.

Bernier, B. E., Witaker, L. R., & Morikawa, H. (2011). Previous Ethanol Experience Enhances Synaptic Plasticity of NMDA Receptors in the Ventral Tegmental Area. The Journal of Neuroscience, 5205-5212.

Boecker, H., et al. (1996). The effect of ethanol on alcoholic-responsive essential tremor: a positron emission tomography study. Annals of Neurology, 39, 650-658.

Brooks, J. (2006a, February 9). New Study Confirms Beer Drinkers Age Slower. Retrieved 2011, from Brookston Beer Bulletin: http://brookstonbeerbulletin.com/new-study-confirms-beer-drinkers-ager-slower/

Brooks, J. (2006b, May 27). Beer Lowers Risk of Heart Disease for Men. Retrieved from Brookston Beer Bulletin: http://brookstonbeerbulletin.com/beer-lowers-risk-of-heart-disease-for-men/

Brooks, J. (2006c, May 31). Beer is Good for Your Prostate. Retrieved from Brookston Beer Bulletin: http://brookstonbeerbulletin.com/beer-is-good-for-your-prostate/

Curhan, G. C., et al. (1996). Prospective study of beverage use and the risk of kidney stones. American Journal of Epidemiology, 143(3), 240-247.

Curhan, G., et al. (1998). Beverage use and risk for kidney stones in women. Annals of Internal Medicine, 128(7), 534-540.

Desenclos, J-C., et al. (1994). The protective effect of alcohol on the occurrence of epidemic oyster borne hepatitis A. Epidemiology, 5, 525-532.

Ford, E. S., Zhao, G., Tsai, J., & Li, C. (2011). Low risk lifestyle behaviors and all-cause mortality: findings from the national health and nutrition examination survey iii mortality study. American Journal of Public Health, 101(10), 1922-9.

Hanson, D. J. (2011a). Alcohol and Health. Retrieved from Alcohol: Problems and Solutions: http://www2.potsdam.edu/hansondj/AlcoholAndHealth.html

Hanson, D. J. (2011b). Alcohol and Pancreatic Cancer. Retrieved from Alcohol: Problems and Solutions: http://www2.potsdam.edu/hansondj/InTheNews/MedicalReports/Cancer/Alcohol-and-Pancreatic-Cancer.html

Hellenbrand, W., et al. (1996). Diet and Parkinson's disease I: A possible role for the past intake of specific foods and food groups. Neurology, 306, 1,506-1,509.

Hirvonen, T., et al. (1999). Nutrient intake and use of beverage and the risk of kidney stones among male smokers. American Journal of Epidemiology, 150, 187-194.

Kushner, M., et al. (1996). The effects of alcohol consumption on laboratory-induced panic and state anxiety. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 264-270.

Lipton, R. I. (1994). The effect of moderate alcohol use on the relationship between stress and depression. American Journal of Public Health, 84(12), 1913-1917.

Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research (MFMER). (2011). Hodgkin's lymphoma (Hodgkin's disease). Retrieved from Mayo Clinic: http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/hodgkins-disease/DS00186/DSECTION=symptoms

MedicalXpress.com. (2011). Alcohol helps the brain remember, says new study. Retrieved 2011, from Medicalxpress.com: http://medicalxpress.com/news/2011-04-alcohol-brain.html

Michaud, D. S., et al. (2001). Coffee and alcohol consumption and the risk of pancreatic cancer in two prospective United States cohorts. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention, 10(5), 429-37.

Nelson, H., et al. (1994). Smoking, alcohol and neuromuscular and physical function of older women. Journal of the American Medical Association, 272(23), 1825-1831.

Obisean, T., et al. (1998). Moderate wine consumption is associated with decreasing odds of developing age-related macular degeneration in NHANSES-1. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 46, 1-7.

Powell, J. J. (n.d.). Silicon, ethanol and connective tissue health: a case for moderate beer consumption. Retrieved 2011 from http://beerandhealth.eu/php/speakers.php?doc_id=17

Soucie, M. J., et al. (1996). Relation between geographic variability in kidney stones prevalence and risk factors for stones. American Journal of Epidemiology, 143(3), 487-494.

U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2010). Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010 (7th Edition). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

U.S. Department of Justice: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency. (2002). Drinking in America: Myths, Realities, and Prevention Policy. Retrieved from http://www.udetc.org/documents/Drinking_in_America.pdf

Warner, J. (2011, Sept. 6). Drink a day keeps disease away? Moderate drinking may help women avoid disease as they age. WebMD Health News. Retrieved from http://women.webmd.com/news/20110906/moderate-drinking-may-cut-disease-risk-for-women

RELEVANT REFERENCES CITED BY CHARLES BAMFORTH IN THE BOOK BEER: HEALTH AND NUTRITION

Baum-Baicker, C. (1985) The psychological benefits of moderate alcohol consumption: A review of the literature. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 15, 305-322.

Bellia, J. P., Birchall, J. D. & Roberts, N. B. (1996) The role of silicic acid in the renal excretion of aluminium. Annals of Clinical and Laboratory Science, 26, 227–233.

Berger, K., Ajani, U. A., Kase, C. S., Gaziano, J. M., Buring, J. E., Glynn, R. J. & Hennekens, C. H. (1999). Light-to-moderate alcohol consumption and the risk of stroke among US male physicians. The New England Journal of Medicine, 341, 1557-1564.

Brenner, H., Bode, G., Adler, G., Hoffmeister, A., Koenig, W. & Rothenbacher, D. (2001). Alcohol as a gastric disinfectant? The complex relationship between alcohol consumption and current Helicobacter pylori infection. Epidemiology, 12,209 – 214.

Brenner, H., Rothenbacher, D., Bode, G. & Adler, G. (1997). Relation of smoking and alcohol and coffee consumption to active Helicobacter pylori infection: Cross sectional study. British Medical Journal, 315, 1489 – 1492.

Brenner, H., Rothenbacher, D., Bode, G. & Adler, G. (1999). Inverse graded relation between alcohol consumption and active infection with Helicobacter pylori. American Journal of Epidemiology, 149, 571 – 576.

Cervilla, J. A., Prince, M., Lovestone, S. & Mann, A. (2000). Long-term predictors of cognitive outcome in a cohort of older people with hypertension. British Journal of Psychiatry, 177, 66–71.

Clevidence, B. A., Reichman, M. E., Judd, J. T., Muesing, R. A., Schatzkin, A., Schaeffer, E. J., Li, Z. L., Jenner, J., Brown, C. C., Sunkin, M., Campbell, W. S. & Taylor, P. R. (1995). Effects of alcohol consumption on lipoproteins of premenopausal women: A controlled diet study. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, 15, 179-184.

Cooper, T. J. (1994). Medical considerations of moderate alcohol consumption. Proceedings of the 23rd Institute of Brewing Convention (Australia and NZ Section), 32-37.

Curhan, G. C., Willett, W. C., Rimm, E. B., Spiegelman, D. & Stampfer, M. J. (1996) Prospective study of beverage use and the risk of kidney stones. American Journal of Epidemiology, 143, 240–247.

Curhan, G. C., Willett, W. C., Speizer, F. E. & Stampfer, M. J. (1998) Beverage use and risk for kidney stones in women. Annals of Internal Medicine, 128, 534.

De Keukeleire, D., Milligan, S. R., Kalita, J. G., Pocock, V., De Cooman, L., Heyerick, A., Rong, H. & Roelens, F. (2001) Prenylated hop flavonoids are key agents in relation to health-beneficial properties of beer. Proceedings of the European Brewing Convention Congress, Budapest, 82–91.

Dixon-Shanies, D. & Shaikh, N. (1999). Growth inhibition of human breast cancer cells by herbs and phytoestrogens. Onc Rep, 6, 1383 – 1387.

Dufouil, C., Ducimetiere, P. & Alperovitch, A. (1997). Sex differences in the association between alcohol consumption and cognitive performance. EVA study group. Epidemiology of vascular ageing. American Journal of Epidemiology, 146, 405–412.

Facchini, F., Chen, I. Y.-D. & Reaven, G. M. (1994) Light to moderate alcohol intake is associated with enhanced insulin sensitivity. Diabetes Care, 17, 115–119.

Faist, V., Lindenmeier, M., Geisler, C., Erbersdobler, H. F. & Hofmann, T. (2002). Influence of molecular weight fractions isolated from roasted malt on the enzyme activities of NADPH-cytochrome c-reductase and glutathione-S-transferase in caco-2 cells. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 50, 602 – 606.

Ferraroni, M., Decarli, A., Franceschi, S. & La Vecchia, C. (1998) Alcohol consumption and risk of breast cancer: A multicentre Italian case-control study. European Journal of Cancer, 34, 1403–1409.

Frankel, E. N., Kanner, J., German, J. B., Parks, E. & Kinsella, J. E. (1993). Inhibition of oxidation of human low density lipoprotein by phenolic substances in red wine. Lancet, 341, 454-457.

Freudenheim, J. L., Marshall, J. R., Graham, S., Laughlin, R., Vena, J. E., Swanson, M., Ambrosone, C. & Nemoto, T. (1995) Lifetime alcohol consumption and risk of breast cancer. The Nutrition and Cancer Journal, 23, 1–11.

Gaziano, J. M., Hennekens, C. H., Godfried, S. L., Sesso, H. D., Glynn, R. J., Breslow, J. L. & Buring, J. E. (1999). Type of alcoholic beverage and risk of myocardial infarction. The American Journal of Cardiology, 83, 52-57.

Ghiselli, A., Natella, F., Guidi, A., Montanari, L., Fantozzi, P. & Scaccini, C. (2000). Beer increases plasma antioxidant capacity in humans. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 11, 76-80.

Gill, J. S., Shipley, M. J., Hornby, R. H., Gill, S. K. & Beevers, D. G. (1988). A community case-control study of alcohol consumption in stroke. International Journal of Epidemiology, 17, 542-547.

Goetz, P. (1990). Traitement des bouffées de chaleur par insuffi sance ovarienne par l’extrait de houblon. Revue de Phytothérapie Pratique (4), 13 – 15.

Goldberg, D. M., Hahn, S. E. & Parkes, J. G. (1995). Beyond alcohol: Beverage consumption and cardiovascular mortality. Clinica Chimica Acta, 237, 155-187.

Gorinstein, S., Caspi, A., Libman, I., Leontowicz, H., Leontowicz, M., Tashma, Z., Katrich, E., Jastrzebski, Z. & Trakhtenberg, S. (2007). Bioactivity of beer and its influence on human metabolism. International Journal of Food Science and Nutrition, 58, 94-107.

Gronbaek, M., Becker, U., Johansen, D., Tonnesen, H., Jensen, G. & Sorensen, T. I. A. (1998) Population based cohort study of the association between alcohol intake and cancer of the upper digestive tract. British Medical Journal, 317, 844–848.

Guallar-Castillon, P., Rodriguez-Artalejo, F., Ganan, L. D., Banegas, J. R. B., Urdinguio, P. L. & Cabrera, R. H. (2001). Consumption of alcoholic beverages and subjective health in Spain. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 55, 648-652.

Harris, A., Gray, M., Slaney, D., Turley, M., Fowles, J. & Weinstein, P. (2003) Ethnic differences in diet and associations with surrogate markers of prostate disease in New Zealand. Epidemiology, 14 (5).

Hebert, J. R., Hurley, T. G. & Ma, Y. S. (1998) The effect of dietary exposures on recurrence and mortality in early stage breast cancer. Breast Cancer Research and Treatment, 51, 17–28.

Hein, H. O., Suadicani, P. & Gyntelberg, F. (1996). Alcohol consumption, serum low density lipoprotein cholesterol concentration, and risk of ischaemic heart disease: Six year follow up in the Copenhagen male study. British Medical Journal, 312, 736-741.

Henderson, M. C., Miranda, C. L., Stevens, J. F., Deinzer, M. L. & Buhler, D. R. (2000) In vitro inhibition of human P450 enzymes by prenylated flavonoids from hops, Humulus lupulus. Xenobiotica, 30, 235–251.

Hertog, M. G. L., Feskens, E. J. M., Hollman, P. C. H., Katan, M. B. & Kromhout, D. (1993). Dietary antioxidant flavonoids and risk of coronary heart disease – the Zutphen elederly study. Lancet, 342, 1007-1011.

Hillbom, M., Numminen, H. & Juvela, S. (1999). Recent heavy drinking of alcohol and embolic stroke. Stroke, 30, 2307-2312.

Hirvonen, T., Pietinen, P., Virtanen, M., Albanes, D. & Virtamo, J. (1999) Nutrient intake and use of beverages and the risk of kidney stones among male smokers. American Journal of Epidemiology, 150, 187–194.

Hoffmeister, H., Schelp, F. P., Mensink, G. B. M., Dietz, E. & Bohning, D. (1999). The relationship between alcohol consumption, health indicators and mortality in the German population. International Journal of Epidemiology, 28, 1066-1072.

Honma, Y., Tobe, H., Makishima, M., Yokoyama, A. & Okabe-Kado, J. (1998) Induction of differentiation of myelogenous leukemia cells by humulone, a bitter in the hop. Leukemia Research, 22, 605–610.

Jansen, D. F., Nedeljkovic, S., Feskens, E. J. M., Oistojic, M. C., Grujic, M. Z., Bloemberg, B. P. M. & Kromhout, D. (1995). Consumption, alcohol use and cigarette smoking as determinants of serum total and HDL cholesterol in two Serbian cohorts of the seven countries study. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, 15, 1793.

Juvela, S., Hillbom, M. & Palomaki, H. (1995). Risk factors for spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke, 26, 1558-1564.

Klatsky, A. L. (1994). Epidemiology of coronary heart disease: Influence of alcohol Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 18, 88-96.

Klatsky, A. L., Armstrong, M. A. & Friedman, G. D. (1997). Red wine, white wine, liquor, beer and risk for coronary artery disease hospitalisation. The American Journal of Cardiology, 80, 416-420.

Krieger, J. N., Kronmal, R. A., Coxon, V., Wortley, P., Thompson, L. & Sherrard, D. J. (1996) Dietary and behavioural risk factors for urolithiasis: Potential implications for prevention. American Journal of Kidney Diseases, 28, 195–201.

Leitzmann, M. F., Giovannucci, E. L., Stampfer, M. J., Spiegelman, D., Colditz, G. A., Willett, W. C. & Rimm, E. B. (1999) Prospective study of alcohol consumption patterns in relation to symptomatic gallstone disease in men. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 23, 835–841.

Longnecker, M. & MacMahon, B. (1988). Associations between alcoholic beverage consumption and hospitalisation, 1983 National Health Interview Survey. American Journal of Public Health, 78, 115-153.

Marmot, M. G., Rose, G., Shipley, M. J. & Thomas, B. J. (1981). Alcohol and mortality: A U-shaped curve. Lancet, 1, 580-583.

Miyamoto, M., Matsushita, Y., Kiyokawa, A., Fukuda, C., Iijima, Y., Sugano, M. & Akiyama, (1998) Prenylfl avonoids: A new class of non-steroidal phytoestrogen (part 2). Estrogenic effects of 8-isopentenylnaringenin on bone metabolism. Planta Medica, 64, 516–519.

Morrell, P. (2000) Re: Does copper in beer protect the heart? British Medical Journal, 320, 1378-1379.

Mukamal, K. J., Conigrave, K. M., Mittleman, M. A., Camargo, C. A., Stampfer, M. J., Willett, W. C. & Rimm, E. B. (2003). Roles of drinking pattern and type of alcohol consumed in coronary heart disease in men. The New England Journal of Medicine, 348, 109-118.

Mukherjee, S. & Sorrell, M. F. (2000) Effects of alcohol consumption on bone metabolism in elderly women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 72, 1073.

Ogihara, A., Kikuchi, S., Hasegawa, A., Kurosawa, M., Miki, K., Kaneko, E. & Mizukoshi, H. (2000). Relationship between Helicobacter pylori infection and smoking and drinking habits. Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, 15, 271 – 276.

Ohsugi, M., Basnet, P., Kadota, S., Isbii, E., Tamora, T., Okumura, Y. & Namba, T. (1997). Antibacterial activity of traditional medicines and an active constituent lupulone from Humulus lupulus against Helicobacter pylori. Journal of Traditional Medicine, 14, 186 – 191.

Palomaeki, H. & Kaste, M. (1993). Regular light-to-moderate intake of alcohol and the risk of ischemic stroke: Is there a beneficial effect? Stroke, 24, 1828-1832.

Parker, D. R., McPhillips, J. B., Derby, C. A., Gans, K. M., Lasater, T. M. & Carleton, R. A. (1996). High density lipoprotein cholesterol and types of alcoholic beverages consumed among men and women. American Journal of Public Health, 86, 1022-1027.

Perry, I. J., Wannamethee, S. G., Walker, M. K., Thomson, A. G., Whincup, P. H. & Shaper, A. G. (1995) Prospective study of risk factors for development of non-insulin dependent diabetes in middle aged British men. British Medical Journal, 310, 560–564.

Pohorecky, L. A. (1990). Interaction of alcohol and stress at the cardiovascular level. Alcohol, 7, 537-541.

Renaud, S. C., Beswick, A. D., Fehily, A. M., Sharp, D. S. & Elwood, P. C. (1992). Alcohol and platelet aggregation: The Caerphilly prospective heart disease study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 55, 1012-1017.

Renaud, S., Criqui, M. H., Farchi, G. & Veenstra, J. (1993). Alcohol drinking and coronary heart disease. In: Health Issues Related to Alcohol Consumption (P. M. Verschurened.), pp. 81-124. ILSI Press: Washington, DC.

Rico, H., Gallego-Lago, J. L., Hernández, E. R., Villa, L. F., Sanchez-Atrio, A., Seco, C. & Gérvas, J. J. (2000) Effect of silicon supplement on osteopenia induced by ovariectomy in rats. Calcified Tissue International, 66, 53–55.

Rimm, E. B., Chan, J., Stampfer, M. J., Colditz, G. A. & Willett, W. C. (1995). Prospective study of cigarette smoking, alcohol use and the risk of diabetes in men. British Medical Journal, 310, 555-559.

Rimm, E. B., Klatsky, A., Grobbee, D. & Stampfer, M. J. (1996). Review of moderate alcohol consumption and reduced risk of coronary heart disease: Is the effect due to beer, wine or spirits? British Medical Journal, 312, 731–736.

Roberts, N. B., Clough, A., Bellia, J. P. & Kim, J. Y. (1998) Increased absorption of aluminium from a normal dietary intake in dementia. Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry, 69, 171–176.

Rodgers, H., Aitken, P. D., French, J. M., Curless, R. H., Bates, D. & James, O. F. W. (1993). Alcohol and stroke: A case control study of drinking habits past and present. Stroke, 24, 1473-1477.

Sacco, R. L., Elkind, M., Boden-Albala, B., Lin, I. F., Kargman, D. E., Hauser, W. A., Shea, S. & Paik, M. C. (1999). The protective effect of moderate alcohol consumption on ischemic stroke. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 281, 53-60.

Schmidt, D. N. (1991). Apparent risk factors for chronic and acute pancreatitis in Stockholm County: Spirits but not wine and beer. International Journal of Pancreatology, 8, 45–50.

Shindo, S., Tomatsu, M., Nakda, T., Shibamoto, N., Tachibana, T. & Mori, K. (2002). Inhibition of aldose reductase activity by extracts from hops. Journal of Institute of Brewing, 108, 344–347.

Shuster, J., Finlayson, B., Scheaffer, R. L., Sierakowski, R., Zoltek, J. & Dzegede, S. (1985) Primary liquid intake and urinary stone disease. The Journal of Chronic Diseases, 38, 907–914.

Stampfer, M. J., Colditz, G. A., Willett, W. C., Manson, J. E., Arky, R. A., Hennekens, C. H. & Speizer, F. E. (1988). A prospective study of moderate alcohol drinking and risk of diabetes in women. American Journal of Epidemiology, 128, 549-558.

Stefanick, M., Legault, C., Tracy, R. P., Howard, G., Kessler, C. M., Lucas, D. L. & Bush, T. L. (1995). Distribution and correlates of plasma fibrinogen in middle aged women – initial findings of the postmenopausal estrogen-progestin interventions (PEPI) study. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, 15, 2085-2093.

Tavani, A., Negri, E., Francheschi, S., Talamini, R. & Lavecchia, C. (1994) Alcohol consumption and risk of prostate cancer. Nut Canc, 21, 25–31.

Thadhani, R., Camargo, C. A., Stampfer, M. J., Curhan, G. C., Willett, W. C. & Rimm, E. B. (2002). Prospective study of moderate alcohol consumption and risk of hypertension in young women. Archives of Internal Medicine, 162, 569-574.

Tobe, H., Muraki, Y., Kitamura, K., Komiyama, O., Sato, Y., Sugioka, T., Maruyama, H. B., Matsuda, E. & Nagai, M. (1997) Bone resorption inhibitors from hop extract. Bioscience Biotechnology and Biochemistry, 61, 158–159.

Truelsen, T., Gronbaek, M., Schnohr, P. & Boysen, G. (1998). Intake of beer, wine, and spirits and risk of stroke: The Copenhagen City Heart Study. Stroke, 29, 2467-2472.

Van Gijn, J., Stampfer, M. J., Wolfe, C. & A lgra, A. (1993). The association between alcohol and stroke. In: Health Issues Related to Alcohol consumption (P. M. Verschuren ed.), pp. 43- 79. ILSI Press: Brussels.

Vasse, R. M., Nijhuis, F. J. & Kok, G. (1998). Associations between work stress, alcohol consumption and sickness absence. Addiction, 93, 231-241.

Wannamethee, S. G. & Shaper, A. G. (1996). Patterns of alcohol intake and risk of stroke in middle-aged British men. Stroke, 27, 1033-1039.

Zava, D. T., Dollbaum, C. M. & Blen, M. (1998) Estrogen and progestin bioactivity of foods, herbs, and spices. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, 217, 369–378.

Zhang, Y. Q., Kreger, B. E., Dorgan, J. F., Splansky, G. L., Cupples, L. A. & Ellison, R. C. (1999) Alcohol consumption and risk of breast cancer: The Framlingham study revisited. American Journal of Epidemiology, 149, 93–101.

RELEVANT REFERENCES CITED BY DAVID HANSON ON THE WEBSITE ALCOHOL AND HEALTH

Abir, S.M., et al. (2005). Prospective Study of Alcohol Drinking and Renal Cell Cancer Risk in a Cohort of Finnish Male Smokers, Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention, 14, 170-175.

Ajani, U. A., et al. (2000). Alcohol consumption and risk of coronary heart disease by diabetic status. Circulation, 102, 500.

Alkerwi, A., et al. (2009). Alcohol consumption and the prevalence of metabolic syndrome: A meta-analysis of observational studies. Atherosclerosis, 204, 624–635.

Allen, N.E., et al. (2009). Moderate alcohol intake and cancer incidence in women. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 101(5), 296-305.

American Heart Association. (1997). Northern Manhattan Stroke Study, 22nd International Joint Conference on Stroke and Cerebral Circulation, Anaheim, California, February, 1997. See also Rodgers, H., et al. Alcohol and stroke: a case control study of drinking habits past and present. Stroke, 1993, 12(10), 1473-1477; Truelsen, T., et al. Intake of beer, wine and spirits and risk of stroke: the Copenhagen city heart study. Stroke, 1998, 29(12), 2468-2472; Calcoya, M., et al. Alcohol and stroke: a community case control study in Asturias, Spain. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 1999, 52, 577-684; Gill, J., et al. Stroke and alcohol. New England Journal of Medicine, 1991, 315(17); Berger, K., et al. Light-to-moderate alcohol consumption and risk of stroke among US male physicians. New England Journal of Medicine, 1999, 341(21), 1557-15

Anani, U. A., et al. (2000). Alcohol consumption and risk of coronary heart disease by diabetes status. Circulation, 102, 500-505.

Andel, R., et al. (2005). Strategies to reduce the risk of cognitive decline and dementia. Aging Health, 1(1), 107-116.

Attili, A.F., et al. (1998). Diet, and gallstones in Italy: the cross-sectional MICOL results. Hepatology, 27(6), 1492-1498.

Avogaro, A., et al. (2004). Acute alcohol consumption improves insulin action without affecting insulin secretion in type 2 diabetic subjects. Diabetes Care, 27(6), 1369-1374.

Baliunas, D.O., et al. (2009). Alcohol as a Risk Factor for Type 2 Diabetes. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Care, 32(11), 2123-2132.

Berger, K., et al. (1999). Light-to-moderate alcohol consumption and the risk of stroke among U.S. male physicians. New England Journal of Medicine, Nov. 18, 341 (21).

Besson H., et al. (2006). Tobacco smoking, alcohol drinking and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: a European multicenter case-control study (Epilymph). International Journal of Cancer, 2006, 119(4), 901-8.

Beulens, J., Stolky, R. P., van der Schouw, Y. T. , Grobbee, D. E., Hendriks, H., and Bots, M. L. (2005). Alcohol consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes among older women. Diabetes Care, 28, 2933-2938.

Blackwelder, W. C., et al. (1980). Alcohol and mortality. The Honolulu Heart Study. American Journal of Medicine, 68(2), 164-169.

Boffetta, P., and Garefinkel, L. (1990). Alcohol drinking among men enrolled in an American Cancer Society prospective study. Epidemiology, 1(5), 42-48.

Britton, A., and McPherson, K. (2001). Mortality in England and Wales attributable to current alcohol consumption. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 55(6), 383-388.

Caicoya, M., et al. (1999). Alcohol and stroke: a community case-control study in Asturias, Spain. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 52(7), 677-684.

Camargo, C. A. et al. (1997). Prospective study of moderate alcohol consumption and risk of peripheral arterial disease in US male physicians. Circulation, 95(3), 577-580.

Camargo, C. A., et al. (1997). Prospective study of moderate alcohol consumption and mortality in US male physicians. Archives of Internal Medicine, 157, 79-85.

Cancer Council of New South Wales website.

Carlsson, S., et al. (2003). Alcohol consumption and the incidence of type 2 diabetes: a 20-year follow-up of the Finnish Twin Cohort Study. Diabetes Care, 26(10), 2785-2786.

Carlsson, S., et al. (2005). Alcohol consumption and type 2 diabetes: meta-analysis of epidemiological studies indicates a U-shaped relationship. Diabetologia, 48(6), 1051-1054.

Castelli, W. P., et al. (1977). Alcohol and blood lipids. The cooperative lipoprotein phenotyping study. The Lancet, 2, 153- 155; Paassilta, M., et al. Social alcohol consumption and low Lp (2) lipoprotein concentration in middle aged Finnish men: population based study. British Medical Journal, 1998, 316, 594-595. Langer, R., Criqui, M., and Reed, D. Lipoprotein and blood pressure as biological pathways for effects of moderate alcohol consumption on coronary heart disease. Circulation, 1992, 85(3), 910-915.

Chiu, B.C., et al. (1999). Alcohol consumption and non-Hodgkin lymphoma in a cohort of older women. British Journal of Cancer, 80(9), 1476-82.

Chyou, P.H., et al. (1993). A prospective study of alcohol, diet, and other lifestyle factors in relation to obstructive uropathy caused by benign prostatic hyperplasia. The Prostate, 22(3), 253-264.

Cohen, S., et al. (1993). Smoking, alcohol consumption and susceptibility to the common cold. American Journal of Public Health, 83(9), 1277-1283.

Cordain, L. et al. (1997). Influence of moderate daily wine consumption upon body weight regulation and metabolism in healthy, free-living males. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 16(2).

Crispo, A., et al. (2004). Alcohol and the risk of prostate cancer and benign prostatic hyperplasia. Urology, 64(4), 717-722.

Dayton C, DC Gute, P Carter, and RJ Korthuis. (2004). Antecedent ethanol prevents postischemic P-selectin expression in murine small intestine. Microcirculation, 11, 709-718.

De Groot, L.C. and Zock, P.L. (1998). Moderate alcohol intake and mortality. Nutrition Review, 56(1, pt. 1), 25-26.

De Lorgeril, M., et al. (2002). Wine drinking and risks of cardiovascular complications after recent acute myocardial infarction. Circulation: Journal of the American Heart Association, 106, 1465-1469.

Deandrea, S., et al. (2007). Reply to ‘Alcohol consumption and risk of Hodgkin's lymphoma and multiple myeloma: a multicentre case-control study' by Gorini et al. Annals of Oncology, 18(6):1119-1121.

Djousse, L., et al. (2000). Alcohol consumption and risk of intermittent claudicating in the Framingham Heart Study. Circulation, 102, 3092.

Dodson, R. (2004). Alcohol prevents more deaths than it causes. Independent News (UK) 5-23-04.

Doll, R., and Peto, R. (1994). Mortality in relation to consumption of alcohol: 13 years' observations on male British doctors. British Medical Journal, 309, 911-918.

Ellison, R. C. (1993). Does Moderate Alcohol Consumption Prolong Life? New York: American Council on Science and Health, p. 7.

Ellison, R. C. (1998). Here's to your health. Wine Spectator, October 31, 34-46.

Ernst, N., et al. (1980). The association of plasma high-density lipoprotein cholesterol with dietary intake and alcohol consumption. The Lipid Research Clinics program prevalence study. Circulation, 62 (suppl IV), 41-52; Willett, W. Hennekens, C. H., Siegel, A. J., Adner, M. M., and Castell, W. P. Alcohol consumption and high density lipoprotein cholesterol in marathon runners. New England Journal of Medicine, 1980, 303, 1159-1161; Barrett-Connor, E., and Suarez, L. A

community study of alcohol and other factors associated with the distribution of high density lipoprotein cholesterol in older vs. younger men. American Journal of Epidemiology, 1982,115, 888-893; Phillips, N. R., Havel, R. J., and Kane, J. P. Serum apolipoprotein A-l levels. Relationship to lipoprotein lipid levels and selected demographic variables. American Journal of Epidemiology, 1982, 116, 302-313; Fraser, G. E., Anderson, J. T., Foster, N., Goldberg, R., Jacobs, D., and Blackburn, H. The effect of alcohol on serum high density lipoprotein (HDL). A controlled experiment. Atherosclerosis, 1983, 46, 275-283; Camargo, C. A., Williams, P. T., Vranizan, K. M., Albers, J. J., and Wood, P. D. The effect of moderate alcohol intake on serum apolipaproteins A-I and A-II: A controlled study. Journal of the American Medical Association, 1985, 253, 2854-2857; Valimaki, M., Nikkila, E. A., Taskinen, M. R., and Tlikahri, R. Rapid decrease in high density lipoprotein subfraction and postheparin plasma lipase activities after cessation of chronic alcohol intake. Atherosclerosis, 1986, 59, 147-153; Doll, R. One for the heart. British Medical Journal, 1997, 315, 1664-1668; Paassilta, M., et al. Social alcohol consumption and low Lp (2) lipoprotein concentration in middle aged Finnish men: population based study. British Medical Journal, 1998, 316, 594-595.

Espeland, M., et al. (2006). Association between alcohol intake and domain-specific cognitive function in older women. Neuroepidemiology, 1(27), 1-12.

European League Against Rheumatism (EULAR). (2001). eular.org.

Facchini, F, Chen, Y., and Reaven, G. (1994). Light-to-moderate alcohol intake is associated with enhanced insulin sensitivity. Diabetes Care, 17(2); Rimm, E., et al. Prospective study of cigarette smoking, alcohol use and the risk of diabetes in men. British Medical Journal, 1995, 310, 555-559; Bell, D. Alcohol and the NIDDM patient. Diabetes Care, 1996, 19(5), 509-513.

Farchi, G., et al. (2000). Alcohol and survival in the Italian rural cohorts of the Seven Countries Study. International Journal of Epidemiology, 29, 667-671.

Fuchs, C. S., et al. (1995). Alcohol consumption and mortality among women. The New England Journal of Medicine, 332(19), 1245-1250.

Galanis, D. J., et al. (2000). A longitudinal study of drinking and cognitive performance in elderly Japanese American men: The Honolulu-Asia Aging Study. American Journal of Public Health, 90, 1254-1259.

Ganguli, M., et al. (2005). Alcohol consumption and cognitive function in late life: A longitudinal community study. Neurology, 65, 1210-12-17.

Gass, R. (2002). Benign prostatic hyperplasia: the opposite effects of alcohol and coffee intake. BJU International, 90(7), 649-654.

Gaziano, J., et al. (1998). Potential mortality benefits for drinkers with previous heart attacks. The Lancet, 352, M 1882-1885.

Gaziano, J.M., et al. (2000). Light-to-moderate alcohol consumption and mortality in the Physicians' Health Study enrollment cohort. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 35(1), 96-105.

Glynn, R.J. (1985). The development of benign prostatic hyperplasia. American Journal of Epidemiology, 121(1), 78-90.

Gorini, G., et al. (2007). Alcohol consumption and risk of Hodgkin's lymphoma and multiple myeloma: a multicentre case-control study. Annals of Oncology, 18, 143–148

Green, C.A. and Polen, M.R. (2001). The health and health behaviors of people who do not drink alcohol. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 21(4), 298-305.

Guignard, R., et al. (2007). Alcohol drinking, tobacco smoking, and anthropometric characteristics as risk factors for thyroid cancer. American Journal of Epidemiology, 166(10), 1140-1149.

Harrison, P.G. (2001). Moderate Drinking Helps Preserve Women's Brains. Reuters Health. See also Reuters, Associated Press, ABCNEWS, and HealthSCOUT of same date.

Hennekens, C. H. (1996). Alcohol and Risk of Coronary Events. In: National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. Alcohol and the Cardiovascular System. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Howard, A.A., et al. (2004). Effects of alcohol consumption on diabetes mellitus: a systematic review. Annals of Internal Medicine, 140(3), 211-219.

Huang, W., et al. (2002). Alcohol consumption and incidence of dementia in a community sample aged 75 years and older. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 55(10), 959-964.

Israel, Y., Orrego, H. and Carmichael, F. J. (1994). Acetate-mediated effects of ethanol. Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res., 1994, Alcohol: Clinical and Experimental Research, 18(1), 144-148; Pelleg, A. and Porter, R. S. The pharmacology of adenosine. Pharmacotherapy, 1990, 10(3), 157-174; Blaise, G., Noel, J., Vinay, P. Cordoso, M., Vinet, B., Boulanger, Y., Leveille, M., Prud'homme, M., and Gougoux, A. Metabolic effects of acetate on the heart. Clin. Invest. Med., 1989, 12(4), 254-261; Ely, S. J. and Berne, R. M. Protective effects of adenosine in myocardial ischemia. Circulation, 1992, 85(3), 893-900.

Maxwell, J. R., Gowers, I. R., Moore, D. J., & Wilson, A. G. (2010). Alcohol consumption is inversely associated with risk and severity of rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatology; doi:10.1093/rheumatology/keq202.

Kallberg, H., et al. (2009). Alcohol consumption is associated with decreased risk of rheumatoid arthritis: results from two Scandinavian case-control studies. Annals of the Rheumatoid Diseases, 68(2), 222-228.

Kang, D., et al. (2004). Risk behaviours and benign prostatic hyperplasia. BJU International, 93(9), 1241-1245.

Berg, K. M., Kunins, H. V., Jackson, J. L., Nahvi, S., Chaudhry, A., Harris, K. A., Malik, R. & Arnsten, J. H. (2008). Association Between Alcohol Consumption and Both Osteoporotic Fracture and Bone Density. The American Journal of Medicine, 121(5), 406-418.

King, D. E., Mainous, A. G. & Geesey, M. E. (2008). Adopting moderate alcohol consumption in middle-age: Subsequent cardiovascular events. American Journal of Medicine, (March), 121(3).

Klatsky, A., Friedman, G., & Siegelaub, A. (1981). Alcohol and mortality: ten-year Kaiser Permanente experience. Annals of Internal Medicine, 95(2), 139-145.

Kopper, L., et al. (2005). Moderate alcohol consumption lowers the risk of type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis of prospective observational studies. Diabetes Care, 28, 719-725.

Kristal, A. R., Arnold, K. B., Schenk, J. M., Neuhouser, M. L., Goodman, P., Penson, D. F. & Thompson, I. M. (2008). Dietary Patterns, Supplement Use, and the Risk of Symptomatic Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia: Results from the Prostate Cancer Prevention Trial. American Journal of Epidemiology. doi:10.1093/aje/kwm389

La Porte, R., et al. (1985). Coronary heart disease and total mortality. Recent developments in Alcoholism, 3, 157-163.

La Vecca, C., et al. (1994). Alcohol drinking and prevalence of self-reported gallstone disease in the 1983 Italian National Health Survey. Epidemiology. 5(5):533-6.

LaPorte, R. E., Cresanta, J. L., and Kuller, L. H. (1980). The relationship of alcohol consumption to atherosclerotic heart disease. Preventive Medicine, 9, 22-40; Moore, R. D., and Pearson, T. A. Moderate alcohol consumption and coronary artery disease. Medicine, 1986, 65, 242-267; Doll, R. One for the Heart. British Medical Journal, 1997, 315, 1664-1668; Paassilta. M., et al. Social alcohol consumption and low Lp (a) lipoprotein concentrations in middle aged Finnish men: Population based study. British Medial Journal, 1998, 316, 594-595; Thun, et al. Alcohol consumption in middle-aged and early U. S. adults. New England Journal of Medicine, 1997, 336, 1705-1714. Rimm, E., et al. Moderate alcohol intake and lower risk of coronary heart disease: meta-analysis of effects on lipids and hemostatic factors. British Medical Journal, 1999, 319, 1523-1528.

Lee, A., et al. (1997). A high-risk group for prostatism: a population-based epidemiological study in Korea. British Journal of Urology, 79(5), 736-741.

Lee, J,E., et al. (2006). Total fluid intake and Use of Individual Beverages and Risk of Renal Cell Cancer in Two Large Cohorts, Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention, Vol. 15, 1204-1211.

Lee, J. E., et al. (2007). Alcohol intake and renal cell cancer in a pooled analysis of 12 prospective studies. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 99, 811-822.

Lee, S.J. et al. (2009). Functional limitations, socioeconomic status, and all-cause mortality in moderate alcohol drinkers. Journal of the American Gerontological Society, 57(6), 995-962.

Leitzmann, M.F., et al. (2003). Alcohol consumption in relation to risk of cholecystectomy in women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 78(2), 339-347.

Lim, U., et al. (2007). Alcohol, smoking, and body size in relation to incident Hodgkin's and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma risk. American Journal of Epidemiology, 166(6), 697-708.

Liu, B., et al. (2008). (For the Million Women Study Collaborators). Separate and joint effects of alcohol and smoking on the risks of cirrhosis and gallbladder disease in middle-aged women. American Journal of Epidemiology, 169(2), 153-160.

Longnecker, M., and MacMahon, B. (1988). Associations between alcoholic beverage consumption and hospitalization, 1983 National Health Interview Survey. American Journal of Public Health, 78(2), 153.

Maclure, K.M, et al. (1989). Weight, diet, and the risk of symptomatic gallstones in middle-aged women. New England Journal of Medicine, 321, 563-569.

MacMahon. (1987). Alcohol consumption and hypertension. Hypertension, 9(2), 111-121; Dairdron, D. M. Cardiovascular effects of alcohol. Western Journal of Medicine, 1989, 151(4), 430-439.

Malinski, M.K., Sesso, H.D., Lopez-Jimenez, F., Buring, J.E., and Gaziano, M. (2004). Alcohol consumption and cardiovascular disease mortality in hypertensive men. Archives of Internal Medicine, 164(6), 623.

Manson, J. E., et al. (1992). The primary prevention of myocardial infarction. The New England Journal of Medicine, 326(21), 1406-1416.

Manson, J. E., et al. (1996). Prevention of Myocardial Infarction. New York: Oxford University Press.

Maraldi, C., et al. (2006). Impact of inflammation on the relationship among alcohol consumption, mortality, and cardiac events: the Health, Aging, and Body Composition Study. Archives of Internal Medicine, 166(14), 1490-1497.

Maskarinec, G., et al. (1998). Alcohol intake, body weight, and mortality in a multiethnic prospective cohort. Epidemiology, 9(6), 654-661.

Matthews, R. (2004). Alcohol sharpens your brain, say researchers. The Telegraph (UK), August 1, 2004.

McCallum, J., et al. (2003). The Dubbo Study of the Health of the Elderly 1988-2002: An Epidemiological Study of Hospitaol and Residential Care. Sydney, NSW, Australia: The Australian Health Policy Institute, 2003.

McCaul K. A., Almeida O.P., Hankey G.J., Jamrozik K., Byles J.E., & Flicker, L. (2010). Alcohol use and mortality in older men and women. Addiction. On-line prior to publication: doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.02972.x

McDougall, G. (2004). Older Women's Cognitive and Affective Response to Moderate Drinking. Presented at the meetings of the National Congress on the State of Science in Nursing Research. Washington, D.C.; University of Texas at Austin. Moderate drinking in older adult women has positive influence on memory. News release, October 3, 2004.

Meade, T. W., Vickers, M. V., Thompson, S. G., Stirling, Y., Haines, A. P., & Miller, G. J. (1985). Epidemiologic characteristics of platelet aggregability. British Medical Journal, 290, 428 432; Jakubowshi, J. A., Vaillancourt, R., and Deykin, D. Interaction of ethanol, prostacyclin, and aspirin in determining platelet reactivity in vitro. Atherosclerosis, 1988, 8, 436-441; Meade, T. W., Imeson, J., and Sterling, Y. Effects of changes in smoking and other characteristics of clotting factors and the risk of ischemic heart disease. The Lancet, 1987, 1, 986-988; Seigneur, M., et al. Effect of the consumption of alcohol, white wine, and red wine on platelet function and serum lipids. Journal of Applied Cardiology, 1990, 5, 215-222; Renaud, S. C., Beswick, A. D. Fehily, A. M., Sharp, D. S., and Elwood, P. C. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 1992, 55, 1012-1017. Zhang, Q., et al. Effects of acute, moderate alcohol consumption on human platelet aggregation in platelet-rich plasma and whole blood. Alcohol: Clinical and Experimental Research, 2000, 24, 528-534.

Meigs, J.B., et al. (2001). Risk factors for clinical benign prostatic hyperplasia in a community-based population of healthy aging men. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 54(9), 935-944.

Meinhold, C.L., et al. (2009). Alcohol intake and risk of thyroid cancer in the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study. British Journal of Cancer, 101(9), 1630-1634.

Mennen, L., et al. (1999). Fibrinogen may explain in part the protective effect of moderate drinking on the risk of cardiovascular disease. Arteriosclerotic and Thrombodic Vascular Biology, 19, 887-

892; Wang, Z., and Barker, T. Alcohol at moderate levels decreases fibrinogen expression in vivo and in vitro. Alcohol: Clinical and Experimental Research, 1999, 23, 1927-1932

Moore, R., & Pearson, T. (1986). Moderate alcohol consumption and coronary artery disease. Medicine, 65 (4), 242-267.

Morrison, A.S. (1992). Risk factors for surgery for prostatic hypertropy [an alternative term for BPH], American Journal of Epidemiology, 135, 974-980.

Morton, L., et al. (2005). Alcohol consumption and risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma: A pooled analysis Lancet Oncology.

Mukamal, K. J. et al. (2007). Alcohol consumption and lippoprotein subclasses in older adults. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, April. PMID: 17440017.

Mulcamel, K.J., et al. (2001). Alcohol consumption after myocardial infarction. Journal of the American Medical Association, 2001, 285(15), 1965-1970; Alcohol and AMI: Benefits from beer, wine, and liquor. American Journal of Nursing, 101(8), 18.

Mulkamal, K.J., et al. (2003). Prospective study of alcohol consumption and risk of dementia in older adults. Journal of the American Medical Association, 289, 1405-1413.

Mulkamal, K.J., et al. (2007). Alcohol consumption, bone density, and hip fracture among older adults: the cardiovascular health study. Osteoporosis International, 18(5), 593-602.

Myllykangas-Lusojarvi, R., Aho, K., Kautiainen, H., & Hakala, M. (2000). Reduced incidence of alcohol related deaths in subjects with rheumatoid arthritis. Annals of Rheumatoid Diseases, 59, 75-76.

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). (2003). State of the science report on the effects of moderate drinking. National Institutes of Health: Department of Health and Human Services, December 19.

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). (2004). Highlights of the NIAAA position paper on moderate alcohol consumption [Press Release]. Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, June & July.

National Stroke Association. (2011). Controllable Risk Factors – Alcohol Use. Retrieved from National Stroke Association: http://www.stroke.org/site/PageServer?pagename=Alcohol

Nelson, R.A., et al. (1997). Alcohol, tobacco and recreational drug use and the risk of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. British Journal of Cancer, 76(11), 1532-1537.

Nicodemus, K.K., et al. (2004). Evaluation of dietary, medical and lifestyle risk factors for incident kidney cancer in postmenopausal women. International Journal of Cancer, 108(1), 115-121.

Nieters, A. et al. (2005). Tobacco and alcohol consumption and risk of lymphoma: Results of a population-based case-control study in Germany, International Journal of Cancer, 118(2), 422-430.

Ning, X., et al. (2003). A case-control study on the risk factors of benign prostatic hyperplasia in the suburb of Shenyang. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi, 24(4), 276-280.

Orogozo, J. M., et al. (1997). Wine consumption and dementia in the elderly: a prospective community study in the Bordeaux area. Revue Neurologique, 153.

Østergaard P. J., Heitmann B. L., Schnohr P., & Grønbæk M. (2008). The combined influence of leisure-time physical activity and weekly alcohol intake on fatal ischaemic heart disease and all-cause mortality. European Heart Journal; DOI:10.1093/eurheartj/ehm574.

Parsons, J., & Im, R. (2009). Alcohol consumption is associated with a decreased risk of benign prostatic hyperplasia. Journal of Urology, 182(4), 1463-1468.

Patra, J., Taylor, B., Irving, H., Roerecke, M., Baliunas, D., Mohapatra, S., & Rehm, J. (2010). Alcohol consumption and the risk of morbidity and mortality for different stroke types – a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Public Health, 10, art No 258, 12 pp.

Pearson, T.A. (1996). (For the American Heart Association). Alcohol and heart disease. Circulation, 94, 3023-3025.

Pedersen, J. Ø., Heitmann, B. L., Schnohr, P., & Grønbæk, M. (2008). The combined influence of leisure-time physical activity and weekly alcohol intake on fatal ischaemic heart disease and all-cause mortality. European Heart Journal, 29(2), 204-212.

Platz, E.A., et al. (1998). Alcohol consumption, cigarette smoking, and risk of benign prostatic hyperplasia. American Journal of Epidemiology, 149(2), 106-115.

Power, C., et al. (1998). U-shaped relation for alcohol consumption and health in early adulthood and implications for mortality. The Lancet, 352, 9131.

Power, C., et al. & Goldberg, D. M., et al. (1999). Moderate alcohol consumption: the gentle face of Janus. Clinical Biochemistry, 32(7), 505-518.

Price, J.H. (2004). Light drinking lowers bad proteins. The Washington Times, February 11.

Rashidkhani, B., Åkesson, A., Lindblad, P, & Wolk, A. (2005). Alcohol consumption and risk of renal cell carcinoma: A prospective study of Swedish women International Journal of Cancer, 117(5), 848–853.

Razay, G., et al. (1992). Alcohol consumption and its relation to cardiovascular risk factors in British women. British Medical Journal, 304, 80-83.

Richman, A., & Warren, R. A. (1985). Alcohol consumption and morbidity in the Canadian Health Survey: inter-beverage differences. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 15, 255-282.

Rimm, E. B., et al. (1991). Prospective study of alcohol consumption and risk of coronary disease in men. The Lancet. 338, 464-468.

Rimm, E. B., et al. (1995). Prospective study of cigarette smoking, alcohol use, and the risk of diabetes in men. British Medical Journal, 310, 555-559.

Rodgers, B., et al. (2005). Non-linear relationships between cognitive function and alcohol consumption in young, middle-aged and older adults: The PATH Through Life Project. Addiction, 100(9), 1280-1290; Anstey, K. J., et al. Lower cognitive test scores observed in alcohol are associated with demographic, personality, and biological factors: The PATH Through Life Project. Addiction, 2005, 100(9), 1291-1301.

Rodgers, H. et al. (1993). A case-control study of drinking habits past and present. Stroke. 24(10), 1473-1477.

Rodriguez-Artalejo, F., et al. (2001). Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 2001, 55, 648-652; Norton, A. Any Alcohol in Moderation May Boot Health: Study, Reuters Health, August 16.

Rohrmann, S., et al. (2005). Association of cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption and physical activity with lower urinary tract symptoms in older American men: findings from the third National Health And Nutrition Examination Survey. BJU International, 96(1), 77-82.

Rossing, M.A., et al. (2000). Risk of papillary thyroid cancer in women in relation to smoking and alcohol consumption. Epidemiology, 11, 49-54.

Ruitenberg, A., et al. (2002). Alcohol consumption and risk of dementia: the Rotterdam Study. Lancet, 359(9303), 281-286.

Sacco, R. L., Elkind, M., Boden-Albala, B., Lin, I-F., Kargman, D. E., Hauser. W. A., Shea, S., & Paik, M. C. (1999). The Protective Effect of Moderate Alcohol Consumption on Ischemic Stroke, Journal of the American Medical Association, 281, 53-60.

Sacco, R. L., et al. (1999). The Protective Effect of Moderate Alcohol Consumption on Ischemic Stroke, Journal of the American Medical Association, 281, 53-60.

Sacco, R. L., et al. (2001). High-density lipoprotein cholesterol and ichemic stroke in the elderly: The Northern Manhattan Stroke Study. Journal of the American Medical Association, 285, 2729-2735.

Sesso, H. D., et al. (2001). Seven -year changes in alcohol consumption and subsequent risk of cardiovascular disease in men. Archives of Internal Medicine, 160, 2505-2612.

Setiawan, V., et al. (2007). Risk Factors for Renal Cell Cancer: The Multiethnic Cohort, American Journal of Epidemiology, 166(8):932-940.

Sidney, S., et al. (1991). Incidence of surgically treated benign prostatic hypertrophy and of prostate cancer among blacks and whites in a prepaid health care plan. American Journal of Epidemiology, 134(8), 825-829.

Siris, E.S. (2001). Identification and fracture outcomes of undiagnosed low bone density in postmenopausal women: Results from the National Osteoporosis Risk Assessment. Journal of the American Medical Association, 286(22), 2815-2822.

Solomon, C. G., et al. (2000). Moderate alcohol consumption and risk of coronary heart disease among women with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Circulation, 102, 494-499.

Stampfer, M.J., et al. (1988). A prospective study of moderate alcohol drinking and risk of diabetes in women. American Journal of epidemiology, 128(3), 549-558.

Stampfer, M.J., et al. (2005). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on cognitive function in women. New England Journal of Medicine, 352, 245-253.

Straus, R. (1979). An historical perspective on the clinical uses of wine. Vintage, August. Referenced in Ford, G. The Benefits of Moderate Drinking: Alcohol, Health and Society. San Francisco, California: Wine Appreciation Guild, 1988, p. 20.

Sumi, H., Hamada, H., Tsushima, H., and Mihara, H. (1988). Urokinase-like plasminogen activator increased in plasma after alcohol drinking. Alcohol & Alcoholism, 23, 33-43.

Suzuki, K., et al. (2009). Moderate alcohol consumption is associated with better endothelial function: a cross sectional study. BMC Cardiovasc. Discord., 9, 8.

Tanner, L. (2003). Light to moderate drinking cuts diabetes risk in women, too. Associated Press, National Diabetes Information Clearinghouse.

Tarcan, T., et al. (2006). Are Cigarette Smoking, Alcohol Consumption and Hypercholesterolemia Risk Factors for Clinical Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia? Marmara University, School of Medicine. OCLC #281636287

Trevisan, M., et al. (1997). Drinking pattern and mortality: a longitudinal study; Gaziano, J. M., et al. A prospective cohort study of moderate alcohol consumption and sudden death in the Physicians' Health Study; Keil, U., et al. The relation of alcohol to coronary heart disease and total mortality in a beer drinking population in Southern Germany; Waskiewicz, A., et al. Alcohol consumption and l l-year total and CVD mortality among men in Pol-MONICA study; Grobbee, D. E., et al. Alcohol and cardiovascular risk in the elderly. All presented at the 4th International Conference on Preventive Cardiology, Montreal, Canada, June 29-July 3, 1997, and published in Abstracts from the 4th International Conference on Preventive Cardiology. The Canadian Journal of Cardiology, June, 1997, volume 13, Supplement B.

Turesson, C. (2007). Increased Alcohol Intake Associated with Decreased Risk of Developing Rheumatoid Arthritis. (Abstract) Paper presented at the annual European Congress of Rheumatology. Barcelona, Spain. European League Against Rheumatism, June 15, 2007.

Umed, A., et al. (2000). Alcohol consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus among US male physicians. Archives of Internal Medicine, 160, 1025-1050.

Valmidrid, C. T., et al. (1999). Alcohol intake and the risk of coronary heart disease mortality in persons with older-onset diabetes mellitus. Journal of the American Medical Association, 282(3), 239-246.

Vasse, R. M., et al. (1998). Association between work stress, alcohol and sickness absence. Addiction, 93 (2), 231-241.

Vin, sante & societe. (1995). AIM, 4(2), 7-10, p. 9.

Vliegenthart, R., et al. (2004). Alcohol consumption and coronary calcification in a general population. Archives of Internal Medicine, 2004 (November 22), 164, 2355-2360.

Walsh, C. R., et al. (2002). Alcohol consumption and risk for congestive heart failure in the Framingham Heart Study. Annals of Internal Medicine, 136(3), 181-191.

Wang, L. et al. (2002). Predictors of functional change: a longitudinal study of nondemented people aged 65 and older. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 50(9), 1525-1534.

Wannamethee, S. G., et al. (2002). Alcohol consumption and the incidence of type II diabetes. Journal of epidemiology and Community Health, 56(7), 542-548.

Wei, M. et al. (2000). Alcohol intake and incidence of type 2 diabetes in men. Diabetes Care, 23(1), 18-26.

Wheeler, M., et al. (2003). Is there a place for alcohol in your diabetes meal plan? Diabetes Forecast.

Whitten, D. (1993). Wine Institute Seminar. San Francisco, CA: 1987. Quoted in Ford, G. The French Paradox and Drinking for Health. San Francisco, CA: Wine Appreciation Guild. Pp. 26-27.

Wiley, J., & Comacho, T. (1980). Life-style and future health: evidence from the Alameda County Study. Preventive Medicine, 9, 1-21.

Wilkie, S. (1997). Global overview of drinking recommendations and guidelines. AIM Digest (Supplement), June, 2-4, 4.

Williams, F., et al. (2004). The effect of moderate alcohol consumption on bone mineral density: A study of female twins. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. Published Online First: 1 July 2004. doi:10.1136/ard.2004.022269.

Wosie, K.S., & Kalkwarf, H.J. (2007). Bone density in relation to alcohol intake among men and women in the United States. Osteoporosis International, 18(3), 391-400.

Yuan, J-M., et al. (1997). Follow up study of moderate alcohol intake and mortality among middle aged men in Shanghai, China. British Medical Journal, 314, 18-23.

Zhi-quan, L., et al. (2007). Association of alcohol consumption, body mass index with benign prostatic hyperplasia of men. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi (China Public Health), 23(12), 1471-1472.

Zuccala, G., et al. (2001). Dose-related impact of alcohol consumption on cognitive function in advanced age: Results of a multicenter study. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 25, 1743-1748.