1

World Geography Final Review GuideCreated by: Adam Keating

Sources: Mr. L. O’Brien and CDLI

2

Compressional and Tensional Forces

Compressional forces are caused when two tectonic plates are pushed together.

Tensional forces are caused when two tectonic plates are pulled apart. Compressional forces force two plates together which form fold mountains

because the lighter plate is pushed up over the heavier plate due to the folding and bending of the mountains.

Tensional forces cause the plates to pull apart which makes one of the plates drop below the other which is known as a normal fault.

Compressional forces cause the plates to be pushed together which makes one of the plates rise above the other which can be a part of an over thrust fault (folding occurs before the fault) or a reverse fault.

Anticline = ant-hill (upward fold) Syncline= sink (downward fold)

Volcanoes A volcano erupts when thermals driven by the heat below the earth’s surface

force the magma up through the earth’s crust causing an eruption or lava flow. Ridge Zones (areas where plates pull apart) and subduction zones (areas where

plates push together) are the areas where volcanoes are prominent.

Ash and Cinder Cones - very steep sides-violent eruptions- very tall-lava thrown high in air- ash and cinder falls back to earth

Unit 1: Land and Water Forms

3

Shield Cones- fairly flat and broad- caused when molten lava flows out slowly- gently sloping- not usually very high

Composite Cones-layers of lava mixed with layers of Ash and Cinder-intermediate height-explosive activity followed by quiet periods- ex: Mt St Helens

Physical and Chemical Weathering Physical Weathering: the splitting of a rock without chemical change Chemical Weathering: rocks breakdown because of chemical reactions Physical Weathering

Frost Fracture-water seeps into cracks, freezes, expands and break rocksFluctuating Temperature- hot rock which leads to expansion, cold rock which leads to contractionExfoliation- (flaky) internal pressure or external rain or dew causes rock to peel offPlant growth- rocks are forced apart by rootsAnimals Burrowing under ground- dig holes

Chemical Weathering

Solution(Corrosion)- rainwater absorbs chemicals from:A) Cars (Nitrous oxide)B) Industrial plants (Sulfur Oxide)C) Decaying plants and animals (organic acids)*Chemicals and rainfall= weak carbonic acid*Carbonic acid breaks down limestone and marble

Hydrolysis-Carbonic Acid (water) reacts with silicate, sodium, magnesium and potassium ions and are dissolved and washed away and a soft clay is left behind

Oxidation- Oxygen + Water + Iron-> yellow, brownish stain- Oxygen + Water + Copper -> Pale greenish color

4

Stages of a River

Rivers change over time and seem to go through three stages:

1. Youth2. Maturity

3. Old Age Youth (figure 2.7 p.28)

o Are usually found in highland or mountain regions.

o They tend to have a steep slope (high gradient)

o Usually have a small volume of water

o They have a rapid flow of water

o There is usually very rapid erosion especially vertically

o A narrow “V” shaped valley is characteristic

o Waterfalls and rapids are common

Maturity (figure 2.7 p.28)

o  Most high relief is eroded

o Gentler slope

o Many well developed tributaries

o Broad flat river valley

o Well developed flood plain

o More lateral erosion than vertical

o Meandering results

o Late maturity occurs when these characteristics are all well displayed

Old Age (figure 2.7 p.28)o Almost no slope

o Very little relief

o Elaborate meandering

o Oxbow lakes develop

o Often swampy areas around river

o Very muddy due to slow speed

o Most susceptible to flooding because of large flood plain.

Evaluating Evidence to Determine the Age of Rivers There are six common pieces of evidence you can look for to determine the stage of a

river.

1. Slope of the river (steeper = younger)

2. Relief of the banks (steeper = younger)3. Width of the valley (wider = older)

5

4. Meandering (more = older)5. Size of flood plain (wider = older)

6. Rapids or water falls (more = younger)

Types of Erosion Vertical Erosion: downward erosion

A) Hydraulic Pressure: force of water removes bedrockB) Corrosion: pollutants such as acids in water breakdown rocksC) Abrasion: Rock fragments scrape against and gouge one another

Lateral Erosion: side erosion- rivers erode their sides or banks-meandering (bending occurs)

Deltas Deltas are a low lying area found at the mouth of a river and are formed from deposits

such as silt which has been laid down by rivers and settles there. Arcuate Delta: fan shaped or bow shaped (Nile Delta) Digitate Delta: finger shaped or birdsfoot (Mississippi Delta) Estuarine Delta: -Impacted by sea tides so that mud flats are left behind

-formed when rivers run into a bay or estuary-tidal mud flats form which can be seen at low tide-sediment deposited from river outflow and from tidal inflow-ex: Notre Dame Bay

Glaciation Alpine glaciation occurs in mountainous regions whereas continental glaciation occurs

in continental areas (situated over large area of continent)Continental and Alpine Glaciation Terms

Outwash Plain: Water flows from a melting glacier, these little rivers drop sediment with the larger rocks being dropped closer to the glacier.

Terminal Moraine: End Debris, hills and lumps of debris at the end of a glacier which marks the glaciers last stationary point.

Erratic: a large boulder which has been transported by a glacier and does not fit in with its new surrounding landscape.

Drumlins: an egg shaped hill which was created by the glaciers bulldozing and debris being left behind as it re-advances. (Tapered end= direction)

Eskers: rocks that were deposited by a melting glacier, it resembles a raised river bed and a snake formation

Cirque: A horseshoes shaped depression in the side of a mountain carved by a glacier

Arête: the ridge where two cirques meet. Its very sharp. Hanging valley: high level tributary valley which has been cut off by another

glacier

6

Lateral Moraine: Side debris which is built up between sides of a mountain and a glacier.

Fiord: A valley which has been created from a glacier and becomes flooded with sea water in between two high mountains. “Drowning of a glaciated valley”

Coastal Erosion

Sea Cave: A large hollow in the headland of a coast which is formed from waves attacking the rock and carving a hollow

Sea Arch: Two caves on either side of a headland. It forms when the wall between the two caves breaks through creating an archway.

Sea Stack: A pillar of rock in the water which is formed when a sea arch collapses

Spit: a ridge of sand running away from the coast, usually with a curved seaward end.

Bay Bar: a ridge of sand that runs from one side of a bay to the other Bay Beach: an accumulation of sediment deposited by waves and longshore

drift along a bay An irregular coastline is straightened by wave erosion and the processes of

abrasion, hydrolic action, and solution. Through longshore drift an irregular coastline can become straight over a period of time. Waves attack the headlands, eroding them and through longshore drift the sediment is deposited along the coast evening it out.

Rotation-vs.-Revolution Rotation: The Earth rotates 360o on its axis every 24 hours, giving us day and

night Revolution: The Earth revolves around the sun, and makes a full trip round

every 364.25 days, this gives us our seasons combined with the earth’s tilt (23.5o)

Cloud Cover-vs.-No Cloud Cover When cloud cover is found in an area, it reduces the amount of sunlight and

heat radiation that reaches the ground in the day, and also reduces the amount of heat that escapes into the atmosphere in space. Thus, the temperature does not have any dramatic changes in the run of a day. When there is no cloud cover, the sun intensely heats the ground in the day making it very hot, and at night all this heat escapes making it very cold. Therefore, an area with no cloud cover has a significant change in temperature between day and night.

Unit 2: World Climate Patterns

7

Equinox-vs.-Solstice Equinox: means equal day, equal night. It occurs on Sept 22nd, and March 22nd,

and gives us the beginning of fall and spring. The sun shines directly on the equator on these two days.

Solstice: means sun stop. It occurs on June 22nd, the summer solstice in NH, and December 22nd, the winter solstice in NH (opposite for SH). On June 22nd, the sun shines directly on the Tropic of Cancer, whereas, on December 22nd, it shines directly on the Tropic of Capricorn.]

The Earth’s Seasons The Earth’s seasons are based upon the Earth’s revolution around the sun and

the tilt of its axis. The Earth is tilted at a 23.5o angle, and when it tilts towards the sun we get summer, away from sun we get winter, and when its not tilting away nor towards we receive fall and spring. The revolution dictates which way the Earth will be in relation to the sun, and therefore the seasons.

Difference in Seasons The Earth is tilting towards and away from the sun, the more it is tilted towards

the longer the day because the sun shines on this region for longer times where is it more direct, whereas when the Earth is tilted away the sunlight only barely lights an area for a short period of time

The angle at which the sun reaches the earth, and how direct it gets there affects temperature. This angle is depicted by location and the tilt of the Earth’s Axis. More direct angle- more energy.

Greenhouse Effect the capacity of certain gases in the atmosphere to trap heat emitted from

Earth’s surface, thereby insulating and warming the planet. Without the thermal blanketing of the natural greenhouse effect, Earth’s climate would be about 33°C cooler—too cold for most living organisms to survive.

Temperature and Latitude The further you are from the equator the lower the temperature. This is

because the sun shines less directly on these areas and does not heat them as well, nor shine there as much.

Earths Shape and Temperature The shape of the Earth allows for differences in temperatures as you go higher

up in the latitudes due to its curvature. The curved Earth’s surface makes the sun’s energy shine at a more oblique angle at the higher latitudes making it

8

spread its intensity across a larger area.

Prevailing Winds A prevailing wind is the most

dominant wind in a large area.

Air always move from high to low regions

Polar Easterlies(N AND S), Westerlies (N AND S), North and South East Trade winds

The prevailing winds play a large part in what type of air mass is found in an area. For example, the North East Trade winds bring warm air from the equator where as the Polar Easterlies bring cold air to a region from the poles.

Land Breezes and Sea Breezes A Land Breeze occurs during the night. Air cools and blows off the land towards

the ocean. (water is warmer than land)A Sea Breeze occurs during the day. Air cools and blows off the water towards the land. (Land is warmer then water)

Coriolis Effect

9

The Coriolis effect is the tendency for objects or fluids to be deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere due to the earth's rotation (CCW)

Types of Rainfall Orographic Rainfall: Warm moist air sweeps in over the ocean. It runs into

mountains and is forced to rise over them. As it rises it cools and forms condensation and rain results. The cooler air passes over the mountain and down the other side creating extreme dry conditions. The rainy side of the mountain is called windward. The dry side of the mountain is called leeward.

The rainy side of the mountain is called windward. The dry side of the mountain is called leeward. The dry side is also known to have a rain shadow because the clouds just pass over and drop little to no precipitation.

Frontal Precipitation: Warm, moist air is forced to rise as it encounters a denser, colder air mass. The rising warm air reaches the condensation point clouds form and rainfall results.

Convectional Rainfall: Precipitation caused on hot summer days, when heated land causes the air above it to rise by convection. As the warm air rises it cools and condensation occurs. Rain or hail may fall from the thunderstorms that build up.

Ocean Currents An ocean current is a permanent or semi-permanent horizontal movement of

surface water (top 100m) Cold currents: colder air temps above land in nearby regions (normally less

precip) Warm currents: warmer, wetter above land in nearby regions (normally more

precip) Temperature Range and Continentality

Temperature range is the difference in the highest and lowest temperatures The further in land a place is the less it is affected by the ocean and therefore

has a greater temperature range. Continentality occurs in inland areas away from large bodies of water. In these

areas there temperature ranges are very large, and they generally receive less precipitation. They generally have very hot summers, and very cold winters. This is due to not having the moderating effects of the ocean.

The closer you are to the ocean, the more precipitation, and vice versa. Monsoons

A Monsoon is the seasonal change in the direction of the prevailing wind. (summer breeze sea to land=wet, winter breeze land to sea=dry)

Summer seasons are hot and wet in monsoonal areas because of the moisture being brought in by the prevailing wind over the ocean, and the winter season is very dry because the prevailing wind blows from the land.

Elevation Elevation is the height above sea level

10

Colder the air gets as it rises, the less capable it is of holding water therefore more rain. However, warm air near land is more likely to bring precipitation because of convection.

Human Impact on Climate Global Warming •Global warming is the gradual increase of the earth's average temperature since the industrial revolution. It is a fact that the earth's average temperature is increasing. The negative effects associated witglobal warming is also factual. However, it is important to note that some scientists dispute the fact that it is due to human activity. Some scientists believe the recent increase in temperature is a part of the normal rhythms of change in the earth's atmosphere.

Global warming vs. Greenhouse effect It is also important to draw a distinction between global warming and the gree

nhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is a good thing and moderates our temperatures here on earth. It operates by specific gasses like carbon dioxide and methane. Global warming is due to the human activity that has increased the level of these greenhouse gasses and consequently increased the earth's temperature.

Human Impact on Greenhouse Gasses It is believed that humans have changed the balance of greenhouse gasses in t

he atmosphere in two ways:

1.Increased carbon dioxide emissions: result from the combustion of fossil fuels. Coal, Gasoline, Furnace oil, Propane, diesel, and jet fuel are all examples of fossil fuels we burn and result in carbon dioxide emissions. 2.Cutting forests: results in fewer trees. Trees and all plants recycle carbon dioxide into carbohydrates consequently reducing atmospheric carbon dioxide. When these trees are removed the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases.

Global warming & Climate change Obviously global warming results in temperature changes. However that temperature ch

ange affects precipitation as well. In some areas it increases precipitation and in other areas it reduces precipitation.

Climographs A climograph is a graph that depicts the monthly temperatures (the line) and

the precipitation (bars) for a particular place. Much info can be determined about a climate based on a climograph

11

Keys to Understanding a Climograph:- line is temp- Bars are precip-Temp on left-Precip on right- If temp line dips its SH- If temp line rises its NH- If flat temp line its near equator

Climates

Tropical Climates: - Always have temperature above 18oC- Tropical Wet (LOTS OF RAIN)-Tropical Wet and Dry (Seasonal Rain, AKA MONSOONAL)

Dry Climates: - Less than 500mm of annual precipitation-More evaporation than precipitation-Arid: Less than 250mm-Steppe: 250-500mm, transitional zone

Temperate Mild Winter • Temperature varies with seasons • Mid Latitudes • Mild winter • Summer temperatures vary but winters are warmer than –3°

Temperate Cold Winter

• Temperature varies with seasons • Midhigh Latitudes • cold winters • Summer temperatures vary but winters are colder than –3°

Polar Climates •Polar climates are distinguished by their extremely low winter temperatures and low summer temperatures. (not much vegetation)• Tundra: summer temperature never above 10°C • Ice Caps: summer's average monthly temperature is never above 0°

Highland Climates •These climates are only characterized by their elevation and decreased temperature because of that. However the climates vary with latitude of the mountain, closeness to the ocean etc.

12

•Some alpine regions can be like the tundra and the ice cap of a mountain is like the polar ice caps.

- For every 300m of increase in elevation the temperature decreases by 2oC

Ecosystems the relationship between living and non-living aspects of an environment.

Ecosystems can very large(forest) or very small (under a rock) Food Chains and Food Webs

Food Chain: A linear sequence which shows how various animals get their food energy

Food Web: A series of overlapping and interconnected food chains Parts of a Food Chain:

How energy flows through an ecosystem The energy in any ecosystem comes from the sun. Producers in every ecosystem

use this energy for their own purposes (85-90%) to create food, heat etc. When a primary consumer consumes a producer it receives approximately 10% of that producers energy, as we move up the trophic levels approximately 10-15% is passed on from one level to the next.

Food Pyramid a diagram used to represent energy flows in a food chain or food web. Each

level is called a trophic level. Why are their fewer organisms in each trophic level as we move up?

There are fewer organisms in each trophic level as we move up because as we increase the trophic level, the organisms found in each are becoming increasingly bigger and need more energy to survive. In order for these organisms to survive they need to intake a significant amount of lower level organisms to meet their quota.

Biological Amplification :

Unit 3: Ecosystems

13

It occurs when a toxin, chemical or pollutant is taken in by an animal in the lower trophic levels in a food pyramid and becomes amplified as it is passed up the food chain due to bigger organisms eating huge amounts of smaller organisms. A rat may intake 1 pesticide, and then a snake eats 4 rats (4p total) and finally a hawk may eat 4 snakes (16p total). It is clear, that due to the fact that these harmful substances are fat soluble (meaning the body can’t break it down) toxins move very easily up a food pyramid.

A Vegetation

Climax Vegetation is the natural vegetation in the last possible stage of vegetation development.

Climax vegetation is stable and in balance with the climatic conditions. It should change very little if left undisturbed.

Ecosystems are largely defined by the climax vegetation that grows in it. The type of vegetation is largely determined by the climate.

We will look at three major type of ecosystems found in high latitude regions. Look at figure 6.8 on page 102 of your text book and you will see the variety of ecosystems in the world.

Coniferous (Boreal) Forests The climax vegetation in coniferous forest is Evergreen trees with:

needle-like leaves;

thick bark; conical shape;

dense growing which blocks sun. The location of the Boreal forest can be seen by analyzing the world ecosystem map

(figure 6.8) on page 102. It is found only in the northern hemisphere and is located in a broad band across Northern North America and Northern Eurasia.

Coniferous trees are well adapted to lack of water in winter (it is all frozen): needle leaves reduce surface area for transpiration;

drooping branches and conical shape allow heavy snow to fall off relieving the pressure;

thick bark reduces water loss. The climate in the boreal forest is temperate cold winter. Look at figure 6.8 on page 102

and locate the boreal forest; then turn to page 75 and locate the temperate cold winter (subarctic) climate region. The two match very closely.

Tundra The climax vegetation in the Tundra is grasses, shrubs and low plants with:

shallow roots; fast reproduction/flowering cycles.

14

The location of the Tundra can be seen by analyzing the world ecosystem map (figure 6.8) on page 102. It is found only in the northern hemisphere and is located north of the Boreal forest across Northern North America and Northern Eurasia.

The shrubs and bushes are well adapted to the extreme climate of the north where winter is long and summer is very short:

shallow roots are needed because 1-3 meters below the surface the soil is completely frozen (Permafrost);

the fast flowering and reproduction cycle is needed because the growing season is very short, lasting only 1-2 months.

Animals have a variety of adaptations to the harsh Tundra climate.

hibernation from the cold winter; migration in for the summer season and out for the winter season is a common

strategy for Birds and even larger animals like caribou; the development of insulating features like thick fur & fat insulation is common

among polar bears and other mammals; white fur/feathers to help with camouflage is another common adaptation.

The climate in the Tundra is so definitive of the tundra that it is called Tundra climate. Look at figure 6.8 on page 102 and locate the Tundra; then turn to page 75 and locate the Polar (Tundra) climate region. The two match very closely.

Polar Ice Caps The climax vegetation in the Polar Ice Cap is Phytoplankton beneath the ice. The location of the Polar Ice Caps can be seen by analyzing the world ecosystem map

(figure 6.8) on page 102. It is found only in both hemispheres and is located only in the extremely high latitudes.

The adaptation of producers to this ecosystem is extreme. There is no land for the producers to grow in so there are only small phytoplankton to form the base of the food chain.

Animals have a variety of adaptations to the harsh Polar ice cap climate.

migration in for the summer season and out for the winter season is a common strategy for Birds and even larger animals like caribou;

the development of insulating features like thick fur & fat insulation is common among polar bears and other mammals;

white fur/feathers to help with camouflage is another common adaptation.

The climate in the Polar ice cap is so definitive of the Polar ice cap that it is called Polar (ice cap) climate. Look at figure 6.8 on page 102 and locate the Polar ice cap; then turn to page 75 and locate the Polar (Ice cap) climate region.

Temperate Grasslands

The “climax vegetation” in Temperate Grasslands is grass with: shallow roots;

a small water requirement.

15

The location of the Temperate grassland can be seen by analyzing the world ecosystem map (figure 6.8) on page 102. It is found in North America, South America, Australia and Eurasia.

Grasses are well adapted to lack of water:

the small size of the plant means that it requires less water. The climate in the Temperate grassland is semi-arid in most locations but in some regions

it is temperate cold winter. Look at figure 6.8 on page 102 and locate the Temperate grassland; then turn to page 75 and locate the semiarid climate region. The two match very closely.

Temperate Deciduous Forests

The “climax vegetation” in Temperate forests is deciduous trees like oak, birch and maple which:

lose leaves in summer The location of the Temperate Forests can be seen by analyzing the world ecosystem map

(figure 6.8) on page 102. It is found predominantly in North America and South America but is present in Australia and Europe and Asia.

Deciduous trees are well adapted to lack of water in winter. losing their leaves in winter helps them reduce water loss. Most water loss occurs

through the leaves. The climate in the Temperate Forest is temperate mild winter. Look at figure 6.8 on page

102 and locate the Temperate forests; then turn to page 75 and locate the temperate mild winter climate region. The two match very closely.

Tropical Rain Forests

The climax vegetation in The Tropical Rain Forest is Tall Evergreen Broadleaf Trees with:

Buttress roots.

The location of the Tropical Rainforest can be seen by analyzing the world ecosystem map (figure 6.8) on page 102. It is found in South America, Africa, Australia and South East Asia and is contained within the tropics.

The tall trees are well adapted to the thin soil with buttress roots (figure 6.15 on page 108) to help support their height. Some plants are epiphytes which are well adapted to the rain forest. They reach the sun by lying in the canopy while they get water through roots that hang in the air and absorb moisture. Some animals are adapted to spend their entire life in the canopy.

The climate in the Tropical rain forest is Tropical wet in most locations but in some regions it is tropical wet and dry. Look at figure 6.8 on page 102 and locate the Tropical rain forest; then turn to page 75 and locate the tropical wet climate region. The two match very closely.

16

Savanna Grasslands

The climax vegetation in the savanna is grass with:

shallow roots; small water requirement.

The location of the Savanna can be seen by analyzing the world ecosystem map (figure 6.8) on page 102. It is found in South America, Australia, Africa and Southeast Asia.

Grasses are well adapted to lack of water: the small size of the plant means that it requires less water.

The climate in the Savanna is tropical wet & dry in most locations but in some regions it is semi-arid. Look at figure 6.8 on page 102 and locate the Savannas; then turn to page 75 and locate the Tropical Wet and dry climate region. The two match very closely.

Deserts

The climax vegetation in the Desert is cacti and fleshy plants with:

long roots; water storage capability;

leaves modified as needles. The location of the Desert can be seen by analyzing the world ecosystem map (figure 6.8)

on page 102. It is found in North America, South America, Australia, Africa and Asia. Deserts are mostly concentrated in two bands around the earth 10-30 North and South of the equator.

Cacti are well adapted to lack of water. They are often referred to as Xerophytes:

long roots help them obtain water deep in the water table; water storage capability gives them the ability to endure long periods without

rain; leaves modified as needles reduces the surface area for transpiration and helps

reduce grazing which would severely increase water loss. Many animals have unique adaptations to the desert:

deer mice can get all the water they need from the food they eat; toads have the behavioral adaptation of hibernating thorough the driest seasons;

some Reptiles reduce water loss by excreting solid uric acid crystals instead of water containing urine;

some mammals have the behavioral adaptation of nocturnal behavior, which keeps them out of the day time heat.

The climate in the Desert is Arid. Look at figure 6.8 on page 102 and locate the Deserts; then turn to page 75 and locate the arid climate region. The two match very closely.

Mountain Ecosystems

17

Mountains ecosystems are not exclusively low latitude, on the contrary they occur in most latitudes and as you will see in figure 6.10 on page 104 mountains can contain all types of ecosystems from all latitudes.

Figure 6.10 on page 104 well-illustrates the fact that latitudinal succession closely parallels altitudinal succession.

The changes we see in ecosystems as we move north from the equator are generally, tropical rain forest, Temperate forest, Coniferous forest, shrubby tundra and then polar ice cap. The same changes in ecosystem can be seen as you move up a tropical mountain.

Mountain ecosystems are not very unique—they vary with altitude and temperature.

Factors that Affect Soil quality: - Humus Accumulation (more humus- more fertile)- Leaching (too much leaching- low soil fertility)- Eluviation (too much eluviation- coarse soils result which aren’t suitable for farming- Capillary Action (if capillary action occurs in small amounts, and there isn’t a large

amount of eluviation or leaching, the soil should be suitable for farming.)

Quality of Soil based on its texture: Know how to read a soil texture chart The best soil is a loam texture which is a mixture of clay, silt, and sand. Clay: smallest, holds too much water, and doesn’t allow air to penetrate Sand: largest, holds very little water, and does allow air to penetrate Silt: medium sized, holds some water, doesn’t allow air to penetrate

Global Patterns with soil loss:

While the earth's surface is covered in soil the amount of fertile soil valuable for agriculture is limited and is dwindling yearly.  Poor soil management can lead to loss of fertile soil.

Grasslands are semi-arid regions with extremely fertile soil.  However, if proper soil management is not practiced these are among the most fragile places.  Globally desertification of grasslands adjacent to deserts has been a problem.

Agricultural land on slopes/hills or mountains are very susceptible to water erosion. Urban expansion has also been a factor in the loss of agricultural land.  People have

traditionally settled in rich farmland and increasing urbanization is covering up good farmland.

Overgrazing, flooding and deforestation have also lead to the degradation of arable land.

Three conditions needed to determine if a natural material is a resource:- must be a need or want- must have the technology to extract the material- must be able to make a profit from it

Unit 4: Primary Resources

18

Resources can be used differently based upon cultural practices ???? - Oil and gas are formed over millions of years when decomposed plant and animal

matter are compressed, heated under intense pressures and acted upon by bacteria to transform them into oils and natural gases.

Physical Factors that influence the decision to recover offshore oil and gas:

- Ocean related factors include; 1) Ocean Depth 2) Ocean currents 3) Icebergs & pack ice

- Climate/weather related factors include; 1) Wind speeds 2) Storms- Oil Related factors include; 1) size of the reserve 2) Oil quality- Environmental protection factors; How do these other physical factors affect the

chances of an oil spill? Other resources like fish stocks, marine mammals, and spawning grounds would be affected in the event of an oil spill.

Human Factors Affecting Off-shore Oil Recovery Worker Safety; How safe can the drill rig and production platform be for the workers?  Financial Factors include:

- cost of inputs like building a rig to withstand icebergs, building a rig to drill at great depths or building a production platform that can withstand hurricane winds;

- cost of processes like transporting the oil from off-shore to land, maintaining the platform's equipment, and pressurizing the reserve

- price of oil which is set by world markets and determines if enough money is recovered from the oil to exceed the cost of production.

- Elements of an offshore operation include work roles, rotations, amount of labor, and use of machinery. Each of these elements varies depending on the type of rig you are on. However, most rigs have similar jobs including engineers, technicians, cleaners, etc.

Other Factors affecting Offshore Oil recovery:- Cost- Technology and equipment- Interest groups- Demand- Transportation- Labor

4 types of Oil Traps:- Fold (Anticline) trap- Fault Trap- Salt Dome Trap- Stratigraphic Trap

19

5 Types of Oil Rigs- Submersible: 20m depths, chambers are flooded and rig rests on ocean floor, good

for shallow waters- Jack-up Rig: 100m depth, longer legs, can go up and down, sits on ocean floor, good

for oceans where the tides raise and lower frequently- Anchored Semi-Submersible: 200m depths, floating platform, withstands heavy

seas because it remains under water, floats on pontoons- Dynamically-Positioned Semi-Submersible: 200-2000m, no anchors used (computer

systems instead), can withstand heavy seas- Gravity Based Structure (GBS): Hibernia is an example, it is submersible, and it is

distinguished by its ICE WALL, good for oceans where icebergs are present

How Oil is found- Sound emitting equipment (SONAR) is towed over the ocean- Rocks and structures reflect the sounds back to the ship- Geologists use their computers to analyze it- Likely locations of oil and gas traps are identified, exploratory wells are drilled (Wild-

cat wells)

Purpose of Drilling Mud: Drilling mud is used when drilling into layers of rock to prevent cave-ins and reducing

the risk of high pressure blowouts and gushers. It also reduces friction and heat buildup within the pipe

Drilling mud is a mixture of clay, barium sulphate, water and sometimes minerals found at on-shore oil sites.

Drilling Mud can negatively impact because they are contaminated with oil and laced with chemicals found in the mud which can leak into the environment and harm wildlife.

Directional Drilling: Drilling technology from an oil rig which allows the workers to use to flexible drilling

technique that enables them to drill in any direction for several kilometers. Directional drilling allows companies to cover a much larger area of ocean floor for

drilling which means they can extract more oil.

Impacts on a Marine Ecosystem: Exploitation of fish, invertebrates and seaweeds. Disturbance of habitats (trawling, drilling, dumping, etc) Pollution, noise, heat and chemicals Biological invasions, climate change and increase in UV-B rays GREATEST THREAT: HUMAN EXPLOITATION

20

Trends in Fish Catches/ Impact of Factory Freezer Trawler: Before the 70’s, fishing levels were predominantly obtained through inshore fishery

where little technology was used. After the introduction of the factory freezer trawler in the 70’s the total landings of fish

significantly increased. It increased to a point that by the mid 80’s the stocks were not rebounding. With this increase in technology, the stocks became depleted. By 1992 a Cod Moratorium was put in place which ended five centuries of fishing activity.

The Factory Freezer Trawler is a much more effective way of harvesting fish. Not only is it quicker, but it gets a much bigger catch. The trawler is very destructive to the environment and played a huge role in the collapse of the cod fishery.

Reasons for the Collapse of the Cod fishery: Quotas were set too high and stocks were over-estimated Fishers don’t report all catches Foreigners fishing in Canadian waters Growing number of seals which feed on cod The use of the trawler Changes in the flow of the Labrador Current may have caused fish to migrate elsewhere

Major Sources of Ocean Pollution: Oil Toxic Waste Debris Mining and Dumping Raw Sewage Alien Species Global Warming Drilling mud leaking into the ocean These sources of pollution are usually emitted into the ocean during, boating spills

Aquaculture:- The raising of fish and other marine life species in a controlled environment- Aquaculture is valuable because it is a way to harvest fish without depleting the

natural stocks in the wild and damaging the ocean ecosystems

Farm System: Inputs: factors put into a system (Human or Natural). Ex: Capital, water, soil Processes: the process of changing an input(s) to the final product (output) Output: Finished product ready to be purchased Ex: French Fries

Commercial Farming: Farmers produce crops or livestock with the intention to sell to others

Subsistence Farming: Farmers produce drops or livestock for their own families. Nothing left to sell.

Extensive Farming:

Found on large pieces of land

21

There are few inputs of labor, and capital/technology Low yields

Intensive Farming:

Found on small pieces of land Found in regions of dense population A lot of labor and capital Outputs are valuable and often perishable

Shifting Cultivation/agriculture:

Aka slash and burn Usually occurs in forest because soil loses fertility quickly Farmers select an area and cut away undergrowth, large trees are debarked, then the

trees are burned to prepare the land for farming After a growing season or two the farmers relocate

Agribusiness:

Very large commercial farms owned by corporations It provides its own inputs and maintains its own processing plants. The corporation does and owns EVERYTHING Ex: McCain’s

Nomadic Herding:

Farmers travel across large areas of land to find food and water for their live stock (cattle/sheep)

Extensive farming AKA Pastural Nomadism

Clear Cutting:

The forest is completely cleared over an area greater than 40hectares Advantages: more rapid, most economical, least dangerous. Disadvantages: Ravaged-looking landscape, ecosystem struggles to recover, wildlife is

disrupted, and soil is vulnerable to erosion.

Strip Cutting:

Strips of forest (20-100m wide) are cut down leaving uncut forest in-between Advantages: wildlife is safe in uncut areas, soils erosion is less of a threat, natural

regeneration occurs. Disadvantages: more land is needed to cut same amount of trees, roads need to be built

and maintained, expensive

Selective Cutting:

Selected trees are harvested from a forest site Advantages: much of the forest is left intact, and it is ecologically friendly.

22

Disadvantages: yields are lower, can damage unharvested trees, and access to roads must be built and maintained.

Major Threats to the Forest:

Overharvesting, and not replanting trees Fires Natural Disasters Change in Climate Urbanization

Sustainable Forestry Strategies:

Selective cutting become more prominent versus clear cutting Plant new trees Protect vulnerable areas Place a quota on the number of trees that can be cut Only cut Mature Trees

Why are we using so much forest resource?Some reasons for extensive deforestation include:

expanding needs in agriculture; urbanization;

mining operations; hydroelectric operations;

- In Africa forests are being cleared to make room for subsistence farming to support the growing population.

- Latin America has cleared forests for major hydroelectric projects to provide stable electrical supplies to an increasing number of people. Large scale cattle ranches and urbanization have also been the cause of deforestation in Latin America.

- Asia's growing population means that more forest is cleared for housing and for agricultural land to feed the people.

Manufacturing Processes:

Conditioning Process: minor changes in finished product- Ex: A tree being debarked, or a fish being cleaned

Analytic Process: a single resource being turned into many products - Ex: Cow into milk, cheese, leather, and steak

Synthetic Process: Turning many separate parts into one final product- Making a TV from plastic, metal, wires etc.

Manufacturing Industries:

UNIT 5: Manufacturing

23

Labor-Intensive: - Workers outnumber machines- Workers are highly specialized- EX: Rice farming or construction

Capital-Intensive:- Machines outnumber workers- Machines are purchased, used and maintained- EX: Car manufacturing

Heavy:- Large scale products- Raw materials are large and bulky- Productivity per worker is low- Dirty and noisy- Special market- EX: Oil Tanker

Light:- Products are lightweight- Product is high in value and intricate- Product is for the general consumer- EX: Camera

Resource Oriented:- The industry or factory is located near the resource because the raw material is

bulky, costly to transport and when it is processed it becomes lighter and more valuable (weight loss industry- the lighter a material it is the cheaper it is to transport)

- Ex: Fish plant Market Oriented:

- The industry or factory is located near the market because the raw material is made heavier as a product and the final product is costly to transport (weight gain industry- the heavier a material is, the more it costs to transport, therefore you’d want to locate near the market)

Agglomerating Tendency:- Factories producing related products locate near each other for mutual benefit.- Car Factory and tire plant

Factors that make a labor force attractive for a business:- Low wages- Highly skilled workers- Low amount of benefits- Availability of workers- high unemployment rate

24

Factors that affect the location of an Industry:- Locate near the source of raw material (Physical)- Cost and quality of land (physical)- Located where energy is supplied(physical)- Labor pool (Human)- Capital availability (Human)- Building of industrial estates or parks, and transportation (Human)- Market (Human)- Political, legal, and safety concerns (Socio-Economic)

Government subsidies: If government subsidies are offered to help an industry start in a region many industries view this as a major positive. Not only does it offset the initial financial burden, but it helps get the industry going. Transportation subsidies affect the location of industry.

Subsidies allow businesses to locate farther from the resource. Subsidies allow governments to encourage industry in rural areas.

Examples:o ice breakers in Botwood;

o roads in Labrador;

o cost of coastal transportation in Labrador;

o cost of crossing the Gulf.

Sectors of the Economy:- Primary: the harvesting and extracting of natural resources (Fishing)- Secondary: Manufacturing/processing an input into a useable output (Cleaning and

making fish sticks)- Tertiary: the sale of goods and services (Selling fish at Dominion)- Quaternary: research and development (Finding a way to make Non-stinky fish )

Categories of Service Sector- Distribution Activity (Private): involves getting products from the manufacturer to

the consumer (Wal-mart)- Personal Services (Private): cater to business and consumer needs (legal assistance)- Financial Activities (Private): involves providing capital for manufacturing concerns

and individual consumers. (Banks)- Government Activities (Public): services provided by the government (medical,

education, protective services)- The private sector is usually composed of privately owned companies, where as the

public sector is run by the government- The tertiary sector is very economically important because it is the driving force in

our economy. It provides jobs to a significant number of people, and it provides

25

goods and services to everyone. Furthermore, the tertiary sector is the sector which brings in all the money from consumers which also triggers the economy to bloom

Factors that affect the location of tertiary activity:- The demand for their service/product in an area- Services price/location- Competition- Distance from manufacturer

Why is the Quaternary Sector so economically important:- It provides the most value added out of any sector- It reduces the time needed to send information and to complete complicated

projects- Develops new designs and programs that are needed within our economy that

required skilled labor create

Factors Affecting Location of Quaternary Activity People & Infrastructure:

o Populations of people concentrated in an area make the information sector viable.  Think about the areas that can avail of digital cell phone service, high speed Internet connection.  Historically, information technology like cable TV, telephones, and Radio flourished in areas where there was a population large enough to support them.

o Infrastructure is required for the communication of information.  The infrastructure has been closely linked to populated areas.  Interestingly enough the development of infrastructure is changing so much and decreasing in price to the point it may change the patterns of infrastructure.  Lesser developed nations currently do not have much access.  However, Lesser developed nations are not tied to the old and outdated infrastructure.  This might be the time for lesser developed nations to build infrastructure and increase their share of the information technology market.

Factors Affecting Mass Communications Patterns. In the telesphere of global communications there are islands and continents of activity

and there are deserts or areas where there is no activity because there is no connectivity. The areas of connectivity are closely associated with development and you will see that in your readings and activity.

Mass Communication Affects Workplace Location. As more and more people work in the information sector we may see a trend towards

reducing urbanization. People would not be tied to an office building if they could work at home. Maybe they could work at home on the country farm and submit work electronically.

Businesses need not be located physically near other businesses as we saw with the agglomerating tendency of the manufacturing sector.

26

If Infrastructure improves to the point it overcomes distances information technology will be a new source of employment and economic activity in rural depressed regions.

GNP and Employment Structure- GNP: the total value of all goods and services produced in a country in one year - GNP per Capita: the total value of all goods and services produced in a country

in one year divided by the population- Generally, countries with higher GNP per capita have a higher level of economic

development; however this is not always the case.- GNP per capita is only an average and does not show distribution. Sometimes

90% of countries good and services lie in the hands of one family, leaving the rest of the country poor.

- Employment Structure: the percentage of a country’s labor force engaged in each of the four sectors.

- Economic development is thought to be achieved when a majority of the labor force is in a non-primary sector. Using the employment structure we can determine what level of development a country is experiencing.

- Ex: If 70% of a country is fishers, moose hunters, and farmers, then this country is likely not developed.

- When calculating a countries economic development it is important to use more than just one factor (Use GNP per capita, literacy rates, number of telephones per person, economic structure)

- Social and economic indicators are important when determining a country’s standard of living. (healthcare, education, and communications)

- Generally, the more developed countries are in the western part of the world, however, almost all countries in Europe are highly developed

Population Density:- Refers to the number of people in a certain area of land (km2)- Population/area2

- Densely Populated: Large number of people per km2 (ex: Barcelona 3404/km2)]- Sparsely Populated: Small number of people per km2 (ex: Yukon 12/km2)- Population density is not always an accurate indicator of population distribution

because a large majority of a population may be concentrated in one urban center, leaving the rest of the region very sparse although the overall population density says it is “densely populated.”

Population Distribution:- Describes how people are spread throughout a regions land area

UNIT 6: Population

27

- Most of the world’s population is concentrated in urban centers, away from the poles and a considerable amount is located in Southeast Asia

Absolute Change: - The difference between the population for a period of time- Pop in 2001: 2000 Pop in 2009: 3000- AC= 1000

Population Growth Rate:- The percentage of increase in a population over a period of time- Pop change/original pop X 100%/years

How Fast is Fast? Most population statisticians recognize three categories of growth rates. They distinguish

among slow, fast and moderately growing populations. Fast growing: AGR > 2%

o For example Mexico, between 1971 & 1981, had a fast growing population with an AGR of 4.7%

Moderately growing: AGR approximately = 2% Slow growing: AGR < 2%

o For example Sweden, between 1971 & 1981, had a slow growing population with an AGR of 0.5%

Problems with overpopulation:- High death rate- Limited resources- Unsanitary- Crowded- Political and civil unrest- Spread of disease

Population Control- In developed nations family planning, pension plans, easy access to birth control,

education and a changing standard of living have all led to a controlled, stable population. However, in lesser developed nations, education, family planning, birth control and pensions are all very difficult to obtain.

What plan would you support to help developing nations control their population?1. Legislation by government could make it illegal to have more than a certain number of

babies.  Is that humane?  How do we ensure the correct number.  What is done with children over the limit? 

2. Some people have proposed that war and famine used to be our natural means of birth control.  However if we want to have a manageable plan to control the earth's population surely we cannot let people in famine go unaided or reduce peacekeeping missions.  Clearly this is not an option.

28

3. Increasing education of the masses is correlated with decreased births.  Could we help to provide education in developing nations?  Is that humane?

4. Pension plans & RRSP's allow us to be secure into our old age and we do not have to worry about having children to take care of us.  Is this something we could promote in under-developed nations?

5. In some regions of the world the disparity between the education received by females and males is tremendous.  We know that education of women is correlated with decreased births.  Is the education of women something we could promote?

6. There is little doubt that birth control is the biggest factor limiting populations in developed nations.  Could we provide less expensive birth control for developing nations?

7. Highly developed economies are associated with decreased birth rates.  Should we concentrate on supporting improvements to their economies as an ultimate route to controlling birth rates?

Natural Change:- The difference in births and deaths in a given year. - Rate of Natural change= Birth rate-death rate- Birth Rate: number of births/total pop X 1000- Death Rate: number of deaths/total pop X 1000

Population Growth Rate & Standard of Living Generally speaking stable populations are characteristic of a high standard of living due

to:

low birth rate caused by good family planning, access to birth control, financial planning, education, etc.

Low death rate caused by good medical care, nutrition, education etc. 

Generally speaking an expanding population is characteristic of a lower standard of living: high birth rate due to poor access to birth control, lack of education etc.;

high death rate due to poor medical care & nutrition

-- Natural Increase: occurs when the birth rate in a given year is higher then its death rate- Natural Decrease: occurs when the death rate in a given year is higher then its birth rate- If the birth rate increases, or the death rate decreases, the natural change will

experience a Natural Increase

Actual Change- Depends on number of births, deaths, immigrants and emigrants- Displays the overall change in a population in a year- Formula: AC= (B+I) – (D+E)- Actual change is calculated by the total number of new people in a region (births and

immigrants) minus the number of people of leave a region (deaths and emigrants)

29

Population Pyramid:- is a graphical illustration that shows the distribution of various age groups broken into

male and female in a human population in a particular area- Population pyramids can be contracting, expanding or stationary.- Expanding: high birth and death rate, low life expectancy and standard of living- Contractive: low birth and death rate, high life expectancy and standard of living- Stationary: declining birth rate, low death rate, high life expectancy and standard of

living

Dependency Ratio: - In economics and geography the dependency ratio is an age-population ratio of those

typically not in the labor force (the dependent part) and those typically in the labor force (the productive part)

% under 15 + % over 64 ------------------------------- (X 100) = DR% working age people

Factors that contribute to a Graying Population:- Improved healthcare- More sanitary and safe working environment- Smaller families- Better protected against virus’s and disease- Higher standard of living

Demographic Transition Model- A model which describes population change over time. It is based on an

interpretation begun in 1929 by demographer Warren Thompson, of the changes, or transitions in birth and death rates in industrialized societies over the past 200 years.

- Stage 1: pre-modern times, equal birth and death rates(both are high), small overall population

- Stage 2: rise in population due to decreased death rate. Mainly occurred in lesser developed and developing countries.

- Stage 3: population becomes more stable through a decline in birth rate, but the population significantly increased. Examples are developing nations who are almost developed

30

- Stage 4: stable, birth rates and death rates are both low. Canada is an example

Migration- The movement of people into or out of a region- Immigration: refers to the number of people who move INTO a region- Emigration: refers to the number of people who move out (EXIT) a region- Push Factors: reasons people leave their homeland (civil unrest in native land)- Pull Factors: reasons people choose to move into a certain region (new job)- Repel Factors: reasons people choose NOT to move into a certain region (do not

speak the language of people at the destination)- Intervening obstacles: things that interfere with someone moving from one

location to another (cost of travel)

Census: - population data collected by government which helps depict trends such as

number of elected reps needed for a region and the need for more doctors- Census is important because it helps depict future trends, give notice to changes

within a region (needing more doctors) and helps when it comes to planning.

Read all labs and tests and review the textbook View old publics online (www.gov.nl.ca) Cdli is an excellent resource as well. (www.cdli.ca)