Submission to

2012 University Forum of HRD Conference

Title

Using the Arts in Teaching Reflective Practice : A Case Study

Dr Jan Rae

Senior Lecturer

London South Bank University

103 Borough Road

London SE1 0AA

UK

email: jan.rae@lsbu.ac.uk

Hilary Rowland

Management Consultant

Organisation Perspectives

email: hilary @organisation-perspectives.com

Stream : Innovative approaches to support learning and teaching in HRD

Working Paper

1

Abstract

Reflective practice has now become an integral part of professional

management education and, particularly so in the delivery of many UK HRM

and HRD programmes where assessment through the use of portfolios and

learning journals is a requirement of the supporting professional body, the

Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. The teaching and

assessment of reflective practice in management programmes has

subsequently become subject to increased scrutiny, both in relation to

supporting students in what can be a highly personalised account of individual

development and in the assessment of such accounts. Alternative methods

of encouraging reflection are also being used, notably the use of the arts,

such as stories, visual arts or dramatic representations to explore individual

learning. This paper provides an exploration of the professionalism of

reflective practice and the inherent tensions between reflective practice and

the perceived instrumentalism of the management curriculum, and considers

the use of arts-based learning in general and in reflective practice specifically

as a particular method of potentially addressing these tensions. The paper

provides the context for a piece of exploratory research into the use of the

arts-based activities to support reflective practice with a group of professional

post-graduate HRM students who had undertaken an assessment in a

management development module, to provide reflections through drawing on

‘representational forms’ (Taylor 2004), that is, using art, drama, poetry or

other artistic forms rather than the written word. The findings from this small-

scale study will be reported at the conference.

IntroductionThere is widespread recognition of the extent to which managers learn from

experience or practice based on Kolb’s (1984) learning cycle. In their typology

of management development Mumford and Gold (2004) describe the

contribution of informal learning and the variety of everyday managerial

activities which can contribute to learning. They also point out however, that

without conscious and disciplined planning for development, much of this

learning is unconscious and therefore insufficient and it is argued that

2

reflection is one way in which such learning can be formalised. In the

workplace, such reflection may be supported through coaching and mentoring

practices, enabling the extraction of learning from experience through

reflection. In formal education settings, where it is possible to provide

designated space for individual (and collective) reflection, the written journal

or diary tends to be the ‘dominant instrument of practice’ (Holden and Griggs

2011).

The paper firstly provides an overview of an reflective assignment set for

students undertaking a management development module; we then consider

the drive to incorporate reflective practice into management learning, both in

the workplace and in educational settings, and review some of the specific

issues in relation to this development. We then explore approaches to using

the arts to support management learning both in the organisational and

educational context, before specifically exploring the use of arts to support

reflective practice.

The Case Study

It was noted in the abstract that this is a position paper which to provide a

brief overview of the state of reflective practice in the management curriculum,

offer an overview of arts based learning and finally discuss some of the issues

related to the use of arts-based methods to support reflective practice, as well

as offer a preface to findings from interviews with a small group of students

who have undertaken an arts based reflective practice assessment as part a

management development module for a professional Masters programme in

Human Resources. For the assignment brief students were required to

undertake a reflective exercise, using different representational forms (drama,

poetry, art, photography) to express and illustrate their learning both from the

module and in relation to their own development as a manager.

As with other reflective practice activities, the purpose of the assignment was

to enhance their knowledge and understanding of themselves and aimed to

support ‘the creation of meaning and conceptualisation from experience and

the capacity to look at things as potentially other than they appear ... when

3

experience is brought into consideration it will involve thought, feeling and

action’ (Brockbank and McGill 2007 p99).

We used a number of activities to enable the development of this assignment

and provide support for the students. Thus, as an introduction, in the first

week students were set ‘homework’ to go and visit or explore some type of art

form – in other words, visit an art exhibition, go to the theatre, read a poem,

reflect on their experience and then discuss their experiences in class.

Further activities included the use of MBTI, exploration of individual frames of

reference (Argyris and Schon 1985), and the use of the Learning Pathways

Grid (www.actiondesign.com)1.

It is worth noting the module was part of an approved Chartered Institute of

Personnel and Development (CIPD) course, and at the time of developing this

assessment, the CIPD was promoting the concept of the ‘Thinking Performer’

(CIPD 2007), placing the emphasis on efficiency versus effectiveness; in this

context reflective practice became a requirement to find ways of doing things

cheaper, faster and better, a focus on individual (and by implication

organisational) improvement rather than individual self-development. The

CIPD approach to reflection and reflective practice will be considered in the

next section that explores the role of reflection in management development

and some of the issues related to incorporating reflective practice into the

curriculum.

Reflective Practice in the Professions

In recent years an increasing number of professions have embraced the

development of the reflective practitioner. While the health, social care and

education sector have incorporated reflection into their professional

development programmes almost as a matter of course (Betts 2004), this

approach has now been extended to include the management professions,

with both the Chartered Management Institute (CMI) and CIPD requiring the

inclusion of reflective assessments into their programmes. This development 1 See Taylor 2004 for a specific example.

4

is interesting in the light of what many commentators have suggested is the

increasing pre-occupation with management learning being tied to

supporting and advancing the organisation’s instrumental and technical

objectives (Betts 2004; Burgoyne and Jackson 1997). Indeed, Betts relates

the growth of reflective practice in management and other professions to the

increased focus on individualism and self-improvement to progress

organisational goals, and the increased ‘professionalization’ (p240) of

management. Reflective practice in this context, is related to the

demonstration of appropriate competencies, to promote organisational

efficiency, often reflecting the normative values of the organisation, rather

than ‘standing on the picket line’ (Betts 2004), that is reviewing experience

and deciding ‘whether this experience is congruent with personal values and

beliefs’ (p350).

Thus while there may be a perceived shift from tight management control or

bureaucratic organisational models to more open-ended approaches, it is

suggested that firstly that the shift has possibly been honoured more in the

breach than in the observance (Clark3 and Butcher 2006), and secondly, that

the extent to which current management learning initiatives are congruent with

this approach is fairly limited, with those sponsoring such initiatives being

over-preoccupied with the distillation of unitarist rather than pluralist values,

which a more democratic approach requires. Management learning activities

then become instrumentalised, thus excluding the 'cognitive, political and

symbolic elements of management development' (Clarke and Butcher 2006

p314).

As Holden and Griggs (2011) note, reflection is an inescapable aspect of the

Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD) qualifications.

While the ‘Thinking Performer’ no longer features in the current CIPD thinking,

their recently developed ‘advanced standards’ requires the ‘teaching’ and

assessment of at least one reflective portfolio to support the learning

outcomes, including ‘critical reflection on theory and practice from an ethical

and professional standpoint’ (www.cipd.co.uk).

5

Reflection and Critical Reflection

It is relatively easy in debates on reflective practice to assume that, in the

educational context, development of reflective practices means, in reality,

critical reflection. Summarising the different perspectives on reflection and

reflective practice Holden and Griggs (2011) provide a number of key features

of reflection, which incorporate ‘the critical questioning of behaviour, values

and assumptions’ which in turn both generates insights and self-

understanding and, perhaps of importance in relation to personal and

professional practice, assumes such insights will lead to a change in

behaviour.

It is generally acknowledged however that while reflective activities may well

involve some form of critical evaluation, there are distinct differences

(Reynolds 1997; Grey 2007). As Reynolds notes, ‘while reflection focuses on

the immediate, presenting details of a task or problem, critical reflection

involves an analysis of the power and control, and an examination of the

taken-for-granteds within which the task or problem is situated’ (p189) and is

rooted in critical management theory. However, it is a well documented

issues that the concept of critical management theories can be disconcerting

to professional students as it requires them to ‘compete with the dominant

(organisational) discourse’ (Corley and Eades 2007) which is played out

through what Corley and Eades describe as the ‘performance’ and ‘learning’

perspectives in the HRD literature.

Thus when considering reflective practice in the management context, two

opposing discourses emerge (Corley and Eades 2006); one a learning

discourse where individual capability is built together with a culture which

supports and facilitates learning, and the other a performance discourse with

its emphasis on unleashing potential and expertise for the purpose of

improving individual capability and thereby the performance of the whole

system. It can be argued from the managerialist perspective that it is the

performance discourse that is privileged, posing the question as to whether

the two discourses can co-exist and whether critically reflective practitioners

6

can support the questioning of the performance-learning discourse and can

learn to operate and effectively utilise both discourses. It is suggest that new

discourses will not emerge as long as the dominant discourse remains

unquestioned or appears unquestionable (ibid.) and indeed, as noted

previously, management students may find an uncomfortable dissonance

between the critical management literature and the practice in their own

organisations. However, it is suggested that there is a middle way and for the

purposes of this paper, we take Stewart et al’s (2008) approach, that

‘criticality is about questioning established practice and assumptions which

inform it to a depth which leads to change’ (p349).

As Gray (2007) suggests, reflective processes which aid management

understanding and self-knowledge can be facilitated with a variety of practical

tools more intuitive methods, such as the use of story telling, which through

the creation of metaphors may enable deeper and more powerful ideas and

insights not always available through the rational discourse prevalent in many

development programmes. Indeed, story telling is one among many methods

of arts based approaches to management learning, which will be considered

in the next section, before specifically exploring the use of artistic

representation to support reflective practice. As Sadler-Smith and Smith

(2006) note, ‘in order to formulate problems in ways that are commensurate

with dynamic, uncertain and fast-moving environments HRD practice needs to

go beyond determinacy, predictability and consistency and confront

indeterminacy, complexity and reflection.’ (p272). It is suggested that arts-

based methods can be one way of enabling management development

practitioners and participants to deal with complexity, generate new ideas,

and provide transformative experiences (Nissley 2010) through using artistic

forms to represent meaning.

Arts-Based Learning

‘We can't solve problems by using the same kind of thinking we used when

we created them’ (Albert Einstein)

7

There has been ‘a long tradition of using artistic forms as a metaphor for

organizations and/or activity within organizations’ (Taylor and Hansen 2004

p.1218) which in turn has led, more recently, to the use of arts as vehicle for

exploring management as art, rather than science (see Mangham 1990; Vaill

1989). In turn, this has led to an interest in how and what management can

learn from the arts (Nissley et al. 2004; Taylor and Hansen 2005). Thus in the

last ten years, there has been an abundance of literature, primarily, but not

exclusively from the practitioner market, providing lessons for management

from, mainly, Shakespeare’s plays (see Augustine and Adelman 1999;

Corrigan, 1999; Whitney and Packer, 2000), which in turn has led to arts and

theatre practitioners, such as Richard Olivier, bringing arts into organisations

to support learning, development and change. Moving from the theatre to

the arts more generally, examples can be found of using music, dance and

the visual arts as a vehicle for management learning, change and

development in organisations (see Austin and Devine 2003; Darso 2004).

The growth of interest in arts-based approaches to management learning and

development can partially be attributed to the increasing scepticism about

traditional management education to address the creative challenges facing

today’s leaders and managers (Nissley 2010), and that increasingly complex

and chaotic environments require a more intuitive and less rational approach

to management (Adler 2006; Weick 2007). Thus ‘art-based activities can

provide a new lens for science or business to look through to tackle problems

or shift perceptions. Simply talking about pictures rather than data is a new

start point for fresh dialogue’ (Nissley 2010 p11). However, as with the

tensions already discussed in relation to reflective practice, similar tensions

may exist in the use of the arts in management education and reflective

practice. Arts-based interventions may as often be used to promote corporate

messages and control and contain reflection rather than encourage critical

thinking (Clark and Mangham 2004; Beirne and Taylor 2007; Coopey 2002).

Furthermore, as Taylor and Ladkin (2009) note, the wide variety of methods

used can lead to arts-based methods acting ‘as the “flavor of the month,”

adding something new and engaging to managerial development activities

8

with little idea of what that something is’ (p55). In order to address this

diversity of activities, Taylor and Ladkin (2009) offer a typology of arts-based

learning processes, which aims to distinguish between the methods, in turn

providing a framework for evaluating arts-based approaches to learning

(Figure 1).

9

Figure 1 Typology of Arts-based Methods (Taylor and Ladkin 2009 p.61)

Taylor and Ladkin (2009) propose that four distinctive processes underpin

arts-based methods; the product/process differentiates between activities that

are focused on the end result, the art product itself and those activities which

are focused on the process of creating the work. The particular/ universal

axis differentiates between activities which focus on an individual’s unique

experience, or the universal, for example, capturing a ‘universally

recognizable understanding, such as the nature of leadership in

Shakespeare’s Henry V’ (ibid. p61). Of course, the four quadrants cannot be

seen as mutually exclusive and, most arts-based methods combine two or

more of the above processes. Using the arts to support reflective practice

crosses the two top quadrants with the process of making inextricably linked

with the meaning that individuals or students bring to their own individual

artefacts.

Furthermore, what is also offered in such approaches is ‘the production of

spaces for serious play’ (Thrift 2000 p681), which in turn, offers opportunities

to be ‘prepared for surprise, both in [the managers’] openness and

adaptability to unexpected events’ (ibid). This comment supports Schon’s

(1983) comment, that reflection-in-action is underpinned by the ability to be

surprised, in order to deal with ‘situations of uncertainty, instability,

uniqueness and value conflict’ (p50).

10

Furthermore, arts by their nature have the potential to open up different types

of learning. As Taylor and Ladkin (2009) note, the use of arts-based

methods draws on the presentational form of knowing, that is knowing which

‘provides the first form of expressing meaning and significance through

drawing on expressive forms of imagery through movement, dance, sound,

music, drawing, painting, sculpture, poetry, story, drama, and so on’ (Heron

and Reason 2001 p.183). In the higher education setting, it is suggested

that propositional knowledge, ‘those ideas and theories expressed in

informative statements’ (ibid), is privileged over other forms of knowledge,

particularly subjective Indeed, as noted in the reflective practice literature

(see Hobbs 2007; O’Connell and Dyment 2011), students, used to being

expected to provide assignments based on propositional knowledge, find it

challenging to provide evidence and discussion of subjective knowledge

(Bourner 2003). However, the use of arts-based approaches can be seen as

bridge to enable a shift towards a more experiential and intuitive approach to

reflection, by providing a stimulus for students to access and view their own

experiences and form emotional connections to those experiences (Taylor

and Ladkin 2009).

Arts, Education and Reflection

We had the experience but missed the meaning,

And approach to the meaning restores the experience

In a different form….

(T.S.Eliot (1974) The Dry Salvages)

There is an extensive amount of literature focussing on the use of arts in

higher education setting, for example, using plays such as Sophocles’

‘Antigone’ to explore ethical issues (Marini 2002) or films (see Bumbus 2005;

Comer 2001) to illustrate, sometimes metaphorically, an aspect of

organisational life. However, it should be noted that such activities focus

primarily on the student applying their learning back to the organisational

context, while the health and social care sectors provide examples of using

11

arts-based methods to support reflection (see Cheng 2010; Newton and

Plummer 2009), in the management education sector this approach appears

to be less well documented.

That is not to say that this a totally unexplored area; Hiley (2006) makes the

point that metaphor enables us to see the world differently and provides new

insights; her students make use of the poetic form and her findings suggest

that as they do so, they find an authentic voice both personally and

professionally as well as discovering a desire for holism and interconnection

which enables them to better deal with dynamically complex issues and

strategic choices. Taylor (2004) makes use of the dramatic representation to

explore and find new perspectives on dealing with difficult and challenging

issues, while Beirne and Taylor (2006) make use of what they describe as

‘radical theatre’ within an undergraduate programme to stimulate critical

reflection. It is noticeable that such reviews tend towards describing these

interventions as being highly positive. While, for example, Beirne and Taylor

initially argue that many arts-based initiatives are designed to support rather

than challenge the organizational status quo (see Clark and Mangham 2004a;

Clark and Mangham 2004b). Nevertheless their own review of using theatre

with students concluded, almost without question ‘our own students

suggested that they are more likely to question management prescription ...

from gurus or textbooks ... through their exposure to drama’ (p599).

Arts-Based Reflection: Challenges and Issues

The challenge of teaching and assessing reflective learning have been well

documented in recent years (see Betts 2004; Bourner 2004; Stewart et. al

2008; Holden and Griggs 2011); some of the key issues will be discussed with

particular reference to use of arts-based methods.

Firstly, the assessment of such assignments can be a highly subjective

activity (Bourner 2003; Betts 2004; Stewart 2008), partly because of the

personalised nature of such accounts, and partly because of the variety of

work that such an assignment can potentially produce. If this is the case

12

with written journals, asking for students to draw on a range of arts form has

the potential to produce even further divergence. Secondly, any art artefact

may be imbued with the meaning that is given by the ‘consumer. Thus, as

Taylor and Ladkin (2009) note, individual audience members watching the

same production of Hamlet are likely to have divergent perspectives on what

they understand the play is about as a whole - ‘for one that truth is about a

self-questioning, existential crisis and for the other it is about the problematic

nature of taking revenge’ (p.59). This question of interpretation raises issues

similar to those experienced by Stewart et al. (2008), that is, to develop clear

assessment criteria while at one and same time, not anticipating what might

actually be submitted, or even what the learning from such an activity might

be.

The tutor-student relationship is a regular theme in relation to the assessment

of reflective practice. Several commentators comment on the tension

between the role of the tutor as primarily a ‘knowledge/information provider

(Holden and Griggs 2011), the ‘sage on the stage’, and the expectation of the

production of what might be highly personalised accounts; Taylor et al. (2007)

argue for acknowledging and working with the positional power held by

academics – ‘We are also explicit about how use of positional power ...

explaining how we have used our position as instructors to “force” them to

develop as reflective practitioners’ although they do not fully address the

specific issues that this approach raises.

This positional power is potentially heightened by the emphasis on art-forms

rather than the written word which cause students anxiety if they believe that

they do not have the necessary ‘creative talent’ to provide a good piece of

work. George 2007 (cited in Taylor and Ladkin 2009) noted that participants

engaged in arts-based activities ‘sometimes expressed deep seated concerns

to engaging in arts forms in which they felt they had limited talent’ (p.67),

which may result in dissonance and discomfort to the extent they are likely to

feel excluded and marginalised from the process. This would indicate the

need for additional support and guidance although this may also restrict the

student to develop what they feel comfortable with.

13

One area that has not been fully explored either is whether the journey or the

outcome should or could be assessed. For students perhaps unfamiliar with

different artistic forms may find this type of activity particularly challenging –

those with a humanities background may feel more comfortable, although this

issue has not been specifically explored. This perhaps places even greater

emphasis on the consideration of the role of the tutor/facilitator in relation to

framing reflective activities.

Finally, Holden and Griggs (2011) note the difficulty of transferring reflective

practice back to the workplace, pointing to significant obstacles in the

workplace. While formal educational programmes do enable the development

of reflective spaces, the extent to which this can be carried back to the

workplace may be limited as a result of pressure and pace of work. This may

be exacerbated by the use of arts-based methods, as they tend to be further

afield than the day-to-day reality of most organizations than conventional

methods’ (Taylor and Ladkin 2009 p66).

In ConclusionLike Stewart et al’s (2008) account of developing a assessment on reflection

for a professional development programme, this paper enabled us to review

and reflect ourselves on firstly, the use of reflection in HRD and Management

Development programmes and, secondly, explore with some of the students

who have undertaken the module and the reflective assessment the extent to

which they perceive this model of learning and assessment a viable and

worthwhile activity in relation to their development as human resource

practitioners.

14

References Adler, N. (2006), The arts and leadership: now that we can do anything, what will we do? Academy of Management Learning & Education, 5 No. 4 486-99.

Augustine, N. and Adelman, K. (1999) Shakespeare in Charge: The Bard’s Guide to Leading and Succeeding on the Business Stage. New York: Miramax Books

Austin, R. and Devin, L. (2003) Artful Making : What Managers Need to Know About How Artists Work London : FT / Prentice Hall

Argyris C (1982) Reasoning, Learning and Action. Individual and Organizational. San Fransisco Jossey-Bass

Beirne, M and Knight, S (2007) From community theatre to critical management studies: a dramatic contribution to reflective learning? Management Learning 38, no.5 591-611

Betts, J. 2004. Theology, therapy or picket line? What’s the good of reflective practice in management education ? Reflective Practice 5,no 2 239-251

Bourner, T. 2003. Assessing reflective learning, Education + Training 45 no. 5 267-272

Brockbank, A. and McGill, I. (2007) Facilitating Reflective Learning In Higher Education Maidenhead : Open University Press

Bumpus, M. A. (2005). Using motion pictures to teach management: Refocusing the camera lens through the infusion approach to diversity Journal of Management Education, 29 no.5 792-815.

Comer, D. R. (2001). Not just a Mickey Mouse exercise: Using Disney’s The Lion King to teach leadership. Journal of Management Education, 25, 445-451.

Corrigan, P. (1999) Shakespeare on Management: Leadership Lessons for Today's Managers London : Kogan Page.

Cheng I (2010) Transforming practice: reflections on the use of art to develop professional knowledge and reflective practice Reflective Practice 11 No. 4 489-498

CIPD (2007) The Thinking Performer www.csgconsult.com/ezone/documents/CIPDThinkingPerformer.pdf accessed 30th March 2012

Clark, T. and Mangham, I. (2004a). Stripping to the undercoat: a review and reflection on a piece of organization theatre Organization Studies 25 No.5 841-851.

15

Clark, T. and Mangham, I. (2004b) From dramaturgy to theatre as technology : the case of corporate theatre Journal of Management Studies 41 no.1 37-59

Clarke, D. and Butcher, M. (2006) Reconciling hierarchy and democracy: the value of management learning Management Learning 37 no.3 313-333.

Coopey, J. (2002) Theatre in management and organization development - a critique of current trends Connecting Learning and Critique Proceedings of CMS Conference Cambridge and Lancaster.

Corley, A. and Eades, E. (2006) Sustaining critically reflective practitioners: competing with the dominant discourse International Journal of Training and Development 10 no. 4 239-251

Darso, L. (2004) Artful Creation – Learning Tales of Arts in Business Fredericksburg: Samfundlitteratur.

Eliot, T.S. (1974) Collected Poems 1909 -1962 London Faber and Faber

Gray, D. (2007) Facilitating management learning; developing critical reflection through reflective tools Management Learning 38 no. 5 495-517

Heron, J. and Reason, P. (2001) The practice of co-operative inquiry research ‘with’ rather than ‘on’ people in P. Reason and H. Bradbury (Eds.) Handbook of Action Research London: Sage.

Hiley, T. (2006) Finding one’s voice: the poetry of reflective practice Management Decision 44:4

Hobbs (2007) Faking it or hating it? Can reflective practice be forced? Reflective Practice 8 No. 3 405-417

Holden, R. and Griggs, V (2011) Supporting and teaching reflective learning in HR/HRD: Making a difference Proceedings of the UFRD Conference, Cheltenham

Kolb, D. A. 1984. Experiential Learning: experience as the source of learning and development. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall

Marini, F. (2002) The uses of literature in the exploration of public administration ethics: the example of Antigone Public Administration Review 52 no.5 420-426.

Mangham, I. (1990) Managing as a performing art British Journal of Management 1 no.2 : 105-115

Mumford, A and Gold J (2004) Management Development - Strategies for Action London CIPD

16

Newton, J. and Plummer, V (2009) Using creativity to encourage reflection in undergraduate education Reflective Practice 10 No. 1 67–76

Nissley. N., Taylor S., Houden, L. (2004) The politics of performance in organisational theatre-based training and interventions Organization Studies 25 no.5 817-839.

Nissley, N (2010) Arts-based learning at work: economic downturns, innovation upturns, and the eminent practicality of arts in business Journal of Business Strategy 31 No 4

O’Connell, T. and Dyment, J. (2011) The case of reflective journals: is the jury still out? Reflective Practice 12 No. 1 47–59

Sadler-Smith E (2007) Learning and Development for Managers Oxford : Blackwell

Sadler-Smith, E and Smith, P (2006) Technical rationality and professional artistry in HRD practice Human Resource Development International 9 no.2 271-281

Schon, DA (1983) The Reflective Practitioner: how professionals learn in action New York Basic Books

Stewart,J., A. Keegan and P. Stevens. 2008. Postgraduate education to support organisation change: a reflection on reflection, Journal of European Industrial Training 32, no. 5: 347-358

Taylor, S. (2004) Presentational form in first person research: off line collaborative reflection using art Action Research 2 no1 71-88

Taylor, S. and Hansen, H. (2005) Finding form: looking at the field of organisational aesthetics Journal of Management Studies 42 no.6 1211–1123.

Taylor, S. and Ladkin, D. (2009) Understanding Arts Based Methods in Managerial Development Academy of Management Learning 8 no.1 55-69.

Thrift, N. (2000) Performing cultures in the new economy Annals of the Association of American Geographers 90 no.4 674 – 692.

Vaill, P. B. (1989) Managing as a Performing Art San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass

Weick, K. (2007) On reconfiguring management education Journal of Management and Education 31 no. 1 5-16.

Whitney, J. and Packer, T. (2000) Power Plays: Shakespeare’s Lessons in Leadership and Management New York : Simon and Schuster.

17