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17:1–19:10 The reign and the ruin of the city of the antichristThis section expands the vision of the judgment of the seventh cup, briefly described in 16:17–21. It is important to observe that it does not describe what takes place after that judgment, for in it the end comes (16:17). Rather, the passage tells how ‘Babylon’ is made to drain the cup appointed for her (16:19).

The imagery in ch. 17 fluctuates in a complicated fashion. In ch. 12 the dragon with seven heads and ten horns is said to represent the devil (v 9), and in ch. 13 he is an incarnation of the spirit of evil, the antichrist. In ch. 17 the beast supports a woman, seated on it; she is declared to be the city of antichrist (18), and the beast is clearly the empire that maintains her. This use of the symbolism is comprehensible, for in the Akkadian form of the battle of the monster of the sea and the gods of heaven the monster is feminine. The woman and the beast are alternative ways of representing a single power of evil. But further, in v 11 the beast is a king, in whom the nature of the empire is embodied. This accords with the frequent manner of identifying kings and their kingdoms in apocalyptic writings (see especially Dn. 2:38–44; 7:2–8, 15–26). The portrayal of the woman who represents the city of the Antichrist in this chapter is contrasted in extremist fashion with the description of the woman who represents the city of God in chs. 19 and 21–22. For example, the former is described as THE MOTHER OF PROSTITUTES (5); the latter as the pure ‘bride’, ‘the wife of the Lamb’ (19:7; 21:9). Babylon is drunk with the blood of the saints and by her wine brings death to the world (6; 19:2); the bride offers water of life to the world (22:17) and witnesses to the redemption of the eternal kingdom of God (21:6–22:5). Babylon ends in eternal destruction (19:3); the bride-city is the heart of the new creation (21:1–5). Revelation is well characterized as ‘The tale of two cities’!1

17:1–6 A vision of Babylon in her glory

1–2 The angel’s words to John could form a fitting title to the whole of 17:1–19:10: The punishment (or ‘judgment’) of the great prostitute. The city of Tyre was called a harlot by Isaiah (Is. 23:15–17), and so was Jerusalem (Is. 1:21; Je. 3) and Nineveh (Na. 3:4–5). The latter part of v 2 alludes to Jeremiah’s address to Babylon, ‘You who live by many waters and are rich in treasures’ (Je. 51:13). The River Euphrates flowed through the city, which also had many canals, and maintained an irrigation system that brought wealth. From v 9 it is clear that the city of Rome is in mind—it has become the new ‘Babylon’, repressing the people of God and corrupting the whole earth. 3 In v 1 the ‘prostitute’ sits on many waters, but here she is seated on a beast in a desert; the contrary imagery is explained by the association of the desert with demonic beings (cf. Lk. 11:24). The beast is scarlet, sharing the likeness of the dragon, i.e. the devil (12:3). It was covered with blasphemous names, referring primarily to the claims of the Roman emperors to divinity. 4 The luxury and moral filth of the city are here vividly set forth, again with the aid of Jeremiah’s characterization of Babylon (Je. 51:7). 5 The statement of the name on the prostitute’s forehead alludes to the custom of Roman harlots having their names written on the headband which Roman women used to wear. The prefix mystery signifies that the name is symbolic (cf. 11:8). The title characterizes the tyrant city as of the same nature as that against which the prophets of old vehemently protested. 6 The woman was drunk with the blood of the

1 Carson, D. A., France, R. T., Motyer, J. A., & Wenham, G. J. (Eds.). (1994). New Bible commentary: 21st century edition (4th ed., p. 1446). Leicester, England; Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press.

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saints, especially through the inexpressibly cruel persecution of Nero, but also in anticipation of the war of the antichrist against the church.

17:7–18 The vision interpreted: Babylon’s doom

For the explanation of the vision in vs 1–6, v 8 is crucial. The ‘beast’ on which the woman ‘rides’ is plainly the empire of the antichristian city, yet the language appears to relate to an individual who once was, now is not, and will come up out of the Abyss (cf. 11:17). In reality this expression applies to both empire and emperor. The ancient myth of the conquest of the primeval monster of the sea came to denote on the one hand the nature of the political powers that oppressed the people of God (therefore God opposing!) and on the other hand their certain defeat by God. In some versions the monster was slain, in others he was simply subdued. The former is in view in Is. 51:9–10 and is applied to the defeat of Egypt at the exodus; the latter appears in Is. 30:7 to indicate the powerlessness of Egypt to aid Israel. Applying this to the end times it may be said that the monster from the Abyss was, it was overcome and rendered helpless, and so is not, but it will yet come; and so the power of Satan will be seen in another political power headed by another evil ruler. In John’s time a peculiar circumstance made this concept extraordinarily powerful. When Nero died the news seemed too good to be true. Rumours circulated that he was still alive and would return at the head of an army to attack Rome. As years passed it was realized that he had died, but the fear spread that he would rise from the dead. So in true apocalyptic symbolism John combined the two expectations to express the hideous reality of the godless city and its godless ruler, both hellish in their nature and both instruments of the devil. (On this theme, see further the note on the antichristian empire at the end of the exposition of ch. 18.)

9–11 The duality of application of this imagery is expressed in v 9, but with a specific identification: the seven heads of the beast are seven hills on which the woman sits, i.e. Rome, familiarly known as ‘the city of the seven hills’. Rome was acting the part of the ‘Mother of prostitutes’. But the seven heads also represent seven kings. Whatever the number seven meant to other writers, to John it was a symbol of completeness. Accordingly, five have fallen means that the majority have come and gone; one is relates to the present ruler; the other (i.e. the seventh) has not yet come, but when he does he must remain for a little while, naturally, because ‘the time is near’ (1:3). After his departure the beast will reveal itself in all its bestiality in an eighth king, who is not a newcomer, for he has already appeared as one of the seven, i.e. Nero; but he is not to be feared, for he is going to his destruction, as every God-opposing monster is doomed to go.

12–14 The ten horns, in line with Dn. 7:7, are interpreted as ten kings. In Daniel’s vision they precede the anti-god power (some are overthrown by him; Dn. 7:24), but in John’s vision they are confederate with the antichrist, rulers of satellite states or governors of provinces. But they have not yet received a kingdom, and when they do they will receive their authority along with the beast for one hour. So short is the time when they are allowed to go on rampage! Their war against the Lamb is useless, for he is Lord of lords and King of kings—including antichrist’s kings; and his called, chosen and faithful followers will share his victory (cf. the promises to the ‘overcomers’ in chs. 2–3).

15–18 While the waters of Babylon were literally meant in Jeremiah’s prophecy (Je. 51:13; see note on v 1), John regards them as aptly symbolizing the people over whom the antichristian city rules. The returning antichrist with his confederates will hate the prostitute and bring her to ruin (the language of v 16 is drawn from Ezekiel’s description of the chastisement of Israel; Ezk. 23:25–29). No explanation is given why the antichristian ruler turns against the antichristian city.

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The popular Nero story expected the emperor to arise to overwhelm the empire, yet this chapter, and v 13 explicitly, assumes that he will rule over the empire and with its aid rage against the works of God. But God has put it into their hearts to accomplish his purpose. The agents of the devil execute the will of God. Evil is destroyed by evil and reaps its own harvest. The antichrist and his allies, like the devil they serve, are in the hands of God until God’s words are fulfilled. 18 The woman is now identified, at least as clearly as apocalyptic writing allowed, and enough for John’s readers to know of whom he speaks: she is the great city that rules over the kings of the earth, i.e. in John’s day Rome, the mistress of the world. For the significance of this identification for modern Christians, see the note on the antichristian empire at the end of the exposition of ch. 18.

18:1–24 A dirge upon Babylon

This chapter is modelled on the doom songs of OT prophets over oppressive and arrogant nations of their times. So reminiscent is it of these that it may be said to summarize all prophetic oracles on the doom of unrighteous peoples. The prophecies against Babylon (Is. 13, 21, 47; Je. 50, 51) and against Tyre (Ezk. 26, 27) appear to have been especially in John’s mind. The song about the ruin of Babylon is considerably longer than John’s description of the event in 17:12–18, but it forms part of that story and supplies a powerful climax to it.

1 The glory of the angel coming down from heaven is described in words used by Ezekiel of the glory of God returning to the restored temple in the new age (Ezk. 43:1–2). 2 Fallen, fallen is Bablyon the Great! is a quotation from Is. 21:9. For the rest of the verse cf. Is. 13:21–22. Strictly speaking this picture is not consistent with that in 19:3, but they are different ways of portraying the judgment of God on a city. John has no hesitation in mixing his symbolism, and he expects his readers to interpret it in the light of the prophetic scriptures. 3 John lays to Rome’s charge the responsibility for the corruption of the whole earth, therefore this new Babylon must be destroyed from the earth. 4 cf. Is. 52:11; Je. 51:6, 45. 5 Cf. Je. 51:9. 6 See Is. 4:2; Je. 16:18; 50:29. The cry of v 6 could be thought of as addressed to the avenging armies of the antichrist and his allies. See 17:12, 13, 16. Rome’s judgment is to be proportionate to her self-glorification, wantonness and pride; cf. Is. 47:7–9. 8 Of the plagues that overtake ‘Babylon’ death is likely to signify pestilence (see on 6:8), and mourning calamity, so making the three plagues ‘pestilence and calamity and famine’. The destruction by fire is performed by the invading armies under the antichrist; cf. 17:16.

The lamentations over Babylon are uttered by the kings of the earth (9–10), merchants (11–17a) and sailors (17b–19). John is here particularly indebted to Ezekiel’s doom song over Tyre (Ezk. 26–27). 9 The kings of the earth are those mentioned in 17:18, not those in alliance with the beast (17:16–17; cf. Ezk. 26:16–17). 10 The substance of each lamentation is the same: In one hour your doom has come (see vs 17, 19).

11–13 Cf. the list of merchant nations that traded with Tyre (Ezk. 27:12–24) and their astonishment and fear (Ezk. 27:35–36). Vs 12–13 furnish a list of goods sold by the merchants to Rome; cf. the imports of Tyre (Ezk. 27:12–24). Citron wood was a sweet scented hard wood from North Africa, especially used for making expensive tables. Ivory was popular among Romans both for decorating furniture and ornaments. The term for spice denoted a fragrant plant from India, used for making costly hair ointment. Chariots are of a special kind, having four wheels and often expensively decorated. Two words are used for slaves, bodies and human souls. The latter expression occurs in Ezk. 27:13, and while in ordinary speech both were synonymous the latter virtually signified human livestock. On this Swete commented: ‘The world of St.

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John’s day ministered in a thousand ways to the follies and vices of Babylon, but the climax was reached in the sacrifice of human life which recruited the huge familiae of the rich, filled the brothels, and ministered to the brutal pleasures of the amphi-theatre’ (The Apocalypse of St. John, p. 235).

17–19 The concern of the seamen, as that of the merchants, is not for the city, nor for those who perished with it, but for their own loss of revenue. 20 The appeal to rejoice over the judgment of Babylon should be separated from the lament of the sailors. It is best viewed as the completion of the angel’s statement beginning in v 4, and including the lamentations of the kings, merchants and seamen. Whether intentional or not, 19:1–7 forms a fitting response to the cry. 21 The symbolic action of the angel is suggested by a similar one performed over Babylon by Jeremiah (Je. 51:63–64). Vs 22–23 are reminiscent of Ezk. 26:13 and Je. 25:10 in their descriptions of the cessation of crafts, industry, the joys of marriage and all means of illumination. Your merchants were the world’s great men was uttered by Isaiah concerning the merchants of Tyre (Is. 23:8). It is adduced as a reason for Rome’s judgment because, to judge from v 3, its merchants fostered the wantonness of the city and so were themselves bound up with the luxurious vice of Rome. Isaiah had already commented on the sorceries of the original Babylon (47:12), and Nahum condemned those of Nineveh (Na. 3:4). The NIV renders the term ‘sorcery’ by magic spell; this harmonizes well with the view that it represents not so much literal witchcraft as ‘the witchery of gay luxurious vice and its attendant idolatries, by which the world was fascinated and led astray’ (Swete, The Apocalypse of St. John, p. 240). 24 Cf. Mt. 23:35, where our Lord so accuses Jerusalem. John’s statement is justified not only by the persecutions of the past and of the future tribulation, but also by his understanding of Rome as the incarnation of the spirit of evil that has ever assaulted God’s people (see notes on 17:7–18).

Note on the antichristian empire. One urgent question arises from the reading of chs. 13, 17 and 18. In these descriptions of the doom of the city and empire of the antichrist there is little doubt that Rome was in John’s mind. He all but names it in 17:9, 18, and through his use of the mystic name Babylon. His prophecies set forth the impending appearance of an antichrist who would embody its wickedness, but whose reign would last only a short time, concluding with the destruction of the city and the appearance and reign of Christ. It is the height of irony that Rome, instead of becoming the sphere of the antichrist’s rule, capitulated to the Christ of God and came to be a world centre of Christianity. Many have concluded that John’s prophecies therein received their true fulfilment; but the prophet, with his anticipation of the coming of Christ and the descent of the city of God from heaven, would hardly have acknowledged that interpretation.

Here it is necessary to recall that John’s vision is fundamentally related to those of the OT prophets. All the prophets, in their representations of the overthrow of the oppressor nations of their day, looked for the establishment of the kingdom of God to follow on those judgments (e.g. Isaiah awaited the Messianic deliverance following on God’s judgment of Assyria, Is. 10–11; Habakkuk looked towards the destruction of Babylon, Hab. 2:2–3; Jeremiah and Ezekiel expected it after the return of the Jews under Cyrus, Je. 29–31; Ezk. 26; and every vision of Daniel looks for it to follow the overthrow of the tyrant Antiochus Epiphanes; see especially Dn. 7–9, 11–12). In the NT the evangelists place our Lord’s teaching on the second advent in proximity to his prophecies concerning the judgment on Jerusalem (Mt. 24; Mk. 13; Lk. 21), and that advent is awaited in the not distant future, though never dated (cf. Rom. 13:11–12; Heb. 10:37; Jas. 5:8; 1 Pet. 4:7; 1 Jn. 2:18). To this John was no exception. Two realities would have been before his mind: on the one hand, the Lord had achieved a redemption that brought the kingdom of God into the world, and he was to come soon for its consummation; on the other

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hand, the ‘mystery of lawlessness’ was most obviously at work in the world (2 Thes. 2:7), and Rome was already playing the part of the antichrist. The stage was thus set for the end, and John describes the drama as taught by the prophets, by Christ, and by his apostles. He applies that doctrine to the situation of his day. The time scale was too short, but the essence of his prophecy is not thereby invalidated. The ‘many antichrists’ (1 Jn. 2:18) since John’s day have increasingly approximated to his portrait and will culminate in one who will perfectly fulfil it.

The symbolism used in this ‘portrait’ of the antichrist is as evident as that employed in the portrayal of Satan, the city and the empire, and its use in ch. 12. John adapts the contemporary expectation of Nero’s resurrection from the dead to depict the coming antichrist as ‘another Nero’. There is a parallel to this in his application of the prophecy that Elijah will come before the day of the Lord (Mi. 4:5). John would have known how Jesus applied this prophecy to the ministry of John the Baptist (Mk. 9:12–13); he himself puts it to an even wider use in relation to the ministry of the entire church (ch. 11). It was as natural for him to represent the antichrist as working ‘in the spirit and power of Nero’ (cf. Lk. 1:17), by employing the story of ‘Nero redivivus’ without further explanation, as it was for him to use the prophecy of ‘Elijah redivivus’ without explanation.

Just as we should not try to define Jesus’ coming with outward calculations, but pay attention rather to what God’s providential rule creates before our eyes, so we should allow God to fulfil John’s prophecy in his own way and day.

19:1–10 Thanksgiving for the judgment of Babylon

The words of praise that thunder from heaven for the manifest justice of God in destroying the city of antichrist form a response to the cry of the angel in 18:20 to ‘Rejoice’ over what God has done. The praises of heaven are recorded in vs 1–4, and those of ‘saints, apostles and prophets’ in vs 6–8. The order of heaven’s praises in ch. 5 is reversed; first the myriads of angels voice their exultant joy, then the twenty-four elders and four living creatures add their Amen. The call for praise from the servants of God, small and great (5) is answered in the roar of the redeemed in vs 6–8. The fourfold Hallelujah in this passage is unique in the NT; the term occurs nowhere else in its pages. We know it through its use in the Psalms, in particular the so-called Hallel, i.e. Pss. 113–118, sung at Israel’s festivals and associated above all with the Passover.

1–2 The song expands 7:10 and is similar in meaning to 12:10. Salvation includes deliverance from anti-god powers and therefore judgment. The angels celebrate the latter, as is characteristic of Revelation (cf. 7:9, after the judgments of the seals; 11:16–18 after the trumpet judgments; 15:3–4 in anticipation of the outpouring of the cups of wrath). 3 The second Hallelujah celebrates the irreversibility of Babylon’s destruction. Its language echoes Is. 34:9–10, the day of the Lord on Edom, which itself recalls the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah. The description of the unquenched fire of burning pitch in Edom, however, is followed by one of the land being inhabited by wild birds and animals, entailing two symbolic pictures of judgment, strictly irreconcilable. So also v 3 has to be qualified by John’s description of the new creation (21:1–5), wherein there will be no room for Babylon’s fires.

5 The voice from the throne will be from one of the four living creatures, not from the glorified Christ, who would hardly call on God’s people to Praise our God. 6–8 The praises of the church relate to the coming of God’s reign and the wedding of the Lamb rather than the desolation of Babylon. The statement, our Lord God Almighty reigns should be, as in 11:16, ‘our Lord God Almighty has begun his reign’—he has brought to perfection his kingdom of salvation with illimitable blessing for humankind. Now, therefore, is the time for the wedding of the Lamb,

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in a similar sense, for the church is already the bride of Christ, but not yet the ‘radiant church, without stain or wrinkle or any other blemish’ (Eph. 5:25–26). The explanatory comment Fine linen stands for the righteous acts of God (8) clearly comes from John and is no part of the song. But note the delicate balance of the grace of God and human response entailed in the statements, Fine linen, bright and clean, was given her to wear, for holiness is the gift of God, and the bride has made herself ready, engaging in righteous acts of the saints. This twofold reality continues through the entire Christian life (cf. Phil. 2:12–13).

9 The fourth beatitude of Revelation anticipates the climax of the relations of Christ and his people. Those who are invited to the wedding supper of the Lamb are believers, indicating that a double symbolism is here employed: the bride and the guests are one (cf. 21:9–10, where the bride is also the holy city). These are the true words of God; they include also those that tell of the judgment on Babylon and the blessedness of participation in the Lamb’s marriage, i.e. the visions of 17:1 up to this point. 10 The angel refuses John’s worship since he too is a fellow-servant who holds to the testimony of Jesus. God alone is to be worshipped, for the testimony of Jesus is the spirit of prophecy. That rendering could mean that Jesus’ witness is the ‘breath’ or principle of prophecy, but that is too impersonal. The statement is illuminated when it is realized that the favourite name of Jews for the Spirit of God was ‘the Spirit of prophecy’; hence it means, ‘The testimony borne by Jesus is the burden of the Spirit who inspires prophecy’, and he glorifies the Lord! That perfectly expresses the teaching on the Holy Spirit in the discourses of Jn. 14–16 (see especially Jn. 14:26; 16:12–15).

19:11–22:5 The revelation of the Christ and of the city of GodThe judgment of Babylon has been the theme of 17:1–19:10, stated above all in the seventh cup judgment of 16:17–21. But we have not yet been told of the fate of the antichrist and his confederates, the subject of the sixth cup judgment (16:12–14). This prefaces the final visions of the triumph of Christ and his kingdom, which consist of a description of the coming of Christ and the subjugation of the evil powers (19:11–20:3); the kingdom of Christ in this world (20:4–10); the last judgment (20:11–15); and the new creation and the city of God (21:1–22:5).

19:11–21 The rider on the white horse

11–15 The portrayal of Christ’s coming is achieved through a series of symbolic pictures which highlight aspects of an event too great to comprehend in advance. When heaven is opened the first thing John sees is a white horse, with Faithful and True riding it. We do not commonly think of Jesus returning on a horse, accompanied by multitudes of angels on horses, nor should we do so. It is a representation of Jesus the almighty Conqueror, ‘Field Marshal’ of the armies of heaven, coming to subdue the rebellious of earth, which are led by the powers of hell. His blazing eyes relate to judgment; his many crowns to his position as ‘King of kings and Lord of lords’. He has a name … that no-one knows but he himself, yet his names are given in vs 11, 13, 16; these testify as to who he is, but God alone can grasp the mystery of his person (cf. Mt. 11:27). His blood-dipped robe is that of God (see Is. 63:1–6), which the rabbis said God would wear on the day of his vengeance on Rome. The armies of heaven that follow the Christ are the ‘hosts of heaven’, i.e. the angels that surround him (cf. 1 Ki. 22:19; Ps. 103:20; Dn. 7:9–10, 13; Mk. 8:38; 13:26–27; 2 Thes. 2:5–6). The Lord will strike down the nations with the sword of his mouth and tread the winepress of the fury of the wrath of God Almighty—two complementary

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pictures wherein Jesus is revealed first as a soldier and then as a farmer securing his grape harvest.

16–18 The angel’s summons to the birds of prey to gather together for the great supper of God is drawn from Ezekiel’s vision of the overthrow of Gog and Magog (Ezk. 39:17–20), though the assault of Gog and Magog is set by John at the close of the earthly kingdom (20:7–9), in harmony with Ezekiel’s vision (Ezk. 38:7–9). This great supper of God for birds of prey is a gruesome counterpart to the feast that begins the kingdom of God (Is. 25:6), here described as the wedding supper of the Lamb.

19–21 The beast and his confederates gathered to make war against the rider on the horse and his army. They are gathered, that is, to Armageddon (16:16). But there is no battle! The armies of heaven watch while the beast and the false prophet are captured, the Christ wields the sword of his mouth, and the devil is thrown into the Abyss. This is a judgment scene by the power of the word of God. The whole description is pictorial, including the horse of Christ, the sword issuing out of his mouth and the vultures that gorge the flesh of the slain. We cannot be sure of the details of the picture, apart from one dominant reality: the victory of Christ over those who oppose him is total. The antichrist and the false prophet are thrown into the fiery lake of burning sulphur. This fiery lake is a variant picture of hell, which in Greek is Gehenna, a transliteration of the Hebrew Gehinnom, ‘the valley of Hinnom’, where the Jews in Jeremiah’s time offered by fire human sacrifices (see Je. 7:31). In apocalyptic literature, both terms are pictorial, the former a development of the concept of the Abyss, both representing the inescapable judgment of God on those who persist in rebellion.2

avour of more extravagant interpretations. Augustine’s interpretation, that the millennium is the period of the church between Christ’s first and second advents, became the official teaching of both the Catholic and Reformed churches. It is exemplified in Hendriksen’s commentary on Revelation (More than Conquereors, IVP, 1939); he identifies the binding of Satan (20:1–3) with his ejection from heaven (12:9), the thousand years of the church’s power (20:4–6) with its time of triumphant witness (11:2–6; 12:14–15), the onset of the armies of Gog and Magog (20:7–9) with the persecution of the church by the antichrist (11:7–10; 13:7–8), the ensuing destruction of those armies (20:9) with Armageddon (19:19–21), and the last judgment (20:11–15) with the Messianic judgment (14:14–20).

This is a plausible and interesting interpretation of the text, but seems to entail insuperable difficulties. In 12:9 Satan is cast out of heaven, where he may no longer accuse the saints before God, to earth, where his war against the church intensifies, because his time is short; in 20:1–3 he is taken from earth and imprisoned in the Abyss, that he may no longer corrupt humanity. The judgment of 14:14–20 is aligned with the Messianic judgments of the last times, above all that which happens at Christ’s coming (19:19–21); whereas the last judgment of 20:11–15 is of all generations of humankind. The conquest of the evil powers is described in the indivisible passage 19:19–21:3, and that takes place at Christ’s advent in glory, which is followed by his thousand years’ reign. Add to that the impossibility of reconciling the assumption of John, shared by the prophets generally, that the Lord may come soon (1:3; 22:20) with the notion that the thousand years’ kingdom will precede his coming, one has difficulty in attributing this scheme of interpretation to him. John well knows that the kingdom of God was established through Christ’s

2 Carson, D. A., France, R. T., Motyer, J. A., & Wenham, G. J. (Eds.). (1994). New Bible commentary: 21st century edition (4th ed., pp. 1446–1451). Leicester, England; Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press.

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redemption (ch. 5; 12:10–12); the kingdom that the Lord will bring at his second coming will be the triumph of that which he brought through his incarnate ministry, hence the revelation of that which has been in the world from Easter onwards.

Why, then, does God permit the release of Satan at the end of the thousand years? John would have answered, ‘It is so written’. The prophecy of Gog’s attack upon Israel (Ezk. 38–39) is set after God’s restoration of the people to the kingdom. Gn. 1–3 supplies much of the symbolism of the city of God in Revelation; John’s meditation on those chapters could have suggested to him that as Satan was allowed to enter the Garden to expose the nature of human hearts, so he will be allowed to do the like in the final paradise, so that all hostility to God can be brought into the open and be annihilated before his reign is made absolute. Like other apocalyptists, John would have known that the fulness of God’s kingdom cannot be attained within the limitations of this world, not even in a restored paradise; the goal of creation can be reached only through resurrection like that of Christ.

20:4–6 The millennium

The description of Christ’s kingdom is extraordinarily brief; no word is given of the conditions of life in the thousand years, only a bare statement of who will exercise rule in it. There is reason to believe, however, that the extended description of the city of God in 21:9–22:5 applies to the kingdom in the millennial age as well as in the coming eternal age. 19:6–7 celebrates the marriage of the bride at Christ’s coming; 21:9 reveals the bride to be the holy city Jerusalem. The hosts of Gog surround the camp of God’s people, the city he loves (20:9), which must be the city of God, the new Jerusalem in the world. The nations walk in the light of the city and bring their glory into it; but nothing unclean enters its gates (21:24–25), and the leaves of the tree of life heal the nations (22:2). Such statements are even more appropriate to the city in the world than in the new creation. There is not a line in 21:9–22:5 that could not apply to the kingdom in this world, which suggests that it means life in history as well as in eternity.

4 Who are those seated on thrones? Dn. 7:9–14, 27 give the answer: ‘the saints, the people of the Most High’, with which Rev. 5:9–14 and 19:7 agree. Of these ‘saints’ John makes special mention of the martyrs and confessors of Christ, for the encouragement of all who may be called to tread the path of martyrdom. 5 The rest of the dead did not come to life almost certainly relates to the dead without Christ; John would not deny the resurrection of the church at Christ’s coming (see the comments on v 4; cf. on 11:11–12; 1 Cor. 15:51–52; 1 Thes. 4:16). 6 The fifth beatitude declares the blessedness of those who share in the first resurrection. The second death has no power over them (cf. v 14 and on 2:11), and they will be priests of God and of Christ as they reign with him. Their reign, therefore, is their service of God and humanity.

20:7–10 The last insurrection of evil

As mentioned above, John here follows Ezekiel’s prophecy of the invasion of Israel’s land by Gog and Magog after the Messianic kingdom has been established. Whereas in Ezk. 38 ‘Gog of the land of Magog’ comes from the north to invade the holy land, in John’s vision Gog and Magog stand for the nations in the four corners of the earth (8). They marched across the breadth of the earth and surrounded the city God loves—a city some 1,400 miles (2,200 km) long, wide and high (21:16)! The event is as symbolic as Armageddon and represents an attack on the manifestation of Christ’s rule in the world. 9b–10 The would-be destroyers are themselves destroyed, and the devil is thrown into the fiery lake, never to trouble humanity again.

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20:11–15 The last judgment

If the fleeing of heaven and earth from the face of God is to be viewed as the precursor of the new heavens and earth (cf. 2 Pet. 3:10–13), the spectacle of the great white throne as the one reality on which humankind can gaze is indeed an awesome sight. But the description is likely to be symbolic, to enhance the terrifying grandeur of the scene—the last overwhelming theophany from which creation wants to escape but cannot (cf. 6:12–17).

12 The dead, great and small, stand before the throne, i.e. all humankind is summoned to judgment. Is the church exempted from this? 20:4–6 suggests that it is, but in that case believers will have been judged earlier (cf. 3:5; 2 Cor. 5:10), but John gives no hint of this. The passage stands for the necessity of all to be judged, saints and sinners alike, and there’s plenty of time for it to happen! The judgment proceeds according to two criteria: first, according to what they had done, and secondly, the testimony of the books. This latter feature is taken from Dn. 7:10, which reflects both ordinary court procedure and the habit of Persian kings to record every detail of events in their provinces. The important thing is that the joint testimony of the two criteria agrees, and the book of life will reveal it.

14–15 Death and Hades represent the fact of dying and the condition entered on after death. Both were thrown into the lake of fire, a circumstance that shows the sheer pictorial nature of the scene, including the lake of fire. Into that lake were thrown any whose name was not found written in the book of life. That lake has its origin in the Abyss, the home of the monster, the enemy of God, and traditionally the abode of evil spirits and the place where fallen angels were punished. It is the alternative to the city of God. Accordingly, John represents the same reality by the very different symbol of life outside the city (21:27) in contrast to life inside the city (21:24–26). Significantly it all begins in connection with the new creation, the work of God in Christ; we can be assured that grace and truth (Jn. 1:17) will be as truly united in the judgment as they were in the cross of Christ.

21:1–8 The new creation

The unfolding of God’s dealings with humanity in Revelation reaches its climax in this passage: vs 1–4 describe a new creation in which God and people dwell together in fellowship; vs 5–8 declare the truth of that description and its implications for the readers. Its purpose is to strengthen the faith, hope and resolution of the church as it faces its ultimate trial.

1 The creation of a new heaven and new earth is taught in Is. 65:17 and 66:22 (cf. Mt. 5:18; Mk. 13:31; 2 Pet. 3:12). Jewish teachers interpreted Is. 65–66 variously; some held that God would renew creation for his kingdom, others that he would replace it by an entirely new one. John’s vision is capable of either interpretation; the fact that 20:11 describes a theophany, i.e. a pictorial representation of creation’s response to God’s coming for judgment, may be held to favour the former view. In any case, there was no longer any sea is less concerned with water than wickedness: the devil, the antichrist and antichristian empire are all depicted as sea monsters; nothing of that order survives into the new. 2 The imagery used in the portrayal of the Holy City here and in 21:9–22:5 fluctuates between the bride-city, as the context of life in the kingdom of God, and the fellowship of the redeemed with God. 3 This latter feature appears as the first and greatest blessing of the eternal kingdom. The term for dwelling is lit. ‘tent’; it harks back to the tabernacle in the wilderness, on which the pillar of fire and cloud rested, the sign of God’s presence and manifest glory. The same association of language is used in Jn. 1:14; in the new creation all that Immanuel signifies is forever fulfilled. 4 Cf. 7:17; Is. 25:8. 5 I am making

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everything new refers to God’s action in the new creation, but it was begun in Christ’s resurrection and is experienced by all believers in the present (2 Cor. 5:17). It is done echoes the cry on the cross (Jn. 19:30) and the voice from the throne (16:17). God is the Alpha and the Omega; his character guarantees the truth of this revelation. The added promise recalls Is. 55:1 (cf. also 22:17; Jn. 7:37–38). 7 A final promise is given to the Christian who overcomes: the blessings of the Holy City will be his or her inheritance. 8 In contrast to the overcomer, who inherits the kingdom, are those who preclude themselves from it. The cowardly either deny or reject God’s Christ and worship the antichrist. The remaining terms describe the unbelieving, whose lives demonstrate their opposition to God.

21:9–22:5 The city of God

For the suggestion that this section portrays the city of God alike in Christ’s ‘thousand years’ reign and in the new creation, see the note on the millennium.

9 The revelation of the bride was anticipated in 19:7–9. Here the bridal metaphor gives way to that of a city; a similar transfer of imagery is made in Is. 54:4–8 and 11:12. 10 The language is so similar to Ezk. 40:2 that we must assume that John had it in mind; the city descends from heaven to the mountain whereon he stood. Heaven comes to earth in the kingdom of God! 11 The city’s appearance is compared to that of a jasper, and so its glory is like that of the Creator (see 4:3). 12–13 The great, high wall serves the dual purpose of keeping out those who have no part in the city (21:27; 22:14–15) and of providing eternal security for those inside. Its twelve gates are inscribed with the names of the twelve tribes of Israel, just as the wall’s twelve foundations have on them the names of the twelve apostles of the Lamb. Therein the unity of the people of the old and new covenants is seen; together they form ‘the Israel of God’, expanded to embrace all nations in Christ. 14 The twelve foundations of the city’s wall are not to be thought to stand on one another but as forming a continuous chain round the city, divided up by its twelve gates. The twelve apostles correspond to the twelve tribes of v 12; like the latter they denote a collective whole rather than a list of individuals. There is no need, therefore, to ask whether Paul’s name is included in the twelve, and if so whose name is omitted; the question does not arise.

16 The city was laid out like a square; but as its height is the same as its breadth and length, it is a cube. One structure in the OT is mentioned as a cube in shape, namely the Most Holy place in the temple (1 Ki. 6:20); here the cubic shape indicates that the entire city is a sanctuary and partakes of the holiness of the ancient inner shrine. 12,000 stadia represents approximately 100 miles, but to translate it into modern mileage is to rob the measurement of its clear symbolism—an infinite multiple of 12. John may be saying that the city of God reaches from earth to heaven, and so unites them into one. 17 The wall was 144 cubits (216 ft), probably ‘high’ rather than thick, again a perfect multiple of 12. In this context there is no need to stress the disparity between the measurements of the city and the wall; the latter is big enough to serve its purpose!

18–21 The language of symbolism continues in John’s description of the materials of the city. He has already said that its sheen is like that of jasper, the appearance of God (11); he now declares that the wall is entirely built of jasper. The pure gold may recall the sanctuary of Solomon’s temple, which was covered completely with gold (1 Ki. 6:20–22), or it could allude to the thought in 3:18. The list of jewels that decorate the foundations is startling. Despite some uncertainties of translation they appear to be identical with the jewels inscribed with the names of the twelve tribes on the high priest’s breastplate (Ex. 28:15–21). Philo and Josephus both draw attention to the fact that those jewels also represent the twelve signs of the zodiac. On the basis

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of an old correlation of the jewels and the zodiac signs it appears that John’s list of jewels portrays the progress of the sun through the twelve signs of the zodiac, but in reverse order! Perhaps John wished to dissociate the Holy City from pagan speculations about the city of the gods in the heavens; or it may be that the reverse is true, and John was showing that the reality for which the pagans longed is found in the revelation of God in Christ (the foundation stones have on them the names of the apostles of the Lamb—his witnesses!).

22–27 In a city modelled on the holy of holies there is no need for a temple; all is holy, and God is everywhere adored (cf. Jn. 4:20–23). 23 Is. 60:19–20 is clearly in mind. It is not that the sun or the moon have ceased to exist but that their splendour has been surpassed by the glory of God himself. 24–26 These verses reproduce the substance of Is. 60:3–11, but with a difference: there the nations bring Jewish exiles to Jerusalem and their wealth to Jews; here they bring their splendour … glory and honour to God and the Lamb, so fulfilling 15:4. The language of the whole paragraph is especially suitable to the kingdom of Christ in the millennial age, but it can also apply in a less direct sense to the kingdom of God in the new creation.

22:1–5 This conclusion of the vision of the city of God shows conscious links with the description of the paradise in Eden (Gn. 2–3).

1 The throne of God and of the Lamb is the source of the river of the water of life (cf. 7:17; 21:6; 22:17). The Garden of Eden had a river (Gn. 2:10). In Ezekiel’s vision a river flowed from the temple (Ezk. 47:9; see the application of this passage to Jesus in Jn. 7:37–38). 2 The tree of life (unlike Gn. 2:9; 3:22, but as in Ezk. 47:7ff) is viewed collectively. Like the symbol of the water of life, the healing powers of the leaves are taken in a spiritual sense, possibly in the first instance for the healing of the wounds inflicted in the great distress. 3 No longer will there be any curse cites Zc. 14:11 and reverses the curse pronounced in the original paradise (Gn. 3:14–19). In the new Jerusalem the effects of that curse are completely overcome. 4 The goal of redeemed humanity is here stated: They will see his face. Such a vision will involve the transformation of the beholders into the same likeness (2 Cor. 3:18; 1 Jn. 3:2). For the name … on their foreheads see on 3:12 and 19:12. 5 They will reign for ever and ever expands 20:4 and is the final fulfilment of 3:21 (note that in 11:15 ‘he will reign for ever and ever’ includes the millennial reign and that in the new creation).

22:6–21 The epilogueThree themes find prominent expression in this conclusion of Revelation: the authenticity of the visions narrated (6, 7, 16, 18, 19); the imminence of Christ’s coming (6, 7, 10–12, 20); and the necessity for holiness in view of the impending consummation (10–15). It is difficult to be sure of the identity of the speakers in the various utterances. Vs 7, 12–13 and 20a appear to be utterances of Jesus; vs 6, 8, 14–15 the angel’s; v 16 Jesus through the angel; vs 8–9, 17–19, 20b and 21 John’s additions. A great deal of variation is possible, but in the last resort it matters little, for the speaker is ultimately Christ, whose messenger is the angel (9) and whose utterances John records as a prophet (10).

6–7 In the light of v 7, 19:9 and 21:5 the trustworthy and true words relate not only to the preceding context but the whole book. They concern events that must soon take place because the Lord is coming soon (cf. also v 20). 8–9 The inclusion of this passage by John does not necessarily mean that some of his readers engaged in angel worship, though the practice did have a place among the Jews, and apparently even among Christians (Col. 2:18). John’s action is natural enough, and its narration needs no other explanation than its occurrence and its interest. It

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is not so much a polemic against angel worship as a correction of the over-exaltation of all instruments of revelation. Angels, prophets and other Christians are on one level before God.

10 The injunction is the reverse of that in Dn. 8:26; 12:4, 9 and of Jewish apocalypses generally. Whereas these prophesied of remote times, John’s message was of immediate importance and was issued in his own name. 11 There is irony in this utterance. Daniel had said (Dn. 12:10) that in the last days many would be purified by their experience of trial, but the wicked would act wickedly; i.e. in the last crisis people will come out in their true colours and range themselves on God’s side or against. That teaching is continually stressed in Revelation (7:1–8; 11:1–2; 12:1–14:5 etc.). Here it receives its final exposition. Since the time is near let the person who insists on clinging to evil continue therein; he will soon meet his judgment. Let the righteous and holy guard themselves, for their Lord will soon come for their deliverance. To make of this statement a doctrine of the fixity of character and destiny of people in the last times is contrary to the context and the general teaching of the book (e.g. 14:6–7; 15:4; 21:6–8; 22:17). 12 Cf. 11:18; Is. 40:10; Rom. 2:6. 13 See the note on 1:3. 14 The last of the seven beatitudes of Revelation. Those who wash their robes have had their guilt removed through the crucified and risen Saviour and so have the right to the tree of life and may enter into the city (cf. Gn. 3:22–24). 15 This verse almost repeats 21:8, but the fate of those concerned is very differently represented. The fundamental reality in common is their exclusion from the city of God. John’s use of such different images to express judgment indicates the great flexibility of his symbolism.

16 Jesus as the Root and the Offspring of David fulfils Is. 11:1. As the bright Morning Star he fulfils the prophecy of Baalam in Nu. 24:17. 17 The Spirit, who is especially active in the prophets (19:10), joins the church in calling upon the Lord to Come, according to his promise (7, 12; cf. v 20). The individual hearer of the prophecy of this book, as it is read in the churches, is bidden to say Come. The repentant sinner is invited to come, and take the free gift of the water of life and so be ready to welcome the Lord when he comes.

18–19 John has been harshly judged for concluding his prophecy with these words. It was, however, customary for ancient writers to protect their works against mutilation and interpolation by adding such an anathema. John’s concern was to prevent his message from being perverted through addition or removal. The same concern is seen in Dt. 4:2. The so-called canonization formula in the passage—‘not add nor take away’—has been traced back to 2450 BC in Egypt. Instead of the usual curse, John warns of judgment and loss of the kingdom of God.

20 John’s response to the last promise of Revelation corresponds to the Aramaic watch-word Maranatha: ‘Come, O Lord’ (see 1 Cor. 16:22). The promise is the culmination of all promises; and the response is the sum of all living hopes.

21 The benediction reminds us that Revelation is a letter, and that its lessons are to be personally appropriated. Only by the grace of the Lord Jesus can that victory be gained which will receive the recompense portrayed in this book. It behoves us to open our lives to it continually, and to add our own Amen.3

3 Carson, D. A., France, R. T., Motyer, J. A., & Wenham, G. J. (Eds.). (1994). New Bible commentary: 21st century edition (4th ed., pp. 1452–1455). Leicester, England; Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press.

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