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Indian Intercourse Act, 1790Negotiations with tribes through Federal
GovernmentIndian Affairs under Department of War,
1824Changes to Department of Interior, 1849
Indian Removal Act, 1830Removal of Indians to Indian Territory
(Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma)Kansas-Nebraska Act, 1854
Negates treaties with Indians removed to territory
Indian Policy before 1877
Territorial Treaties & ReservationsUS government hurt Indians by:
imposing treaties (loss of land) by forcerefusing to protect Indian land/rights in treaties from
whitesFort Laramie Treaty, 1868
Creates Great Sioux Reserve in SD“insure civilization for the Indians and peace and
safety for the whites.”Reservation policy:
confine Indians to least desirable landspromise aidIndians less independent economicallyReservations weaken Indians politically
Supreme Court define Native Americans as non-citizen wards
US ends treaty making in 1871
The Oglala Sioux spiritual leader, Chief Red Cloud in an 1868 photograph. Here he is seen with (l. to r.) Red Dog, Little Wound, interpreter John Bridgeman (standing), (Red Cloud), American Horse, and Red Shirt. He ventured to Washington with this delegation to discuss with President Ulysses S. Grant the various provisions of the peace treaty, just signed, to end the violent conflict over the Bozeman Trail.
6© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Board of Indian Commissioners, 1871Church denominations could appoint
Indian agentsClean up corrupt reservation managementReformers try to “civilize” Indians:
goal = assimilationBoarding schools (Carlisle in PA) teach children
white cultureIndian Rights Association assume Indian
ways inferiorMost members white women
First est. 1879Forced assimilationIndian children taken from families
Lost Traditional LanguageReligionCulture
Indian Boarding Schools
Dawes Severalty Act, 1887“General Allotment Act”
Reversed reservation policyDivided reservation lands
160-320 acres to each family headPrivatize communal landsIndians with private property become
citizensWhites buy unallocated landAssimilationDestroys tribal organizationLoss of land
Post-AllotmentUS government still used force:
massacre Lakotas (Wounded Knee, SD--1890)
crush Ghost Dance (revival of traditions)Indian landholding declines
whites cheat Indians into selling landSchools demoralize children
not accepted by either Indians or whitesCurtis Act, 1898
Abolished Indian Territory in OklahomaOpens up to settlers/Land rush
© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. 14
The celebrated artist Frederic Remington (1861–1909) produced this sketch of Oglala Sioux at the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota. SOURCE: Oglala Sioux performing the Ghost Dance at the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, South Dakota. Illustration by Frederic Remington, 1890. The Granger Collection.
Society of American Indians (SAI)Indians debate different tactics to address prejudice Middle-class Indians form SAI
(1911)Help fellow Indians and challenge
stereotypesCollapses (1920s) because of insufficient funds, white prejudice, & weak Indian unityTribal fragmentation divides
Indians
20th Century PoliciesIndian Citizenship Act, 1924
Confers American citizenship on IndiansIndian Reorganization Act, 1934
AKA “Indian New Deal”FDR & Collier reverse Indian policy
Restore Indian lands to tribal ownershipGrant tribes some political autonomy
Termination Policy, 1954-1964Terminates tribal status of 109 tribes (13,263
Indians lose tribal affiliationLose access to health care, education, etc
As the commissioner of Indian affairs, John Collier right reversed long-standing U.S. policy, insisting that “the cultural history of Indians is in all respects to be considered equal to that of any non-Indian group.”
Wide World Photos, Inc.
John Collier, with Hopi Leaders Loma Haftowa and Chaf Towa
Red PowerPan-Indian activist movementAmerican Indian Movement (AIM)
Reject assimilationOccupation of Alcatraz Island, 1969-
1971American Indian Movement (1973)
seize hostages at Wounded Knee, SDIndian Self-Determination and
Education Assistance Act, 1975Gave federally recognized tribes control
over how money spentNative American Languages Act,
1990
Ralph Crane, Life magazine © Time, Inc.
"Red Power" Movement on Alcatraz, 1969
Calling their movement “Red Power,” these American Indian activists dance in 1969 while “reclaiming” Alcatraz Island in San Francisco Bay. Arguing that an 1868 Sioux treaty entitled them to possession of unused federal lands, the group occupied the island until mid-1971.
Poverty: poorest ethnic group in US, highest unemployment rate; malnutrition
Health: high rates of alcoholism (4x), tuberculosis(3x), diabetes(2x), suicide(3x) compared to rest of nation
Education: 50% high school drop-out rate on average
GamingBingo on reservations since 1970s; casinos since
1980Semi-sovereign status means must enter into
agreements with statesHas helped raise standard of living for some tribes;
caused additional problems for others
Native American Issues Today