Week 5 Social Learning Perspectives Information/Cognitive Processing Perspectives

Week 5Social Learning

Perspectives Information/Cognitive Processing Perspectives

(1960s-Present and 1950s-1970s)Morrow, L. M., & Tracey, D. H. (2006). Lenses on Reading: An Introduction to

Theories and Models. New York, N.Y.: The Guilford Press.Content in this section cited from Lenses on Reading unless

otherwise noted

Benedictine University

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BALANCING ASSESSMENTS

Balancing Assessments involves: Reading Processes and Reading Products Reading Skills and Strategies and Student Use of Understanding Basic Skills and Strategies with Higher-Order Thinking Single-Text Reading with Reading from Multiple Sources Cognitive and Affective Reading Outcomes and Reader

Characteristics Formative Assessment with Summative Assessment Assessment That is Done To or For Students with Assessment

that is Done With and By Students In-School and Out-Of-School Literacy Practices Demands for Teacher/School Accountability with Professional

Development Opportunities to Develop Expertise

Benedictine University 3

SOCIAL LEARNING PERSPECTIVES

(1960S-PRESENT)

Chapter 6 Tracey and Morrow

Morrow, L. M., & Tracey, D. H. (2006). Lenses on Reading: An Introduction to Theories and Models. New York, N.Y.: The Guilford Press.

Content in this section directly cited from Lenses on Reading unless otherwise noted


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Social Learning Perspectives

(1960s-Present) The social learning perspective

incorporates several different theories All of which emphasize the central role of

social interaction in the development of knowledge and learning

When applied to the field of reading The social learning perspective emphasizes the

importance of social influences and social interaction on literacy learning

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Social Learning Perspectives

(1960s-Present)


Social learning perspective includes: Sociolinguistic Theory Socio-Cultural Theory Social Constructivism/Socio-Historical Theory Social Learning Theory/Social Cognitive

Theory Critical Literacy Theory

Benedictine University6

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Sociolinguistic Theory The first application of the social perspective to the field of reading

emerged in the 1970s with the Sociolinguistic Theory From this perspective, reading is viewed as both a social and a linguistic

process This theory is rooted in the fields of anthropology, linguistics, and

literary analysis Anthropology suggests that reading and writing can be viewed as cultural

events Linguistics suggests that language differences between social classes are

related to differences in all language practices, including reading and writing It also suggests that the ability to read is related to social function That individuals learn to read as a means to accomplish personal goals related

to basic life functioning Literary Analysis adds the understanding that during the reading

process, meaning is constructed by, and located in, the reader



8 These theorists believe that oral language is

the foundation upon which children’s reading and writing achievement is built

As such, oral language knowledge provides children with an intuitive understanding of the structure of language (i.e. syntax) that helps them: Predict texts and Read fluently at a later age

Oral language is also the foundation for vocabulary learning that later helps children comprehend the words and messages that they read

Sociolinguistic Theory


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Sociolinguistic TheoryThe At-Risk Student

Often pre-school children from at-risk communities do not: Acquire the high-quality oral language foundations Familiarity with Standard English syntax, or The same vocabulary levels, that children from more

affluent communities acquire


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The “Study” Shirley Brice Heath’s study in the field of reading

focused on: The daily oral and written literacy practices of 3

different communities in the southeastern United States in the 1970s that differed strikingly in their: Patterns of language use and in the paths of language

socialization of their children She gave these communities the pseudonyms of:

Maintown: Mainstream, middle-class, school-oriented culture

Roadville: White, working-class community from four generations of working in the life of the textile mill

Trackton: Black mill community of recent rural origin

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Maintown Treatment and The Results!


MAINTOWN

Children were socialized to books at ages as young as 6 months

Students learned to listen to stories, look at illustrations, and answer questions of many types about story content through repeated interactions hundreds of times per year

Heath determined that these patterns of interaction closely paralleled the book-oriented interactions to which children would be exposed once they entered school.

Parents interacted with their children with patterns of language and socialization labeled as “Mainstream”

These children were more prepared for school-based literacy learning!

AS A RESULT

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Roadville Treatment and The

Results!


ROADVILLE

Early literacy focused on more isolated element of storybook reading such as letter and number identification and item labeling

Adults were likely to simplify complex story texts by paraphrasing stories in easier language for their children

Parent-Child conversations rarely included high-level questions by parents that demanded critical thinking or extensive language use by their children

Children did well in literacy learning in the lower grades but had greater and greater difficulty in the upper grades then their schoolwork demanded higher levels of critical thinking that they had not developed in their early years at home

AS A RESULT

C

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Trackton Treatment and The

Results!


TRACKTON

Children’s primary form of socialization to literacy was oral rather than print

Children were more likely to hear their parents tell them oral stories than they were to listen to stories in books read to them by their parents

Children were encouraged to develop their own oral, storytelling skills rather than to learn to read text-based materials

Bedtime stories were not a cornerstone of children’s early literacy development as they were in the Maintown and Roadville communities

Parents interacted with their children with patterns of language and socialization labeled as “Mainstream”

Children were less familiar with and less prepared for the demands of school-based literacy learning!

This led to greater school-based literacy learning difficulties for these children

AS A RESULT


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In The Classroom


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Socio-Cultural Theory

Socio-Cultural Theory emphasizes the roles of social, cultural, and historical factors in the human experience

Woolfolk states that in this theoretical perspective: “Knowledge is constructed based on social interactions and experience”

This theory is similar to Sociolinguistic Theory because both emphasize the social aspect of learning However, the Sociolinguistic Theory focuses more on the

language aspects of these interactions Socio-Cultural Theory focuses more on the broader

concept of culture, which includes, but is not limited to, language This perspective has its roots in the work of Bronfenner (1979) According to Bronfenner (1979), three spheres of influence affect

human development: the microsystem, the mesosystem, and the exosystem Benedictine

University

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Bronfenner’s Ecological Model of Human

Development



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Socio-Cultural TheoryAu’s Work Au (1997) appears to have built on

Bronfenbrenner's (1979) Ecological Model, adapting the general concept of an exosystem to that of culture at large

According to Au (1997), Socio-Cultural Theory emphasizes the idea that "the human experience is mediated by culture" (p. 183)

Au writes that culture can be viewed both as a factor that is stable and persists over a long period of time, and as a factor that is unstable and constantly evolving and changing


19 For example, we can consider all of the 20th

century as a single cultural experience, defined by such inventions as the automobile, the television, the computer, and space travel

However, if we viewed the 20th century as a factor that was ever evolving and changing, the culture of the 1920s would be regarded as drastically different from that of the 1940s, 1950s, or 1960s

As Au (1997) explains: "In one view, culture is seen as a relatively stable,

integrated whole encompassing a people's knowledge, beliefs, and ways of life. In the other view, culture is seen as an active process of change, growth, and development" (p. 182)

In the socio-cultural perspective: Culture is viewed as tremendously important in

affecting children's literacy development

Socio-Cultural TheoryAu’s Work


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In addition to emphasizing the cultural influences of learning, Socio-Cultural Theory emphasizes the social nature of learning

Au (1997) writes: "Socio-cultural research on school literacy learning

attempts to explore the links among historical conditions, current social and institutional contexts, inter-psychological functioning [that which takes place between people], and intra-psychological functioning [that which takes place within the individual]"



21Au makes a very interesting statement

below: School literacy learning is seen as a social process,

affected not only by present but historical circumstances

Learning to read cannot logically be separated from the particular milieu in which it takes place (p. 184)

When children learn to read, or fail to learn to read, they do so in a particular social, cultural, and historical environment (p. 184)

Their success or failure in reading cannot be understood apart from that environment (p. 184)



22 Moll’s work is socio-cultural because it

emphasizes the central role of social influence on literacy learning

Moll (1992, 1994) writes about the application of Socio-Cultural Theory to the literacy learning of marginalized students, especially those from Hispanic backgrounds

Moll asserts that mainstream classrooms are not typically designed in ways that allow Hispanic children to showcase their "funds of knowledge," that is, the sources of knowledge that are central to their homes and communities



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As a result, Hispanic children are often perceived as coming from homes with limited intellectual capital and possessing limited intellectual capability

This perspective has been called a "deficit" perspective

Instead, Moll argues that teachers must begin to value children's funds of knowledge, bringing them into the classroom and using them as vehicles for literacy learning



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Socio-Cultural Theory -

In The Classroom The use of literature circles in the classroom is an

instructional practice that is deeply grounded in the social learning perspective, and one that can be viewed as reflective of Socio-Cultural Theory (For specific lesson plan information refer to pages 117-119)

The concept was developed by educators who believed that students would benefit from: Talking to each other about books, but who also believed that

students’ conversations needed to be structured in a way that would help them stay on task

This is consistent with the theory because students will learn from each other (social component) and the concept emphasizes the importance of students bringing knowledge and artifacts from their own lives (their culture) into discussions


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Social ConstructivismVygotsky’s Influence

Lev Semionovich Vygotsky, a Russian scholar, was one of the earliest and most famous theorists from the social learning perspective

Although Vygotsky's theory is literally entitled the "Socio-Historical Theory of Cognitive Development” (Dixon-Krauss, 1996), it is commonly referred to as "Social Constructivism"

Vygotsky's professional life spanned only 10 years, but during that time he wrote more than 180 works (Dixon-Krauss, 1996)

Vygotsky's work is extremely prominent and influential in the fields of psychology and education



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Vygotsky’s Key Ideas A key idea in Vygotsky's work is the belief that children

learn as a result of social interactions with others A child’s development depends on sign systems that they

grow up with “Semiotic Mediation” is the process of using the signs

systems Zone of Proximal Development refers to the ideal

level of task difficulty to facilitate learning which is the level at which a child can be successful with appropriate support

Scaffolding refers to the assistance that adults and more competent peers provide during learning episodes


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Vygotsky’s “Semiotic Mediation”

Vygotsky’s second key idea is that development depends on the sign systems with which individuals grow up Sign systems include a culture's language, writing, and counting systems

Vygotsky argued that children's learning is most affected by their mastery of language, as evidenced by their mastery of sign systems such as the alphabet, words, listening, speaking, and writing

Vygotsky postulated that it is through the use and manipulation of these signs that children have the tools to think about and respond to the world

He called the process of using these signs systems "semiotic mediation"

He further argued that children learn the most about language and corresponding sign systems from the people around them with whom they interact

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Zone of Proximal Development


The Zone of Proximal Development is an extremely influential concept within Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism The zone of proximal development emphasizes

that the ideal level of task difficulty to facilitate learning is the level at which a child can be successful with appropriate support

In Vygotsky’s view, tasks that children can independently complete do not fall within the zone of proximal development and therefore, are not ideal for promoting children's development


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Scaffolding Scaffolding refers to the assistance that adults

and more competent peers provide during learning episodes

This support can take the form of "clues, reminders, encouragement, breaking down the problem into steps, providing an example, or anything else that allows the student to grow in independence as a learner"(Slavin, 1997, p. 48)

This approach to learning focuses on how children learn primarily during experiences within the zone of proximal development as a result of others' scaffolding


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Social Constructivism

In The Classroom Cross Age and Buddy Reading are

consistent with the Social Constructivism theoretical perspective because the practices are built on the premise that children will scaffold each other’s learning during shared reading experiences

“Partner reading” refers to pairing students from within the same class to read together, while “buddy reading” refers to pairing students from different grade classrooms to read together

The research on both forms of paired reading is positive


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Social Learning Theory/

Social Cognitive Theory

Albert Bandura (1969, 1977, 1986, 1997), a Canadian psychologist, developed another theory within the social learning perspective

Originally called "Social Learning Theory," but recently renamed "Social Cognitive Theory," this general theory of human behavior combines features of Behaviorism with those of social learning

Bandura's primary premise in creating Social Learning Theory was that a behavioral explanation of learning (see Chapter 2) did not take into account the phenomenon of vicarious learning, the notion that people learn from observing others

In fact, Bandura argued that people learn more from observing others than they do from the consequences of experiencing things themselves.


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Social Learning Theory/Social Cognitive Theory Bandura suggested that it is fortunate that

humans are capable of observational learning Without it we would all have to experience

everything ourselves in order to learn Instead, we learn by observing others: their

successes, failures, efforts, and styles In Social Cognitive Theory the people from

whom we learn are called "models" Similarly, "modeling," is the action performed by

the model


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Social Learning Theory/Social Cognitive Theory Bandura writes that there are four stages to

observational learning (Slavin, 1997) The first stage is the attentional phase during

which the observer watches the model The second stage is the retention phase in which

the observer thinks about and processes what he or she has observed

The third stage of observational learning is the reproduction phase In this phase the observer repeats the behavior that has

been modeled The fourth stage is the reinforcement phase

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Social Learning Theory/Social Cognitive Theory


Bandura suggests that observers are often reinforced as they repeat modeled behaviors

For example, as children begin to learn to say "please" and "thank you" as a result of adults around them modeling these conversational courtesies, adults often reinforce them for the acquisition of these manners


CRITICAL LITERACY THEORY

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Critical Literacy Theory Work that uses a political lens to examine

literacy education falls under the umbrella of “Critical Literacy Theory”

Critical Literacy Theory considers the political aspects of literacy education in two ways: Ways in which schooling reinforces persistent

inequalities in contemporary society Opportunities that exist within education to

empower individuals to overcome such social oppression


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Critical Literacy Theory This theory challenges the traditional

belief that education is a politically neutral process designed to promote the individual development of all children

According to Siegel and Fernandez (2000): “The image of schooling as an opportunity

for social mobility based on merit is replaced, in critical thought, by one that shows how schools reproduce the unequal distribution of wealth and power that is the hallmark of capitalist societies, and in so doing contributes to the maintenance of the status quo” (p.141)


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Critical Literacy Theory Friere (1970), author of Pedagogy of the

Oppressed, is a key figure in the development of Critical Literacy Theory

Friere’s work presented illiteracy not as a personal failing, but “as a historically constructed product of a society structured to produce inequality” (Siegel & Fernandez, 2000, p. 146)

According to Bloome and Talwalker (1997), studies move into the realm of Critical Literacy Theory when they begin to examine the concept of power in relation to literacy learning

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Critical Literacy Theory


Bloome and Talwalker note that the theory seeks to examine “how reading and writing instruction might help students acquire a critical perspective on how written language is used to promote a particular cultural ideology and how it may inhibit the growth and maintenance of minority languages and cultures” (p.109)

Gee (1990), writes that educators must investigate the ways in which literacy education has been used to “solidify the social hierarchy, empower elites and ensure that people lower on the hierarchy accept the values, norms, and beliefs of the elites, even when it is not in their interest to do so” (cited in Siegel &Fernandez, 2000, p. 142)

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SOCIAL LEARNING PERSPECTIVE How Is It Utilized In The Classroom? The social learning perspective is

extremely popular among reading educators!

Many current classroom practices in literacy instruction are built upon the constructs of social learning

These educational practices emphasize the social nature of learning, that is, the idea that both adults and children learn effectively from the other people in their world Benedictine

University


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Social Learning Perspective

Apply It In Your Classroom!

Activities that can be implemented in the classroom are:

Documents

Week 5 Social Learning Perspectives Information/Cognitive Processing Perspectives