Welcome to Flinders University and MLL Project

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Research findings demonstrate that the experiences that enable a child to acquire a language and then to become literate in it follow a predictable developmental pathway. This pathway can therefore be used to plan a languages curriculum whether it is for learning a first, or subsequent language (Doughty & Long, 2003; Griffin, 2009; Petitto, 2009).

In general, second language teaching methodologies assume literacy in the first language. In the primary years, children are developing literacy in their first language and this necessarily requires consideration when planning for second language learning. Some aspects of literacy learning can be readily transferred, for example handwriting in alphabetic languages, while differences such as in the phonemes of a language may need a more carefully scaffolded approach (Kern, 2000).

The CUP theory states that skills learned in one language have common components that cross over to later learned languages (Leafstedt, 2005).

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Literacy is uniquely a schooled thing, and very different to oral language. It is not simply oral language transcribed…

(Cope and Kalantzis 2000, p.144.)

Literacy in a second language develops as in the first – globally, not linearly, and in a variety of rich contexts.

(Rigg and Allen in Gibbons 2002, p.77)

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Foreign language departments must learn to play a crucial role in enhancing students’ literacy, students’ ability to interpret and produce texts, orally and in writing, in a fashion that shows a rich awareness of the relation among the sociocultural contexts of use, meaning, and significance

(Byrnes H 1998, p. 283)

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Kern R 2000, p38© Nielsen, 2007

The Language Constraint: writing systems encode spoken language, not meaning

Research on logographic systems (Chinese, Japanese Kanji) has established that when a reader encounters printed words, he or she understands their meaning within the context of the language, not as signs that derive their meaning independently

(Perfetti, 2003; Perfetti et al., 2005)

The Universal Phonological Principle: that word reading activates phonology at the most basic level of language allowed by the

writing system; phoneme, syllable, morpheme, or word (Tan & Parfetti, 1998; Parfetti et al., 2005)

The Common Underlying Proficiencies Theory:That knowledge about reading in L1 is an available resource for assisting in L2 reading

acquisition (Cummins, 1996)

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The great variety of writing at the script level presents a problem for learning that may be relatively easily overcome. However, the fundamental principles

of the writing system and the details of the orthography present deeper challenges for the learner, while the universal role of phonology in reading

provides a common groundingPerfetti & Dunlap, 2008, p 34

Transparent alphabetic systems apply a small-grain mapping (GPC) Syllabaries, which map graphic units to spoken syllables, apply a larger-

grain mapping (kana – katakana and hiragana) Logographic systems, which map graphs to morphemes and words, apply a

large-grain mapping (kanji) Sub-lexical and lexical strategies

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Phonological decoding is a critical competence in word learning

Languages differ in the method of representing phonological information in the writing system (orthography – spelling, morphemes)

Phonological decoding skills, developed through L1 print experience, transfer across languages

Transferred L1 decoding skills necessitate varying degrees of adjustment to be functional in a new language

Transferred skills continue to evolve through L2 print processing experience and the resulting L2 decoding competence reflects both L1 and L2 orthographic properties

Koda & Hamada, 2008

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The brain has very few neural connections at birth – basic structures determined by DNA (gap connector cells)

We are born with the basic neural circuitry to help us learn language

An infant’s brain is capable of distinguishing the full range of phonemes that comprise all languages of the world (approx. 150) but only those that are repeatedly heard will persist

At or about 5 years of age synaptic pruning occurs – unnecessary connections die off in favor of strengthening the important ones

Reading is not hardwired into our genes the way language is

New neural pathways and substrates are formed and modified as learning takes place – as a result of environmental stimuli (epigenetics)

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Studies of functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) have identified three main areas of neuronal activation when reading is occurring across languages, all located in the left hemisphere of the brain: Broca’s area (articualtion and word analysis), the parieto-temporal region (sophisticated word analysis – phoneme sequencing, morphological analysis) and the occipito-temporal region (visual processing in fluent reading).

Sousa, 2006 © Nielsen, 2010

Beginning and Fluent Readers

Emergent readers use an area of the right brain associated with visual images (see names and signs)

Beginning readers map the written symbols to the sounds of words

Once the visual cortex (occipito-temporal region) records the word the word analysis areas are activated (Broca’s and parieto-temporal regions). These two regions work together to analyse the word’s constituent phonemes and pronunciation

Once this information integration is achieved the word will activate the mental lexicon for meaning. If the word is not recognised by the learner’s mental lexicon, the process must be repeated (delay)

Automaticity in recognition aids fluency (o-t region straight to mental lexicon) Konza, 2007

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Konza, 2007 © Nielsen, 2010

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The brain is plastic: it can be changed by experience Learning is mediated by biology: a process of neurobiological

development Most synapses develop after birth in response to environmental

stimuli: through experience-expectant and experience-dependent development

The process by which environmental stimuli affect synaptic growth and character is called epigenetics: a change not in the code but in the expression of certain genes (Genes still rate limiting factor)

The historical dichotomy between ‘nature’ and ‘nurture’ is oversimplified – genes and experience are mechanistically intertwined

Black, 2003; Bruer and Greenough, 2001; Sweatt, 2009; Thompson, 2001

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The Australian Curriculum

Hours per week by subject and year level

K-2 3-6 7 8-10

English 7hrs 6hrs 4hrs 4hrs

Maths 5hrs 5hrs 4hrs 4hrs

Science 1hr 2hrs 3hrs 4hrs

History 1/2hr 1hr 2hrs 2hrs

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The Strands in the English Curriculum

Language: Knowing about the English language: a coherent, dynamic, and evolving body of knowledge about the English language and how it works.

Literature: Understanding, appreciating, responding to, analysing and creating literature: an enjoyment in, and informed appreciation of, how English language can convey information and emotion, create imaginative worlds and aesthetic and other significant experiences.

Literacy: Growing a repertoire of English usage; the ability to understand and produce the English language accurately, fluently, creatively, critically, confidently, and effectively in a range of modes, and digital and print settings, in texts designed for a range of purposes and audiences.

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A baby is born with the ability to reproduce 150 sounds . . . so how does a baby learn their mother tongue?

LANGUAGE: A DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVE

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Natural Acquisition of Language(s) The use of “motherese” Learners are rarely corrected Language is not presented step by step The learners are surrounded by the language for many

hours each day The learners usually encounter a number of people who

are proficient in the language Learners observe or participate in many different types

of language events Learners must often use their limited . . . language ability

to respond to questions or get information Modified input is available in many one-to-one

conversations Lightbown and Spada 1999. How Languages are Learned. Oxford, Oxford University Press, p93-94

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