Western Civilization IHIS-101

Unit 3 - Archaic and Early Classical Greece (1150-400 BCE)

Greek Dark Age (c. 1150-800 BCE) After the fall of the Mycenaean kingdoms, Greece

went into a period known as the Greek “Dark Ages” It lasted roughly from 1150-800 BCE

This was a period of characterized by: Instability due to the effects of the Sea People not only

in Greece but in the entire eastern Mediterranean Failing food supplies Large migrations both within Greece and out of it

The population of Greek declined by up to 90% during this period

Many moved to Asia Minor and islands in the Aegean Sea Those who remained in Greece moved inland as it was safer

to be away from the coast

Greek Dark Age (c. 1150-800 BCE) The Greek religion began to reflect new

attitudes The gods were no longer viewed in positive light with

the same faults as humans They were considered to be moody and petty and liked to

interfere in the lives of humans To the Greeks, the gods were to be humored and

placated but never trusted By 1000 BCE, other groups from around the

Near East began to increase their contact with the Greeks Greek pottery was in huge demand so trade was

opened up with them

Greek Dark Age (c. 1150-800 BCE) One of the first groups that the Greeks came into

contact with was the Phoenicians The Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet and

modified it to fit their language better They also adopted the Phoenician boat designs for

merchant sea vessels As their economy grew so did their movement

throughout the region Many traveled between the mainland, the islands,

and Asia Minor, coming into greater contact with other Greeks

There was also migration into the cities By 800 BCE, the “Dark Age” ended

Greece c. 750 BCE

Archaic Greece (800-480 BCE) Greek civilization flourished during this period Life centered around the polis as the main institution

The Polis (pl. poleis) is a small but autonomous political unit

It centered on a city or town and its surrounding countryside

All major political, social, and religious activities were held in one central location

The actual origins of the polis started with synoecism This is the process of conquering and absorbing, and/or working

together with neighboring communities Not all poleis were the same

They varied in size and population Each polis also had its own patron deity Rivalries and animosity between poleis would eventually

lead to the ruin of Greece

Archaic Greece (800-480 BCE) Greek colonization began during the 8th and 7th

centuries BCE By the 6th century Greek colonization spread from the

Black Sea to the western Mediterranean What were the reasons behind Greek colonization?

Overpopulation Shortage of land Establishment of trade routes

Impacts Colonization also helped spread Greek culture There was also the creation of a new group of wealthy

elites They acquired their wealth through trade They wanted political privileges proportionate to their wealth

Homer (c. 8th c. BCE)

The Heroic Tradition In Archaic Greece, wealth as well as trade became

important in Greek society A small group of aristocrats (aristoi) began to emerge

They saw their wealth as proof of their superiority But wealth was not the only thing the aristocracy

strived for Rise of the “heroic tradition”

They needed to be “heroes” as well: they needed to win battles, travel to distant lands, be courageous, strong, and wise

Overall, they must be favored by the gods This was best illustrated in the works of Homer (8th

century BCE)

The Heroic Tradition His two main works were the Iliad and the

Odyssey Writing in the 8th century BCE but were about events

that occurred during the Mycenaean period They reflect social conditions of 8th century BCE Both stories illustrate courage, acts of bravery, and

battles; the foundations of the Heroic Tradition These stories may have originated as oral traditions

Homer’s poems were treated as historical facts They were used as educational texts on how to be a

proper aristocrat

Hoplites

Rise of the Hoplites During the Dark Age, fighting occurred on

horseback amongst aristocrat-warriors As the dominant military force, they were able to

hold political and social power During the 7th century BCE, a new military

order emerged: hoplite warrior Heavily armed infantrymen Wore basic equipment: helmets, breastplates, and

greaves They carried a round shield, a short sword, and an

8-10 foot long thrusting spear To become a hoplite, all you had to do was provide

your own armor

Rise of the Hoplites New battle formation: phalanx

Stand shoulder to shoulder in tight formation, eight ranks deep

They would carry their large shields to protect the man next to him and a large spear

As long as they did not break their formation or were outflanked they were nearly unbeatable

Origins of hoplite warfare Unknown but may have learned it from the Assyrians

It was quickly became a standard military tactic The aristocratic cavalry was now outdated

As a result, the aristocracy was no longer the dominant military power

Hoplites began demanding political power

The Greek Symposium

Archaic Greek Society Society was based not only on wealth but status

King was at the top Warrior-aristocracy dominated the poleis in both

wealth and political power Everybody else was at the bottom

Roles of men and women reflected the heroic tradition Men were to be the heroes Women helped their men live up to their roles

The aristocrats developed a very distinct culture and lifestyle Holding office in the polis The symposium Pederasty

The erastes (lover) fondling the genitals of the eromenos (beloved)

Rise of Greek Tyranny Not all aristocrats enjoyed power

Small oligarchies controlled the politics in the cities Others were left feeling alienated

Some aristocrats turned to hoplites as allies Both groups felt excluded from politics With military backing, these aristocrats could now

take power through force Rise of Tyranny (7th century BCE)

Old oligarchies were overthrown via coup d'état Those who took control became known tyrants

Lydian term tyrannos - someone who seized power illegally

They gave the hoplites legal and economic rights and even in some cases political rights

Rise of Greek Tyranny The term “tyrant” did not originally have a

negative connotation Because they had taken power illegally, they had

to “justify” their rule Their heirs were corrupt and tended to be cruel

and unjust rulers By the end of the 6th century, tyranny was largely

eliminated in Greece It did have a number of long lasting effects:

Ended the rule of aristocratic oligarchies Opened the door for greater participation in

government Led to the rise of democracy in some poleis and

extended oligarchies in others

The Greek World

The Archaic Poleis During the Archaic period, the various Greek

poleis developed in unique and very different ways

The diversity is seen in three different Greek poleis: Athens, Sparta, and Miletus None of these should be seen as “typical” because

of the level of diversity These are the three most documented poleis and

historians know little about many of the others By 500 BCE, they all developed into powerful

yet unique entities

Vessel from Archaic Period Athens

Archaic Athens Governed by aristocratic oligarchy Two main bodies

Archons – Magistrates Areopagus Council – High Court

7th century BCE problems Rise of debt-slavery Increasing violence among rival aristocratic groups

First coup d’etat attempt was in 632 BCE Cylon tried to seize control over Athens The Athenians revolted against him Cylon managed to flee the city but his followers

were executed

Archaic Athens The aristocracy need to stabilize the rivalries

between themselves They thought clarifying the old laws and put them in

writing would help In 621 BCE, Draco was selected to write the laws

“Draconian” punishments Used harsh punishments by the state to stop rivalries Failed to do so

Calls were made for a neutral figure to run the government This was to prevent an attempted coup d'état and/or

civil war

Archaic Athens In 594 BCE, the aristocracy selected Solon to

be sole archon of Athens for one year He brought about sweeping economic reforms

Cancelled all land debts Outlawed debt slavery and bought the freedom for

those already put into slavery Encouraged the cultivation of cash-crops (e.g.,

grapes and olives) He made sweeping political reforms

Divided up the citizen population into four classes Every male citizen, except those in the poorest

class, could now hold political office Even the poorest class were eligible to vote

Archaic Athens He put more control into the hands of the

people The Ecclesia now had the right to elect archons The Heliaia was created where all four classes

could sit in as jurors and heard However, he did not fix the main problems

He did not redistribute the land The aristocracy viewed his reforms as being too

radical The poorer classes believed that Solon had not

done enough For the next forty years, internal conflicts

worsened

Solon (594-593 BCE)

Archaic Athens In 546 BCE, Peisistratus succeeded in seizing

power through a coup d’etat He had to justify his illegal takeover

Public works projects that included the beautification of Athens

He opened up the Black Sea to Athenian traders and merchants

Strengthened the demos using Solon’s reforms Aristotle wrote that his government appeared “more

like constitutional government than a tyranny” He remained in power until his death in 527 BCE

Archaic Athens Hippias (527-510 BCE)

Was Peisistratus’ son and supposedly co-ruled with his brother Hipparchus

First half of his reign was good He was a patron of the arts and he instituted many

building projects It all changed in 514 BCE

Hipparchus was murdered by Harmodius and Aristogeiton (“Tyrannicides”)

Hippias then became a cruel and unjust ruler Athens sought the aid of Sparta to overthrow

Hippias Hippias fled to Persia

Harmodius and Aristogeiton The

“Tyrannicides”

Archaic Athens The aristocrats hoped to control Athens with an

oligarchy However, the people of Athens like having political rights

In 508 BCE, the Athenian people revolted and put Cleisthenes in as archon Championed the cause of the demos His main goal was to limit aristocratic power He reorganized the government based on location

(deme) instead of family or clan ties Reformed voting practices Reorganized the population into ten tribes Introduced ostracism to banish political rivals for ten

years Based on ostraka, a type of potsherd

Examples of ostraka

Archaic Sparta Sparta was located at the southern end of the

Peloponnesus peninsula It originally consisted of four villages that

merged into one polis Its government consisted of:

Two kings A strong council (gerousia) An assembly (apella)

It grew in size by conquering neighboring poleis By 750 BCE, conquered Laconia By 720 BCE, conquered Messenia Population was enslaved (helots)

Archaic Sparta The Spartan military state had its origins in the 7th

century BCE In 650 BCE, the helots in Messenia revolted and almost

won Because of this, the Spartans created a military state to

protect itself Sparta became literally a perpetual military camp

Examination of child at birth At age 7, boys would be moved to the state-run barracks At 20, were required to join the army for regular military

duty From 20 to 30, they were required to marry but they

continued to live in the barracks At 30, the men were considered “mature” They remained in military service until they were 60

Archaic Sparta Women were not exempt from duty

Girls would remain at home and receive training in letters until they were married

Women were encouraged to exercise and stay in shape in order to have healthy babies

They were expected to be brave and run the household while their husbands and sons went off to war

Three social classes: Spartitates – Full Spartan citizens and ruling class Perioeci – Free but did not have citizen rights Helots – These were the people who were forced to

work the land

Archaic Sparta Spartan political structure

Two kings – Military and religious leaders Gerousia - Council of 28 men over the age of 60

who were responsible for most of the policy making Apella - Assembly of all the Spartan male citizens

over the age of 30 who voted on proposals from the gerousia

Other important bodies: Ephors - Highest-ranking Spartan magistrates Krypteia – A secret police force that lived among the

helots and were ordered to kill anyone deemed dangerous

Archaic Sparta Close-minded society

Were forbidden from participating in outside trade Discouraged foreigners from visiting Sparta Discourage Spartans from traveling Were not allowed to come into contact with an

persons or material that was “dangerous” Greater control of the Peloponnesus

In 6th century BCE, the Spartans organized the Peloponnesian League

It was a loose alliance of poleis on the peninsula It was also created to prevent the helots from

getting outside aid for their revolts

Miletus

Archaic Miletus Miletus was the largest commercial, military, and

cultural power in Ionia Blend of Greek and Near Eastern cultures

Heroes of Greek epics possibly based on Near Eastern models

Milesian politics It joined the Ionian League in 800 BCE Its government was an aristocratic oligarchy In 687 BCE, Miletus fell under the control of tyrants It began to expand its territory with the creation of colonies

Ionia was conquered by Lydia c. 560 BCE Then in 546 BCE, Ionia became a Persian satrapy

when Croesus was defeated by the Cyrus and Persians

Archaic Miletus Miletus’ biggest contribution was the

development of pre-Socratic philosophy “Milesian School of Thought” They were mostly interested in physics They wanted to remove myth from their

understanding of nature, the kosmos Anaximenes - (c.585 BCE – c.525 BCE)

Air was the source of all things found in nature As air becomes more dense, it transforms into fire,

then wind, then water, the earth, then stones Thales – (c.624 BCE–c.546 BCE)

He saw water was the “primary principle”—it was the basis for everything

Archaic Miletus Anaximander – (c.610-c.547 BCE)

He believed that the world came from an invisible substance called the apeiron (“Boundless”) which was the origin of everything (“the first principle”)

From there, it was separated into different qualities, the primary opposites: hot and cold, moist and dry

Created a struggle between religion and philosophy

School of thought ended with the Persian conquest Many moved to other Greek colonies The discussions were later picked up by the

Athenians

Thales of Miletus (c.624–545 BCE)

End of the Archaic Age (c.500 BCE) Athens:

An economic power as the principle exporter of wine, olive oils, and pottery in Greece

Developed a new form of government that was more democratic and participatory

Sparta: A powerful, highly-organized military state Loss of freedom for both the helots and the

Spartans Miletus

A powerful economic and political state Blending of Greek and non-Greek cultures Development of the first schools of philosophy

Greek hoplite fighting Persian warrior (c. 5th century BCE)

Ionian Revolt (499-494 BCE) Persian Wars mark the end of the Archaic Period Ionian Revolt (499-494 BCE)

Ionia did not like being a Persian satrapy Started by Aristagoras, tyrant of Miletus He rallied the support of the people against Persian rule

Calls were made to the other Greeks states for help Sparta refused to help Athens sent 20 ships to help the Ionians They helped capture and sack Sardis, the capital of Lydia After that, the Athenians left the Ionians on their own

The Ionians were able to hold their own until 494 BCE Persian fleet defeated the Ionians at the Battle of Lade

Greco-Persian Wars (492-449 BCE)

Greco-Persian Wars (492-449 BCE) Darius already wanted to attack Greek mainland

Athens’ participation in Ionian Revolt gave him the excuse In 492 BCE, Darius sent the fleet to attack Athens

directly That fleet was lost in a storm and that plan was abandoned

In 490 BCE, he sent ground forces to attack The Persian forces met the Athenians on the plain of

Marathon Battle of Marathon (490 BCE)

Athenians were outnumbered 11,000 to the Persian 25,000 Sparta showed up late for the battle Mobile and ranged Persian army versus hoplite, infantry

Greeks Greeks attacked while Persian horses being watered Persians lost over 6,000 while the Athenians only lost 192

Greco-Persian Wars (492-449 BCE) Pheidippides died after running 25 miles to Athens

to give the city news of victory Marathon was the only major defeat during Darius’

reign He had planned a third attempt at Greece Attention was diverted to uprisings in Egypt He died before he was able to mount another attack

Building of the Athenian navy Themistocles knew Persia was coming back Pushed to build a better, faster navy By 480 BCE, had a fleet of 200 triremes and new port

facilities Athens now had a navy to go alongside their

hoplite forces

Model of a Greek trireme

Xerxes (486-465 BCE)

Greco-Persian Wars (492-449 BCE) Xerxes (486-465 BCE)

He was the son of Darius He wanted to attack Greece as well In 483 BCE, he began preparations for a massive

invasion The actual invasion began in 480 BCE

He had amassed 200,000 troops and 700 naval ships Plenty of supplies either on ships or along the roads to

feed his armies He also had two pontoon bridges built across the

Hellespont for his troops to cross from Persia into Greece Many Greek states immediately surrendered to

Xerxes

Battle at Thermopylae

Greco-Persian Wars (492-449 BCE) Creation of the defensive Hellenic League

Sparta headed the military and Athens the Navy Battle at Thermopylae (480 BCE)

King Leonidas of Sparta met the Persian forces at the pass at Thermopylae

He had only a small force of roughly 9,000 men Held the pass for three days, killing approximately

10,000 Persians a day The Persians found a mountain path to outflank the

Greeks Leonidas sent most of his troops away to safety He stayed behind with 300 Spartans and 1,100

Boeotians to delay the Persians He succeeded for several days but his entire force

was killed

Greco-Persian Wars (492-449 BCE) Persians went on to burn down Athens The Greeks were able to regroup on Salamis

Easier to defend with the Greek navy Greeks were outnumbered but used the narrow

Straits to their advantage They were able to destroy around 200 Persian ships

Xerxes returned to Persia after this loss He left most of the army behind to finish the war

Battle of Plataea (479 BCE) Greeks had the largest Greek army seen to date The Spartans decimated the Persians What was left of the Persian forces retreated to Asia

Minor

The Delian League

Delian League With the defeat of Persia, Athens is the main Greek

power Sparta withdrew from its role in Greek affairs

Many wanted an offensive attack to free Ionia from Persian control

Delian League (478-404 BCE) Technically led by Athens It was a democratic league with each polis holding one

vote The main function of the League was to battle the Persians It held close to 300 ships, most of which were Athenian If a polis could not provide ships, it provided money

instead

Delian League By 469 BCE, all of the Greek states in the

Aegean region were freed Many wanted the dissolution of the League

First Naxos attempted to leave in 470 BCE and then Thasos in 465 BCE

Athens attacked both poleis and decimated them Walled fortifications were destroyed Their navies captured Their lands confiscated Residents were all forced to pay tribute to the

Athenians Athens took on the policy of “no succession”

The League became the Athenian empire It was also an instrument of Athenian imperialism

Pericles (461-429 BCE)

Athenian “Golden Age” Athenian economic “golden age”

Money from Delian League was used to finance building projects

This led to numerous construction jobs Not everybody was happy as lower classes wanted

a greater role in the government Strategos – A military position (“general”)

Were responsible for drafting and overseeing troops and acting as military judges

After 490 BCE, ten were elected each year Voting was done by popular elections rather than

lots Popular political path during 5th century BCE Themistocles was the first example of a strategos

using it for political power

Athenian “Golden Age” Prior to 462 BCE, the conservatives held power

under strategos Cimon Cimon led the Delian League against the Persians He also suppressed the other poleis who had tried to

succeed from the League Pericles (c.495-429 BCE)

Young, liberal aristocrat Wanted to see more changes taking place in the

government Wanted to end the aristocratic power of the

Aeropagus Council Also wanted to severe ties with Sparta to expand

Athenian power

Athenian “Golden Age” Pericles was elected strategos in 462 and 461 BCE

In 461 BCE, convinced the Ecclesia to take away the remaining powers of the Areopagus

That year, he also was able to secure the ostracism of Cimon

He then pushed through more democratic reforms He paid the poor to attend the Ecclesia Ecclesia could now propose or amend legislation Citizenship required both parents to be citizens

He was heavily involved in public building projects Acropolis started in 447 BCE Parthenon to replace the old Temple of Athena that was

destroyed in 480 BCE

The Acropolis in Athens

Great Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE)

Great Peloponnesian War Most of what we know comes from Thucydides’

History of the Peloponnesian War (424 BCE) He had been an Athenian general and politician at

the beginning of the war Rather accurate account of the war Long range cause of war: the fear the Spartans held

towards Athens and its empire Others believe the cause of the war was that

Athens had created a tyrannical empire It began when Athens got involved in the affairs

of the Peloponnesus in 433 BCE Athens helped Corcyra hold off attack by Corinth Corinth was a member of the Peloponnesian League

Great Peloponnesian War Sparta issues ultimatum to Athens in 432 BCE

Either back down with Corinth or it would be war Athens refused to back down as it was admitting

that Sparta was the dominant power in Greece Neither side had a clear advantage

Athens had good navy but poor army Sparta had good army but no navy

Athenian Plan: Stay inside the walled city of Athens The Long Walls gave a path to the port at Piraeus The navy would then raid the coast of Peloponnesus

Great Peloponnesian War Spartan Plan:

Invade Attica and lay siege to Athens Cut off the city from its supplies in the countryside Could only lay siege for a few weeks at a time

Spartans laid siege but could not break through the walls

Athenian Plague (430-428 BCE) Over 1/3 of its population was killed, including Pericles Even the Spartans temporarily retreated in fear of the

plague Spartans could not take advantaged of weakened

Athenian state Peace of Nicias was signed in 421 BCE

All lands would return to their pre-war status

Great Peloponnesian War Peace lasted for six years In 420 BCE, Alcibiades was elected strategos New plan against Sparta:

Athens invades Sicily, cutting off the Spartan supplies from Syracuse

In 415 BCE, Alcibiades was removed as strategos Fled to Sparta and informed them of Athens’ plan Told them to turn to Persia for help

In 413 BCE, Athenian forces unable to take Syracuse All of the Athenian forces were either killed or sold

into slavery

Great Peloponnesian War Athens’ domestic problems

Many politicians fled in fear of repercussions from losses

City voted out democracy and created an oligarchy of 400 men

Army refused to accept it New government-in-exile created under Alcibades

Athenian navy went on to defeat the Spartans in a number of key battles from 410-406 BCE

Sparta turned to Persia for help Persia provided money and expertise to build a navy

Starting in 407 BCE, Spartan navy starts winning Under the command of Lysander

Great Peloponnesian War In 405 BCE, Lysander destroyed the Athenian

fleet at Aegospotami Spartans then lay siege to Athens

Athens could no longer defend itself Athens surrendered in 404 BCE

The Long Walls around Athens were destroyed What was left of the navy was disbanded

Thirty Tyrants New oligarchic government set up by Sparta Executed roughly 1,500 people and over a

thousand more exiled In 403 BCE, the Athenians revolted

A new democratic government was set up

Pythagoras (c.580-c.500 BCE)

Early Classical Philosophy The Milesian School of Thought was picked up

by early Classical Greek philosophers They were more cynical and pessimistic What is the truth?

Pythagoras of Samos (c.580-c.500 BCE) Founded the Pythagorean Brotherhood that

focused on logical thinking Ignored the desires of the flesh Were pacifists and vegetarians Devoted to an ethical lifestyle, mathematics, and

musical theory

Early Classical Philosophy Sophism

Derived from sophia meaning wisdom Experts in the “science of oratory” (rhetoric) Used rhetoric as a skill to persuade others Done for political motivations or just to argue their

point of view Protagoras (c.485-c.410 BCE)

Relativism - “Man is the measure of all things: of things which are, that they are, and of things which are not, that they are not”

Making the worst case better through use of rhetoric

Was an agnostic and believed that there is no proof that the gods in fact did exist

Early Classical Philosophy Later, sophists used their skill to argue unjust cases

Anyone with enough skill could argue for anything, no matter how negative or brutal the thing was

Socrates (469 - 399 BCE) Wanted to find what was good, just, and virtuous “The unexamined life is not worth living” Unlike the sophists, he did believe in some certainties

including absolute goodness Used the “Socratic Method to find out how much

knowledge his students had and what their beliefs were Wrote nothing down Found guilty of “corrupting the youth” and executed

Socrates (469-399 BCE)