Western paradigms on learning theories:– Behaviorism– Cognitivism– Constructivism– Design-Based– Humanism

Ref: http://www.learning-theories.com/

Western paradigms on learning theories:– Behaviorism– Cognitivism– Constructivism– Design-Based– Humanism

Ref: http://www.learning-theories.com/

DAVID KOLB

• Of all the models of experiential learningthat have been developed, Kolb's hasprobably been the most influential inprompting theoretical work amongresearchers of adult learning (Jarvis,1987).

• David Kolb (1984) proposed TheExperiential Learning Cycle.

• Of all the models of experiential learningthat have been developed, Kolb's hasprobably been the most influential inprompting theoretical work amongresearchers of adult learning (Jarvis,1987).

• David Kolb (1984) proposed TheExperiential Learning Cycle.

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• Learning is the process whereby knowledge iscreated through the transformation ofexperience” (Kolb, 1984: 38).

• The theory presents a cyclical model of learning:– concrete experience (or “DO”)– reflective observation (or “OBSERVE”)– abstract conceptualization (or “THINK”)– active experimentation (or “PLAN”)

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• Learning is the process whereby knowledge iscreated through the transformation ofexperience” (Kolb, 1984: 38).

• The theory presents a cyclical model of learning:– concrete experience (or “DO”)– reflective observation (or “OBSERVE”)– abstract conceptualization (or “THINK”)– active experimentation (or “PLAN”)

• Four learning styles:– assimilators, who learn better when presented with

sound logical theories to consider– convergers, who learn better when provided with

practical applications of concepts and theories– accommodators, who learn better when provided with

“hands-on” experiences– divergers, who learn better when allowed to observe

and collect a wide range of information• Reference: http://www.learning-

theories.com/experiential-learning-kolb.html6

• Four learning styles:– assimilators, who learn better when presented with

sound logical theories to consider– convergers, who learn better when provided with

practical applications of concepts and theories– accommodators, who learn better when provided with

“hands-on” experiences– divergers, who learn better when allowed to observe

and collect a wide range of information• Reference: http://www.learning-

theories.com/experiential-learning-kolb.html

MALCOLM KNOWLES

Five assumptions on the adult learner:1.Self-Concept: As a person matures, he or

she moves from dependency to self-directness.

2.Experience: Adults draw upon theirexperiences to aid their learning.

3.Readiness: The learning readiness ofadults is closely related to the assumptionof new social roles.

Five assumptions on the adult learner:1.Self-Concept: As a person matures, he or

she moves from dependency to self-directness.

2.Experience: Adults draw upon theirexperiences to aid their learning.

3.Readiness: The learning readiness ofadults is closely related to the assumptionof new social roles.

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4. Orientation: As a person learns newknowledge, he or she wants to apply itimmediately in problem solving.

5. Motivation (Later added): As a personmatures, he or she receives theirmotivation to learn from internal factors.

4. Orientation: As a person learns newknowledge, he or she wants to apply itimmediately in problem solving.

5. Motivation (Later added): As a personmatures, he or she receives theirmotivation to learn from internal factors.

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• Malcolm Knowles is a pioneer of theart and science of andragogy, adultlearning and it can be summarizedas follows:– Changes in self-concept; adults more

independent.– Experience; more mature individuals have a

certain experience that can serve as animportant resource in learning.

• Malcolm Knowles is a pioneer of theart and science of andragogy, adultlearning and it can be summarizedas follows:– Changes in self-concept; adults more

independent.– Experience; more mature individuals have a

certain experience that can serve as animportant resource in learning.

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– Adults are more willing (ready) to learnon a problem that seem relevant tothem (readiness).

– Learning more self-centered to astudent (orientation).

– Adults are more motivated to learn,especially to lesson that has asignificant influence on his own(motivation).

– Adults are more willing (ready) to learnon a problem that seem relevant tothem (readiness).

– Learning more self-centered to astudent (orientation).

– Adults are more motivated to learn,especially to lesson that has asignificant influence on his own(motivation).

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• Andragogy, means "the art andscience of helping adults learn"(Knowles, 1980).

• The term andragogy was originallyformulated by a German teacher,Alexander Kapp, in 1833 (NottinghamAndragogy Group, 1983).

• Andragogy, means "the art andscience of helping adults learn"(Knowles, 1980).

• The term andragogy was originallyformulated by a German teacher,Alexander Kapp, in 1833 (NottinghamAndragogy Group, 1983).

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• Andr is meaning 'man'.• Paid is meaning 'child‘.• Agogos is meaning 'leading‘.• Roget's defines pedagogy as "The act, process,

or art of imparting knowledge and skill."• The American Heritage® Dictionary of the

English Language defines pedagogy as "Theart or profession of teaching."

• Andr is meaning 'man'.• Paid is meaning 'child‘.• Agogos is meaning 'leading‘.• Roget's defines pedagogy as "The act, process,

or art of imparting knowledge and skill."• The American Heritage® Dictionary of the

English Language defines pedagogy as "Theart or profession of teaching."

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• Andragogy is associated with mature-agedlearners whereas pedagogy is associatedwith younger, leass mature learners(Kember, Jenkins & Ng, 2003)

• A comparison of the assumptions ofpedagogy and andragogy followingKnowles (Jarvis, 1985);http://www.infed.org/lifelonglearning/b-andra.htm

• Andragogy is associated with mature-agedlearners whereas pedagogy is associatedwith younger, leass mature learners(Kember, Jenkins & Ng, 2003)

• A comparison of the assumptions ofpedagogy and andragogy followingKnowles (Jarvis, 1985);http://www.infed.org/lifelonglearning/b-andra.htm

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• Quoted from Stephen Pew (2007: 14)http://www.insightjournal.net/Volume2/Andragogy%20and%20Pedagogy%20as%20Foundational%20Theory%20for

%20Student%20Motivation%20in%20Higher%20Education.pdf: “Maintaining thisdichotomy of educational existence and balancingthe competing demands for teacher attention is oftena challenge for university educators, but one worthpursuing. Understanding the andragogical orpedagogical foundations of adult-to- adult learningin an environment of higher education can help meetthis challenge, in that adult-to-adult interactions aremore facilitative of adult learning than are parent-to-child interactions (Tyrell & Johnston, 1983).”

• Quoted from Stephen Pew (2007: 14)http://www.insightjournal.net/Volume2/Andragogy%20and%20Pedagogy%20as%20Foundational%20Theory%20for

%20Student%20Motivation%20in%20Higher%20Education.pdf: “Maintaining thisdichotomy of educational existence and balancingthe competing demands for teacher attention is oftena challenge for university educators, but one worthpursuing. Understanding the andragogical orpedagogical foundations of adult-to- adult learningin an environment of higher education can help meetthis challenge, in that adult-to-adult interactions aremore facilitative of adult learning than are parent-to-child interactions (Tyrell & Johnston, 1983).”

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• Adult learning principles described by Knowles(1984) as follows:1. Adults should be involved in planning andevaluation instructions.2. Experience (including mistakes) provides thebasis for learning activities.3. Adults are most interested in learningsubjects that have immediate relevance to theirjob or personal life.4. Adult learning is problem-centered ratherthan content oriented.

• Adult learning principles described by Knowles(1984) as follows:1. Adults should be involved in planning andevaluation instructions.2. Experience (including mistakes) provides thebasis for learning activities.3. Adults are most interested in learningsubjects that have immediate relevance to theirjob or personal life.4. Adult learning is problem-centered ratherthan content oriented.

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• Therefore, adult learners should beengaged in (Swee-Choo, P.G. &Matthews, B, 2010: 289):– An act of challenge.– Critical reflection.– Sharing.– Support.– Risk taking.

• Therefore, adult learners should beengaged in (Swee-Choo, P.G. &Matthews, B, 2010: 289):– An act of challenge.– Critical reflection.– Sharing.– Support.– Risk taking.

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• Jarvis (1995), however, see the contributions ofKnowles is not a theory but as a form of adultlearning philosophies and concepts are veryimportant.

• Knowles did not establish a proven theory,rather he introduced a "set of well-groundedprinciples of good practice" (Brookfield, 1986,p. 98)

• Example of theory: Piaget's theory of cognitivedevelopment.

• Jarvis (1995), however, see the contributions ofKnowles is not a theory but as a form of adultlearning philosophies and concepts are veryimportant.

• Knowles did not establish a proven theory,rather he introduced a "set of well-groundedprinciples of good practice" (Brookfield, 1986,p. 98)

• Example of theory: Piaget's theory of cognitivedevelopment.

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CROSS

• K.P. Cross (1981) presents theCharacteristics of Adults as Learners(CAL) model, which attempts to integrateother theoretical frameworks for adultlearning such as andragogy ( Knowles ),experiential learning ( Rogers ), andlifespan psychology.

• Ref: http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/adult-learning.html.

• K.P. Cross (1981) presents theCharacteristics of Adults as Learners(CAL) model, which attempts to integrateother theoretical frameworks for adultlearning such as andragogy ( Knowles ),experiential learning ( Rogers ), andlifespan psychology.

• Ref: http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/adult-learning.html.

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• CAL model consists of two variables:personal characteristics and situationalcharacteristics.

• Personal characteristics: aging, lifephases, and developmental stages (e.g.,marriage, job changes, retirement).

• Situational characteristics: part-timeversus full-time learning, and voluntaryversus compulsory learning.

• CAL model consists of two variables:personal characteristics and situationalcharacteristics.

• Personal characteristics: aging, lifephases, and developmental stages (e.g.,marriage, job changes, retirement).

• Situational characteristics: part-timeversus full-time learning, and voluntaryversus compulsory learning.

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HOWARD MCCLUSKY

• In 1960s, Howard Y. McClusky proposedTheory of Margin - Power-Load-Marginas a formula expressing a ratio orrelationship between the "load" (of living)and the "power" (to carry the load):

M = L/P(‘Best’ between 0.5 and 0.8)

• In 1960s, Howard Y. McClusky proposedTheory of Margin - Power-Load-Marginas a formula expressing a ratio orrelationship between the "load" (of living)and the "power" (to carry the load):

M = L/P(‘Best’ between 0.5 and 0.8)

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• McClusky (1970: 27): Load is "the selfand social demands required by aperson to maintain a minimal level ofautonomy.... [Power is] the resources,i.e. [sic] abilities, possessions, position,allies, etc. [sic], which a person cancommand in coping with load [sic].

• Ref: http://www-distance.syr.edu/margin.html

• McClusky (1970: 27): Load is "the selfand social demands required by aperson to maintain a minimal level ofautonomy.... [Power is] the resources,i.e. [sic] abilities, possessions, position,allies, etc. [sic], which a person cancommand in coping with load [sic].

• Ref: http://www-distance.syr.edu/margin.html

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• Load Factors:– External -- tasks of life such as family, career, socio-

economic status– Internal -- self-concept, goals, personal expectations

• Power Factors:– Physical -- strength, stamina, energy, health– Social -- ability to relate to others– Mental -- ability to think, reason– Economic -- money, position, influence– Skills -- what the individual knows how to do

• Load Factors:– External -- tasks of life such as family, career, socio-

economic status– Internal -- self-concept, goals, personal expectations

• Power Factors:– Physical -- strength, stamina, energy, health– Social -- ability to relate to others– Mental -- ability to think, reason– Economic -- money, position, influence– Skills -- what the individual knows how to do

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• Learning in adulthood is function ofchanging:– Roles and responsibilities.– Physical and mental development.

• Sometime, learning can happen undercondition of stress; L is greater than P(overloaded).

• Ref: Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner(2007).

• Learning in adulthood is function ofchanging:– Roles and responsibilities.– Physical and mental development.

• Sometime, learning can happen undercondition of stress; L is greater than P(overloaded).

• Ref: Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner(2007).

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KNUD ILLERIS

• Knud Illeris (2003) defines three differentprocesses of learning: cognitive process,emotional process, and social process.

• Cognition: Both knowledge and motor learning,which are controlled by central nervous system.

• Emotion: Psychological energy, transmitted byfeelings, emotions, attitudes and motivationswhich both mobilize and at the same time, areconditions that may be influenced anddeveloped through learning.

• Knud Illeris (2003) defines three differentprocesses of learning: cognitive process,emotional process, and social process.

• Cognition: Both knowledge and motor learning,which are controlled by central nervous system.

• Emotion: Psychological energy, transmitted byfeelings, emotions, attitudes and motivationswhich both mobilize and at the same time, areconditions that may be influenced anddeveloped through learning.

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• “ . . . I see it (the process of learning) as an entity whichunites a cognitive, an emotional and a social dimensioninto one whole. It combines a direct or mediatedinteraction between the individual and its material andsocial environment with an internal psychologicalprocess of acquisition. Thus, learning always includesboth an individual and a social element, the latteralways reflecting current societal conditions, so that thelearning result has the character of an individualphenomenon which is always socially and societallymarked.” (Illeris, 2003: 227)

• “ . . . I see it (the process of learning) as an entity whichunites a cognitive, an emotional and a social dimensioninto one whole. It combines a direct or mediatedinteraction between the individual and its material andsocial environment with an internal psychologicalprocess of acquisition. Thus, learning always includesboth an individual and a social element, the latteralways reflecting current societal conditions, so that thelearning result has the character of an individualphenomenon which is always socially and societallymarked.” (Illeris, 2003: 227)

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PETER JARVIS

• Jarvis (1987): All learning begins withexperience.

• He created a famous model out of fourelements: concrete experience→observation and reflection→ the formationof abstract concepts→ testing in newsituations. He made it into a cycle thatcan start at any one of the four points andbe approached as a continuous spiral.

• Jarvis (1987): All learning begins withexperience.

• He created a famous model out of fourelements: concrete experience→observation and reflection→ the formationof abstract concepts→ testing in newsituations. He made it into a cycle thatcan start at any one of the four points andbe approached as a continuous spiral.

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• Experiences are affected bypsychological history.

• Model includes a person experimentingon the environment and thinking aboutand monitoring ones practice as ithappens.

• Experiences are affected bypsychological history.

• Model includes a person experimentingon the environment and thinking aboutand monitoring ones practice as ithappens.

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• Opening by situating experiential learningas a part of one’s life world: culture,space and time.

• Culture is learned through experience; isseen in sub-sets of primary socialization(family; involving value system),secondary socialization (sub-group),brainwashing and indoctrination and,cultural and social capital.

• Opening by situating experiential learningas a part of one’s life world: culture,space and time.

• Culture is learned through experience; isseen in sub-sets of primary socialization(family; involving value system),secondary socialization (sub-group),brainwashing and indoctrination and,cultural and social capital.

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HOWARD GARDNER

• Howard Gardner represents thosetheorists who have dismissed the ideaof one type of intelligence as typicallymeasured by today’s psychometricinstruments. He posited that therewere seven (later eight) types ofintelligences (Gardner, 1993).

• Howard Gardner represents thosetheorists who have dismissed the ideaof one type of intelligence as typicallymeasured by today’s psychometricinstruments. He posited that therewere seven (later eight) types ofintelligences (Gardner, 1993).

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1. Linguistic intelligence2. Logical-mathematical intelligence3. Spatial intelligence or the ability to form a mental model of the

spatial world and to maneuver within it using this model.4. Musical intelligence.5. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, or the ability to solve problems

using one’s body as performed by athletes, dancers andother craftspeople.

6. Interpersonal intelligence or the ability to understand otherpeople.

7. Intrapersonal intelligence or the ability to understand one’sself.

1. Linguistic intelligence2. Logical-mathematical intelligence3. Spatial intelligence or the ability to form a mental model of the

spatial world and to maneuver within it using this model.4. Musical intelligence.5. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, or the ability to solve problems

using one’s body as performed by athletes, dancers andother craftspeople.

6. Interpersonal intelligence or the ability to understand otherpeople.

7. Intrapersonal intelligence or the ability to understand one’sself.

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• Garner (1993) maintains that the first two are thetypes of intelligence commonly measured by IQtests, and which are commonly accepted as“intelligence.”

• He later added an eighth intelligence to histaxonomy, Naturalist Intelligence, which hedefined as “expertise in the recognition andclassification of the numerous species -- the floraand fauna -- of his or her environment” (Gardner,1999, p. 48)

• Garner (1993) maintains that the first two are thetypes of intelligence commonly measured by IQtests, and which are commonly accepted as“intelligence.”

• He later added an eighth intelligence to histaxonomy, Naturalist Intelligence, which hedefined as “expertise in the recognition andclassification of the numerous species -- the floraand fauna -- of his or her environment” (Gardner,1999, p. 48)

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