prepared by Mr A. Skelly for Rustenburg High School for Girls

Twentieth Century “isms”

INTRODUCTION

REALISM GIVES WAY

Realism in the last half of the nineteenth century began as an attempt to make theatre more useful to society. Theatre Realism showed on stage a truthfulness and honesty about human behaviour. The emphasis was to present on stage, using the Box Set, observations about real life in real life settings. Many of the dramas from this time dealt with everyday life and its problems. Konstantin Stanislavsi’s Method Acting is often regarded as the approach to achieving successful three-dimensional real characterisation on stage. Eugene Scribe offered a formula how to create a “well-made play.” The following playwrights are often associated with Theatre Realism:

HENRIK IBSEN (Norway)Ibsen is often considered to be the father of Theatre Realism drama. He discarded the use of soliloquies (solo speeches, as if thinking aloud, directly to the audience, which the other characters cannot hear) as unrealistic and instead focused on the idea that the environment in which the characters found themselves had an impact on their personalities and motivation. One of his most well-known scripts is A Doll’s House (1879) in which Nora leaves her husband and her children at the end of the play. Nora’s departure would have been shocking to the conservative audience.

GEORGE BERNARD SHAW (Ireland)Shaw used witty humour to make fun of society with the intention of challenging accepted attitudes. One of his

most well-known scripts is Pygmalion (1913), on which the musical My Fair Lady was based, in which a Cockney flower girl is transformed into a lady of high society. The play exposes the phoniness and of society.

ANTON CHEKOV (Russia)Chekov’s play’s have an illusion of plotlessness. Characters in Chekhov’s plays seem to have a fate that is a direct result of where they are. The characters appear trapped in hopeless social situations. One of his most well-known scripts is Three Sisters (1900) in which three sisters want to move to Moscow, but never do.

These critics felt that theatre was an art form and, therefore, should display artistic principles.

The drawing room productions of Theatre Realism (ABOVE) in the nineteenth century no

longer seemed appropriate given the drastic social and political changes which gave birth to

a new understanding of the world in the twentieth century. Stage artists were challenged

to offer more contemporary theatre which reflected the frustration, turmoil, tension and anxiety (BELOW) of World War I, the Great

Depression and World War II.

Because art always reflects society, before studying Twentieth Century “isms” it is important to understand what happened in history which led to the growth and

development of modern theatre.

The movement against Theatre Realism actually gradually began in the late nineteenth century by people who questioned if seeing real life on stage was actually art, or just a mirror being held up to reflect life. They felt that Theatre Realism was becoming outdated in a rapidly developing, progressive, modern world. Some argued that Theatre Realism was based on society and not on the creativity of the artist. From this emerged the idea that the role of artists was not to document or record society, rather to provoke and stimulate it, even if this meant challenging traditions. Art forms, they claimed, should fly in the face of expectations, and rather startle audiences with unpredictable effects.

It was felt that Theatre Realism no longer represented the twentieth-

century experience. ‘Modern’ drama needed to use deliberate

exaggeration, avoid single interpretations, and develop from

unconscious experimentation.

A WHOLE NEW WORLD

The twentieth century was a period of incredible and turbulent change in almost every sphere of life. The rapid pace of developments in technology led to an explosion of new knowledge and understanding about the world. New theories and new discoveries propelled human thinking forward. Long-held beliefs and entrenched traditions were questioned for the very first time in history.

Nietzche, Darwin, Einstein and Freud all proposed highly unconventional and unsettling ideas about mankind’s role in the world. Many suggested that religion was nothing more than an illusion.

The twentieth century was also a time of tremendous political upheaval: Marxism, Communism, Fascism and Nationalism all emerged. The two World Wars, as well as the use of the atomic bomb in Hiroshima and Nagasaki (which had the potential to cause the extinction of the entire human race), profoundly impacted people’s beliefs and outlook on life in general. World War I and World War II gave rise to feelings of fear and despair. Life seemed meaningless and the existence of God and human morality was called into question.

The twentieth century was also a time of great technological development. Many of the effects were positive and improved people’s lives (such as the television, radio, telephone), but there was a negative side too. Advanced weapons were invented to kill countless numbers of people with the least possible effort.

In light of these drastic changes in society, it was felt that ‘modern,’ twentieth-century theatre should display artistic principles, such as:

(1). abandoning the accepted conventions of the past (including religious beliefs)(2). freedom of expression, which leads to experimentation(3). deliberate exaggeration(4). inspiring the audience to become emotionally involved in a make-believe

situation(5). stimulating the imagination(6). releasing the unconscious mind by drawing on instincts and impulses(7). avoiding obvious or single interpretations(8). reacting to and examining the use of technology in the world

QUESTIONS1. Compare the goals of Theatre Realism with the goals of modernist drama in the twentieth century.

2. Use tabular form to outline the differences between the three Realist playwrights mentioned.

3. Closely examine the two visuals contained on the reverse side of this sheet: Theatre Realism (ABOVE) and twentieth century modernist drama (BELOW). Compare your observations in terms of: (3.1.) staging and setting, (3.2.) costume and wardrobe design, (3.3.) characters’ relationships with each other, (3.4.) involvement of the audience.

4. List 6 drastic social changes which resulted in the twentieth century becoming a very different place in which to live.

5. Refer to: “Theatre Realism was based on society and not on the creativity of the artist.” Discuss the full implication of this remark.

6. Consider the 8 principles upon which modernist twentieth-century drama is based. Based on each of these principles in turn, explain whether or not it would be appropriate to stage a modernist production as the annual school play for your school community.

Twentieth Century “isms”

NEW THEATRE DESIGNERS

The invention of electricity in the nineteenth century meant that stages were very, very well-lit – too well-lit for the liking of Appia and Craig. It was the responsibility of an ordinary electrician to light stages and they did so, brightly illuminating every detail of the set. Traditionally stages had also been lit by footlights, a set of hooded lights running along the edge of the stage in front of the curtain. Appia and Craig disapproved of what had become the convention of “drowning the stage in light” and complained that many theatres seemed like places in which absolute bright light was worshipped. Appia also blamed the audience for what he believed was an excessive use of light on stage. He criticised audiences for wanting “to see” absolutely all aspects of the set in tremendous light, even night and interior scenes which would have had more diffused lighting and shadows. Both theatre designers disliked flat scenic painting (painted backdrops) and

“Through light, anything is possible in theatre.”

Craig and Appia were both innovative stage designers and made many scenic reforms.

They accomplished major improvements in the perception of theatre lighting and how stage

lighting can be used on stage to create“living art.”

Both Appia and Craig recognised that the use of lighting was an integral

part of dramatic expression.

Craig and Appiarecommended

the simplification of stage scenery. They proposed

that typical scene painting was too

detailed and distracting.

Atmosphere and mood, they

claimed, was brought about

through the artistic

manipulation of theatre lighting.

both felt that light could be controlled more artistically to enhance the intellectual and emotional understanding of the production.

ADOLPHE APPIA (Switzerland)(1). Appia associated stage lighting with music. Initially Appia was heavily inspired by the music of

Wagner’s operas and designed scenery for Wagner’s operas.

(2). He felt that expressiveness begins in music and that the dramatic action of the human body (performers on stage) transfers music into space.

(3). Appia felt that light is the representation of music. He proposed that lighting an object gives it dimension for the rhythm of music to be expressed visually.

(4). He proposed that lighting a production needed to be orchestrated carefully like a musical score. Thus Appia developed the idea of a lighting plot. He devised what he called a “light organ,” a central system which allowed all the lights in the acting space to be controlled by one person.

(5). Appia used lighting to modulate the mood on stage. He felt that lighting in itself was a tool for creative expression. Lighting could reveal the inner qualities and perception of stage characters.

(6). Appia felt strongly that the effective use of lighting could help to change the atmosphere on stage without having to close the curtains.

(7). Appia suggested that there were three conflicting elements in a production: the moving three-dimensional actor, the stationary vertical scenery, the horizontal floor. He felt that lighting was the only means to unify these conflicting elements.

(8). Appia dismissed nineteenth century stage lighting as “illusory.” He categorised it as follows:

ACTING LIGHT gave diffused illuminationFORMATIVE LIGHT cast shadowsIMITATED LIGHTING EFFECTS painted on scenery

Appia recommended that both acting light and imitated lighting effects prevented the successful integration between the moving three-dimensional actor, the stationary vertical scenery, the horizontal floor. He aimed rather to use light to fuse the performer with the acting environment. Appia wanted the actor to be given an environment to perform within, not perform against.

EDWARD GORDON CRAIG (England)(1). Craig associated stage lighting with visual imagery. He trained as an actor and, having first-hand

experience of working on stage, became a “painter of light.”

(2). Craig was strongly opposed to elaborate, decorated and detailed set design. He felt that bombarding the audience with useless visual information was distracting and an assault on the eye. Craig suggested that “scenery has to speak as well as the actors, but it is better when it says only that which is necessary.”

(3). Craig demanded the simplification of the stage, like the monotone acting areas of Ancient Greece. Craig said that lighting could produce any of the vast colour combinations required to bring richness and depth to a stage.

(4). Craig recommended the use of a kind of three-dimensional jigsaw stage set composed of gigantic white screens, steps and rostra. These screens were non-representational and became like blank canvases. He called this “The Thousand Scenes in One Scene” because it was an entirely neutral environment which could be cleverly transformed through the artistic use of light.

(5). In 1910 Craig filed a patent which described in considerable technical detail a system of hinged and fixed flats which could be used in varying combinations symbolically for both internal and external scenes.

(6). Another reason why Craig supported the use of gigantic white screens is that it allowed for actors and objects to be lit from the back (backlit). Backlighting helps to retain three-dimensional shape and prevents becoming flat, or two-dimensional.

(7). He also proposed that lighting could draw the audiences’ attention to specific aspects (such as an actor’s face or hands) which could influence their interpretation. A combination of intentional light and shadow created movement and mood on the stage.

(8). Craig believed that the atmosphere of the drama on stage was of primary importance and that the

actor was only secondary to the three-dimensional environment in which he moved.

QUESTIONS1. Explain what you understand by “drowning the stage in light.”

2. Write a paragraph in which you assess the similarities between Appia and Craig’s ideas for staging.

3. Write a paragraph in which you assess the differences between Appia and Craig’s ideas for staging.

4. Describe the impact of two-dimensional versus three-dimensional staging.

Twentieth Century “isms”

EXPRESSIONISMExpressionism was a modernist movement which developed in Germany around the time of World War I. Expressionism rejected: (A.) authority and industrialization associated with the war, and (B.) realism and attempts to capture and portray objective reality. Expressionists preferred, instead, the subjectivity of emotions.

Expressionists were opposed to any form of art which was comfortable and aesthetically pleasing. They dismissed this as superficial and overly concerned with irrelevant detail. To them, tapping into the visceral emotional reactions to a situation was far more important. Expressionists aimed to expose the inner feelings and experiences of characters, rather than the obvious outer reality which could be easily observed. They wanted to dramatise the spiritual and emotional awakening of the protagonist. They felt that what was inside needed to be used as a basis for what could be portrayed outside.

The expressionists did not believe in absolute truth. They felt that the world was composed of personal perceptions; such as desires, aspirations, conflicts and frustrations. Very often expressionist drama is associated with feelings of anxiety and torment.

Oskar Kokoshka’s play Murderer, The Hope of Women (1909) is often regarded as the first expressionist drama. In the play an unnamed man and unnamed woman struggle for power over each other. The man brands the woman. She responds by stabbing and imprisoning him. He frees himself. She then falls dead at his touch. As the play ends, the man slaughters all around him “like mosquitoes” (in the words of the text). The simplification of characters to types (man, woman), use of choral verse, abrupt language and heightened intensity of Murderer, The Hope of Women became characteristic of later expressionist plays.

Another well-known example of expressionism is Georg Kaiser’s play From Morn till Midnight (1917). The plot involves a cashier in a small bank who is alerted to the power of money by the visit of a rich lady. He steals money from the bank and moves to a new town, but remains frustrated, unfulfilled and unhappy.

One of the most popular expressionist dramas, still often staged, is Our Town (1938) by Thornton Wilder. Our Town is without a

set and the actors mime their actions without the use of theatrical properties. The play is presented by a Stage Manager who breaks the supposedly “invisible fourth wall” of Theatre Realism and addresses the audience directly and conversationally. The Stage Manner often interrupts the actors to comment on their actions. Our Town is set in a make-believe small town. In the play, Wilder attempts to prompt the audience to find value in even the smallest and most mundane event of everyday life. Characteristics of expressionist drama:

(1). EPISODIC STRUCTUREIn German this is called Stationendramen. Expressionists abandoned the idea of a comfortable and chronological narrative sequence of events. They presented only the high points of the action. These were moments of exaggeration which helped to convey to the audience an intensity of feeling.

(2). PICTORIAL DIRECTINGThe composition and what the audience could see on stage was important. Different areas and levels of the stage were used. Scenery, costumes, sound and light were all designed in such a way to reflect the personal thoughts and feelings of the protagonist.

(3). USE OF LANGUAGEDialogue was exaggerated and charged with intense emotion. Characters speak using clipped patterns, like the blurted utterances of a telegraph. The rhythm of the plays was staccato, abrupt and shocking. The intention was to separate the character from the speech patterns which people use in everyday reality.

(4). DEHUMANISED CHARACTERISATIONCharacters were not people (in the Stanislavski sense with a profound depth and motivation). Rather they conveyed emotional attitudes.

(5). STYLISED MOVEMENTGestures and choreography were exaggerated and overstated, in an attempt to help the audience step further away from reality. Movement often relied upon symbolism or strictly controlled patterns.

QUESTIONS1. Using only your own words,

explain the two aspects of society which expressionism rejected. Offer a potential motivation for each of these reasons.

2. Explain how a “visceral emotional reaction” would be different to an ordinary emotional reaction.

3. Create a table in which you clearly outline the elements of expressionism explained in each of the productions on the reverse side of this page: Murderer, The Hope of Women versus From Morn till Midnight versus Our Town.

4. How does the character of the Stage Manager in Our Town help to break down the “invisible” Theatre Realism fourth wall?

5. Concentrate on the four images, taken from expressionistic drama productions, on the reverse side of this page. Explain how visual evidence (only what you see) helps to confirm that each of these, in turn, is an example of expressionism.

6. Refer to the four images on the reverse side of this page. Explain whether or not you think these four expressionist drama productions were influenced at all by the design work of Adolphe Appia or Edward Gordon Craig. Discuss fully.

7. How would expressionist theatre design (set and costumes) differ distinctly from what an audience might expect from a typical high school drama play?

8. Why did the expressionists abandon the idea of a comfortable and chronological narrative sequence of events, and what did they replace this with?

In Our Town, Wilder attempts to prompt the audience to find value in

even the smallest and most mundane event of everyday life.

DADAISM IN DRAMATIC ARTDadaism rejected all conventions

and, in drama, this meant the use of the proscenium arch

stage. Dadaists disapproved of logic and preferred

uncomfortable chaos and disharmony.

Spontaneous improvisation and disruptive events were

central to many of their performance activities. They

abandoned comfortable sequences or routines and, as a

result, tended towards unrehearsed events and illogical

arrangements. Hugo Ball’s nonsensical sound poem Karawane is an excellent

example of Dada performance.

9. What was the motivation for characters in expressionist dramas to speak with a dialogue that was staccato, abrupt and shocking?

10. Expressionism was in reaction to World War I. World War I is now part of history. Bearing this in mind, discuss whether or not you think that expressionist drama is perhaps irrelevant to modern-day audiences.

Twentieth Century “isms”

DADAISMBetween 1915 and 1916 a group of discontented intellects, poets, writers and artists gathered in Zurich, Switzerland (neutral during the war) and formed the Cabaret Voltaire where they danced, recited and exhibited their works in a campaign to shock the bourgeoisie public who they considered responsible for the war. They wished to destroy the kind of art appreciated and nurtured by those who were comfortable with what was regarded as ‘traditional.’ Brute noise, rather than music, was used to assault and confront.

The Dadaists used spectator participation in the production of a creative work. Dadaists took their art form to the streets and threw it in the faces of the unsuspecting public. They did this by insulting the public by obscene poetry or abuse while leading them into a gallery of objects which the audience would find offensive or themselves duped to arouse anger enough to destroy the exhibition.

The Dadaists rejected reason as they believed that logical thought had led men to the insanity of a world war. Therefore they praised madmen as being sane and preferred to find inspiration without reason or, even in some cases, consciousness. Thus their sources were charts, instinct and impulses. Dadaists did not make recommendations about how the state of the world could possibly be improved as they believed no suggestions had helped in the past.

DADAISM IN VISUAL ART

Jean Arp dropped squares on a surface and called them compositions according to the laws of chance. Kurt Schwitters used the contents of rubbish bins to create large sculptures which he called “Merz Veldirs.” The

Tristan Tzara said, “Dada is everything. Dada doubts everything. The real Dadas are against Dada,” while George Groz described the

Dadaists as,” Our symbol was nothingness, a vacuum, a void.”

ANTI-ARTANTI-WAR

ANTI-LOGIC

precious bourgeoisie was appalled by having to face street debris, discarded waste and junk. Schwitters attempted to convey that beauty can be found in almost anything. Francis Picabia made up and drew plans for nonsense machines in which he ridiculed technology and industrialisation. Max Ernst used frottage. He took rubbings of the textured surfaces of leaves, gravel and wood as his inspiration. These marks would react on his subconscious and he would develop images in a doodling technique. Marcel Duchamp used ready-mades. He placed a moustache on a print of the Mona Lisa and titled it “LHOOQ.” Duchamp also used bicycle wheels and urinals, and placed them on pedestals that in such a position they were robbed of their function so could be considered nothing but art. Dada spread throughout Europe after World War I, but within two or three years it was banned as being too controversial in most places. The poet André Breton announced the death of Dada in 1922.

THE LEGACY OF DADA

Dada is often regarded as the root of performance art. Performance art is regarded as interdisciplinary (it is neither pure art, nor pure sculpture, nor pure drama) and involves four elements: time, space, the performer's body, and a relationship between performer and audience. The ‘art’ is created through the actions of the person at a particular time at a particular place.

In performance art the actor abandons expected theatre elements, such as a script or narrative or characterisation, and instead challenges and shocks the audience to think critically about what art means. Performance art really emerged strongly in the 1960s with Yoko Ono (Wall piece for orchestra) and Carolee Schneemann (Meat Joy). Allan Kaprow coined the term “Happening” to describe how 1960s artists experimented with body motion, recorded sounds, written and spoken texts, and even smells. Happenings were mysterious, often spontaneous and unscripted gatherings of artists and their friends and relatives in various specified locations. Happenings often incorporating exercises in absurdity, physicality, costuming, spontaneous nudity, and various random or seemingly disconnected acts.

QUESTIONS1. What does it mean if someone or something is described as being “anti-establishment”?

2. Comment on the significance of Dadaism developing specifically in the country of Switzerland.

3. The Dadaists considered the public to be “bourgeoisie.” What does this word mean and what does it suggest about the opinion which the Dadaists held of the public?

4. Explain how the Dadaists used spectator participation in the production of a creative work.

5. Why did the Dadaists praise madmen?

6. Conduct some further reading and research. Offer a suggestion as to how the name “Dada” came about for this movement.

7. From what you have learned about Dadaism, propose a possible reaction from a group of Dadaists if they had to attend a formal school assembly one day. Justify your suggestion.

8. Having carefully read all the information available to you about Dada, what do you think Tristan Tzara meant when he said, “The real Dadas are against Dada”?

9. Refer to : “Spontaneous improvisation and disruptive events were central to many of their performance activities.” Bearing this statement in mind, argue whether or not you believe that modern flash mobbing (unexpected dancing in public areas) is part of the legacy of Dada. Be sure to raise at least three points to substantiate your point of view.

10. Copy and complete the table below of various Dadaist contributions:DADAIST: WHAT THEY DID AND WHY:

(10.1.) Jean Arp(10.2.) Kurt Schwitters(10.3.) Francis Picabia(10.4.) Max Ernst(10.5.) Marcel Duchamp

Carolee Scheemann was one of the pioneers of performance art in the 1960s.

11. Imagine that you had to explain Dada to someone in Grade 8. What would you say to them to help them understand clearly this complex movement?

12. What do you think happened for André Breton to announce the death of Dada in 1922?

13. The legacy of Dada is (A.) performance art, and (B.) happenings. Neither performance art nor happenings form part of the drama curriculum for study at high school. Why do you think that these two modern forms of drama have perhaps been excluded?

Twentieth Century “isms”

SURREALISM

Surrealism (or super-realism) developed in France as a result of the impact of expressionism (Germany) and Dadaism (Switzerland).

The surrealist movement was launched by poet André Breton in a manifesto published in 1924. Breton had training in medicine and psychiatry and, during the war, served in hospitals where he used Freudian psychoanalysis on soldiers suffering from shell-shock and hallucinations. As the surrealist movement developed, more and more creative minds began experimenting with free association (spontaneous, automatic reactions), the subconscious and dream interpretation. Breton included in their manifesto the idea of unexpected, unfamiliar juxtapositions: the bringing together of ordinary objects in an extraordinary way. Doing so would break the boundaries of accepted reality. Followers of surrealism searched for a new reality, one which could only be accessed through embracing the beauty and horror of dreams. This they felt was best represented by combining familiar elements with others which were bizarre.

The word “surrealist” was first used by Guillaume Apollinaire to describe his play Les Mamelles de Tirésias (The Breasts of Tiresias, 1917). In the play everyday logic is abandoned when a man becomes a woman and gives birth to 40 000 children. Three further important figures in the surrealist movement were:

JEAN COCTEAUProbably Cocteau’s best-known play is Orphee (1926). It is set in Paris, but is a variation of the Greek myth of Orpheus. In Orphee fact is juxtaposed with fantasy. In Cocteau’s play La Voix humaine (1930), one woman on stage speaks into a telephone to her invisible and inaudible departing lover, who is leaving her to marry another woman. Cocteau described the production as an exploration of the human need for communication.

ANTONIN ARTAUDArtaud suggested that the rational mind prevented a true appreciation of natural impulses. He proposed a THEATRE OF

The aim of surrealism was to reveal the alternative reality of dreams and the subconscious. Surrealist works show surprise elements

brought together in unexpected, unfamiliar juxtapositions.

CRUELTY in which the complacency of the audience was attacked and assaulted by stark lighting, shrill sound effects and voices creating dissonance. Artaud emphasised that he used the word “cruelty” not to suggest sadism, rather to propose that only violent, physical determination could shatter the false reality which the audience held. Theatre of Cruelty was intended to hurl the audience into the centre of the action and force them to engage with the performance on a primitive, instinctual level.

FREDERICO GARCÍA LORCAFrederico García Lorca was a Spanish dramatist whose controversial work was censored and banned. His first play, written in verse, was El maleficio de la mariposa (The Butterfly’s Evil Spell, 1920) about the impossible love between a cockroach and a butterfly. It was laughed off the stage by an unappreciative audience after only 4 performances. García Lorca’s second play, Mariana Pineda (1927), had a stage set designed by renowned surrealist artist Salvador Dali and opened to great acclaim.

Surrealism, therefore, presented on stage to the theatre audience, a seemingly illogical world often inspired by elements which had a dream-like quality. Sequences seemed random and unconnected, just like there is no clear path to remembering the events of a dream from the night before. Many of the images seem real, but then appear in such an unexpected way to prove that they must be unreal. Narratives are fragmented and disjointed.

Surrealists hoped that the psyche (hidden aspects of the mind) could reveal the contradictions which had resulted in the world in turmoil. Surrealists were interested in exposing the complex inner world of suppressed emotion. Many followers of surrealism underwent hypnosis in order to try and unleash their creative, motivating forces. André Breton motivated them to access their unconscious mind in order to make art. They emphasised the power of the imagination.

QUESTIONS1. What do you notice about when André Breton announced the death of Dadaism versus when he

announced the birth of a new movement, surrealism?

2. Surrealism developed in France as a result of Dadaism and expressionism. Identify two aspects of Dadaism and two aspects of expressionism which could have influenced surrealism.

3. How did André Breton’s experience in war help to develop and refine the surrealist manifesto?

4. When and how was the word “surrealist” first used?

5. Why were so many surrealists interested in psychoanalysis and hypnosis?

6. What do you understand by the surreal concept of: unexpected, unfamiliar juxtapositions? How might this characteristic of surrealism appear on stage as part of a surreal drama?

7. Explain how dreams can be both (A.) beautiful, and (B.) horrifying.

8. Describe one of your own vivid dreams and how you felt about dreaming upon waking up.

9. Assess the four photographs taken during surreal productions on the reverse side of this page. Which photograph (1 – 4) do you regard as having the best visual evidence to support it as a surreal production? Substantiate your point of view with reasoning.

10.Describe as many surreal elements as you can about Cocteau’s play La Voix humaine (1930).

11. Account for the use of the word “cruelty” in Artaud’s Theatre of Cruelty.

12. List four things which you would expect to encounter if you had to attend a Theatre of Cruelty drama production.

Many of the images seem real, but then appear in such an

unexpected way to prove that they must be unreal.

13. Are you surprised to read that García Lorca’s first surreal play, El maleficio de la mariposa, was laughed off stage after only 4 performances?

14. Discuss whether or not you feel it would be accurate to describe surrealists as “abandoning reality.” As part of your response, you may need to refer to other twentieth century movements.

15. Imagine that you were required to present a surreal monologue for performance assessment. Explain how you would go about re-interpreting an ordinary monologue in a surreal manner. Your description needs to focus on a surreal use of both the voice and the body.

Twentieth Century “isms”

CONSTRUCTIVISMand FUTURISM

CONSTRUCTIVISM (Russia) FUTURISM (Italy)

The source of constructivism can be traced back to 1914 with Picasso’s musical instrument series which showed how sculpture could be constructed, rather than carved or modeled. VLADIMIR TATLIN, a Russian, visited Picasso and returned to Russia to form the constructivism movement in 1915.

Constructivism is anti all forms of superficiality, unnecessary detail and decoration. It proposes that functionality and purpose are most important.

One of the key members of constructivism was VSEVOLOD MEYERHOLD, who had initially trained at the Moscow Art School. Meyerhold proposed the theory of biomechanics. Biomechanics is the idea that the actor can create emotion by repeating a certain movement or pattern (almost like a human machine). This challenged Stanislavski’s idea of Method Acting whereby emotion came from a deep, personal relationship between the actor and the character. Instead, Meyerhold regarded the actor as a well-trained cog within the machinery of a drama production.

Meyerhold also applied constructivism to set design. He created multi-purpose sets which contained platforms, catwalks, steps and wheels in a way that they resembled gigantic machinery parts. He used modern, industrial materials. Meyerhold abolished the use of the proscenium arch and instead created on stage three-dimensional working worlds in which actors performed.

Meyerhold’s first constructivist performance was The Magnanimous Cuckold (1922).

A group of Italian creatives (poets, artists) rebelled against Italy’s industrial backwardness and blamed Italy’s museums and art treasures for an inflated tourist industry at the expense of everything else. Thus their philosophy was destructive and anarchistic, with slogans such as “war – the only hygiene of the nations” and “destroy the museums.” They glorified the virtues of speed, power and force. These qualities, they believed, related to the universe and were in harmony with it. The futurists were optimist about the new momentum of the twentieth century; its materials, industrial development and technology.

The leader of the futurists was the poet MARINETTI whose manifesto first appeared in the Paris La Figaro periodical in 1909. By 1910 Marinetti’s Milan group included plastic artists, as well as other poets and intellectuals. Their goal was to reveal the strength and power of speed, machinery and modernisation.

In drama the futurists attempted to control time and space by using simultaneous staging (various scenes being shown at various locations at the same time). They felt that this approach, of multiple events taking place concurrently, was a reflection of a modern reality. They wanted to avoid placid, static productions. Futurists wanted to jolt audiences into an appreciation of technology and so used multimedia techniques. The overall impression was chaotic, but futurism left an important legacy for the future of drama to incorporate multimedia increasingly.

Twentieth Century “isms”

REVISIONQUESTIONS

SAMPLE SHORT QUESTIONS1. Why was Theatre Realism dismissed at the beginning of the twentieth century? (8)

2. What were the three conflicting elements in a production which Adolphe Appia identified and what did he propose as a solution to this? (3 + 1 = 4)

3. What was the contribution of the poet André Breton to the development of surrealism? (6)

4. How did surrealist attempt to embrace the beauty and horror of dreams? (6)

5. Explain the intentions of Dada. (6)

6. Describe what you would expect to see if you were a spectator of a Dada performance. (6)

7. Discuss the legacy of Dada. (5 + 5 = 10)

8. Explain the contribution to twentieth century drama made by Vsevold Meyerhold. (6)

9. Describe three exams of expressionist drama. (3 x 4 = 12)

10. Write a paragraph in which you explain the characteristics of expressionist drama. (5 x 3 = 15)

11. Write a paragraph in which you discuss three surrealist playwrights. (3 x 4 = 12)

SAMPLE ESSAY QUESTIONS12. Write an essay in which you compare the work of early twentieth century theatre designers, Adolphe

Appia and Edward Gordon Craig. Pinpoint in your essay both the similarities and the differences which exist between the modern approaches of these two men. (20)

13. In order for drama to develop and adapt to the modern world of the twentieth century, violent and confrontational change was required. Write an essay in which you describe and assess any five changes which you regard potentially as the most revolutionary. (5 x 5 = 25)

14. There are five elements of stagecraft: theatrical properties, wardrobe and costumes, theatrical make-up, sets design and staging, lighting design, and sound design. Write an essay in which you discuss the early twentieth century developments of each of these five stagecraft elements. (5 x 5 = 25)

15. In the early twentieth century, the rapid pace of developments in technology led to an explosion of new knowledge about the world. Write an essay in which you explore how technology, and an understanding thereof, impacted the various “isms” which you have studied. (30)

16. There are eight principles which modern twentieth-century theatre strived to display.(1). abandoning the accepted conventions of the past (including religious beliefs)(2). freedom of expression, which leads to experimentation(3). deliberate exaggeration(4). inspiring the audience to become emotionally involved in a make-believe situation(5). stimulating the imagination(6). releasing the unconscious mind by drawing on instincts and impulses(7). avoiding obvious or single interpretations(8). reacting to and examining the use of technology in the world

Write an essay in which you assess the extent to which each of these principles was achieved by applying them to any three of the “ism” movements which you have studied. (30)