What is consciousness? Being aware of the immediate

environment? Listening to me lecture

Being aware of your inner thoughts, feelings, and memories? Things to do today anger at a slow driver smell of lilac’s reminding you of Grandma’s

house

Early psychology (early 1880’s) was interested in consciousness Wundt and Titchner

report contents of consciousness while sitting still, working, and while falling asleep.

Freud was also interested in consciousness

According to Freud people have different levels of consciousness

conscious thoughts of which we are aware

unconscious thoughts of which we are unaware

Early psychology was dualistic Descartes 17th century the mind and body are completely separate it’s as if we have a soul that is our

consciousness that is separate from our bodies physiology

Today psychology is materialistic our mind and consciousness are presumed to

be rooted in the physiology of the brain Also there is evidence that some animals

may be conscious as well.

Modern View of Consciousness

Consciousness is considered on a continuum. From alert to dreaming, hypnosis, or

drug states. Driving a familiar route - suddenly

arriving home without memory of the drive

Sleep Why do we sleep?

Circadian rhythms. The bodies natural cycle from being wakeful, to

being sleepy. Morning people; evening people jet lag factory shift work.

Day (8 - 4) afternoon (4 - 12) Night (12-8)

What good does sleep do? The repair and restoration theory

The purpose of sleep is to enable the body to recover form the exertions of the day.

Do we sleep more after heavy exercise? Do we all need the same amount of sleep? What happens if we don’t get to sleep?

Randy Gardner stayed awake for 11 days

Peter Tripp (Disc Jockey) awake 10 days.

Sleep Deprivation

For the most part Randy Gardner and Peter Tripp showed little damage from their sleep deprivation Didn’t sleep that much more

14 hours the first night Then back to normal

Didn’t get sick

Peter Tripp

No longer sure he was himself frequently tried to gain proof of his

own identity convinced that there was a

conspiracy against him to send him to jail

Demand Characteristics?

The Evolutionary or Energy-Conservation Theory

Perhaps we have evolved a regular pattern of sleeping and waking to conserve our energy, and keep us out of danger. We are more inefficient at night

without light we don’t see well wasteful of energy resources potentially dangerous

Horse, Human, Cats

Stages of sleep

A polysomnograph combines EEG brain waves with eye movement data.

Rapid-eye movement (REM sleep) eyes move rapidly back and forth

beneath the lids. High frequency (desychronized) brain waves.

REM is also called paradoxical sleep

Light - because the brain is active and heart rate, breathing rate, and temperature fluctuate substantially

Deep - because muscles that control posture and locomotion are very relaxed

EEG activity during sleep Stage 1 - quite a bit of brain activity Stage 2, 3, and 4 - The brain activity

slows and becomes more and more synchronized until the waves are much slower, larger, and well defined.

Then the person progresses back up from stage 4, to stage 3, to stage 2.

Instead of having stage 1 repeated they have REM sleep.

REM Sleep and Dreaming

about 80% of awakenings from REM sleep led to dream reports

only 7% of awakenings from nonREM-sleep stages led to dream reports

Dreams People are most likely to report

dreams during REM sleep. People do dream in the non REM

states as well though. Dreams in REM sleep are more coherent

and have a story line. Dreams in non REM sleep are less

organized. Stage 4 sleep has been associated with

dreams called night terrors.

Dream Content: What we dream about and why

Freud Dreams reveal a person’s unconscious

thoughts and motivations. Often has to do with sexual tensions

related to repressed desires. Freud may be far fetched but do you

dream about water when thirsty?

Activation-Synthesis theory spontaneous activity occurs in brain

areas - especially during REM sleep. The brain tries to make sense of this

spontaneous activity.

Interesting Dream/Sleep Facts (1) Are external stimuli incorporated into dream sequences?

Yes, dripping water onto subjects was in 14 out of 33 dream cases (2) Do dreams run on "real time"?

Yes, subjects awakened 5 or 15 minutes after the beginning of a dream could guess the correct interval on the basis of the contents of their dreams

(3) Does everybody dream? Yes, even people who claimed that they did not dream had normal

amounts of REM, and they reported dreams if they were awakened during REM--although less frequently

(5) Are somnambulism and sleep talking the acting out of dreams?

No, they usually occur during stage 4 (6) myoclonic twitch (7) hypnagogic hallucinations (8) recurring dreams

Hypnosis

A condition of increased suggestibility that occurs in the context of a special hypnotist-subject relationship. They are not asleep - brain waves like

being awake - can walk and talk Requires wanting to be hypnotized

and believing that you are hypnotized

Hypnosis can be used to inhibit pain. Dental work surgery

Post hypnotic suggestions. Stop smoking lose weight

Myths of hypnosis Becoming stiff as a board Enhance memory

from a witnessed crime if told they will remember more they will, but the

information is often not accurate From the deep past

child hood memories largely inaccurate retain vocabulary and writing skills previous lives? - kinds of money? - is your country

at war?

Age Regression Robert True (1949) - regressed

hypnotized volunteers back to Christmases and birthday parties at ages 10, 7, and 4.

Without hypnosis the odds a person could name what day of the week that Christmas fell on are 1 in 7 (14%).

The subjects were correct 82% of the time.

Could not be replicated. Orne (1982) asked why it could not be

replicated. True said the journal Science had

shortened his key question to “what day is this”.

Actually he had asked his regressed subjects “Is it Monday?”, “Is it Tuesday?” and so on until the subject stopped him with a yes.

More of Orne Will a hypnotized person do something

they would not normally do. Hand in acid grab a poisonous snake throw acid on another person.

Hypnotized - 5 out of 6 did these things 6 out of 6 pretending 2 out of 6 who just thought it was an

experiment. WHY?

Hypnotized or pretending? Pretenders can:

tolerate sharp pain make body stiff as a board experience physiological changes

associated with being told to be angry or happy

Differences between pretenders and hypnotized: subtle things - chair and imaginary person

Hill side Strangler

Bianchi - under hypnosis a second personality was found - that the defense wanted to claim did the killings (insanity defense).

Orne again. Tearing filter from a cigarette shaking hands with someone not there response to a false statement.

Is hypnosis real? People truly hypnotized are not just

faking it - there are identifiable differences

Hypnosis does not give special powers that you do not already possess.

Hypnosis merely enables people to relax, concentrate, and follow suggestions better than they usually do.

Drugs

A psychoactive drug is a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods Anything from coffee or cigarettes, to

LSD and heroin

Depressants

Drugs that cause calming effects Alcohol Valium and Xanax (benzodiazepines) Morphine and Heroin (opiates) Pentobarbital and phenobarbital

(barbiturates)

Stimuluants

Drugs that increase energy and altertness Caffeine Cocaine Amphetamine Methamphetamine

Mixed stimulant-depressants

Drugs that seem to both stimulate and depress. Nicotine - stimulates brain activity,

but many smokers find it relaxing.

Drugs that distort experience and hallucinogens

Marijuana (THC) LSD Mescaline mushrooms peyote

Why are these drugs abused? One major commonality is that these

drugs all affect the reward pathway in the brain.

Any drug that decreases output from the nucleus accumbens is rewarding.

Dopamine - shuts down (inhibits) the nucleus accumbens most of the drugs I have mentioned

increase dopamine in the synapse.

The Reward Pathway

Some drugs like Angel Dust (PCP) decrease the amount of Glutamate in synapses in the nucleus accumbens.

Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter - so the nucleus accumbens will become less active

This is also rewarding - feels good.

Which drugs are most addictive?

Two sets of standards Legal standards

Set by the Controlled Substances Act of 1970 Five different schedules of drugs

Note that alcohol and nicotine are not on the drug schedule

Can be bought without prescription

Scientific standards Reflected by expert views of addictive

potential

Two experts rated abuse potential of various drugs

Jack Henningfield, formerly Chief of Clinical Pharmacology at the Addiction Research Center at NIDA

Neil Benowitz, addiction researcher at University of California at San Francisco

1) presence and severity of withdrawal

2) how reinforcing the drug is (from human and animal studies)

3) the degree of tolerance produced by the drugs

4) degree of dependence Difficulty quitting Relapse

5) degree of intoxication

Overall rankings Heroin (1.9) Alcohol (2.5) Cocaine (2.65) Nicotine (3.35) Caffeine (5.0) Marijuana (5.4)

Two of the top 4 substances are legal

Marijuana is lowest on this list, but a schedule 1 drug.

Keep in mind long term consequences were not included.

Note that low numbers indicate the most serious abuse potential

Also note how closely the two experts rated the drugs on the various measures

Physical dependence

Psychological dependence

What does it mean to be addicted?

American Psychiatric Association has stopped using the term addiction and addict in their professional writing Due to bad connotation

They use the term substance related disorders Two general disorders

Substance Dependence (more severe) Substance Abuse

Note that merely using a drug, even if it is illegal, does not necessarily indicate a substance related disorder

The use must be maladaptive

Drug classes in more detail

Alcohol (considered a dirty drug) Ethanol is the type of alcohol that people

consume. Rubbing alcohol (isopropyl) is very dangerous to consume.

Ethanol is primarily a relaxant can lead to aggressiveness and risky

behavior by depressing brain areas that would normally inhibit those behaviors.

Excessive use of alcohol can lead to liver damage can impair memory and motor control

A woman that drinks during pregnancy can impair brain development in her child.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome stunted growth of the head and body malformation of the face, heart, and ears learning disabilities - mental retardation

Delirium Tremens (DT’s) Severe Alcoholics are dependent on

alcohol. They have changed their nervous

system, so that without Alcohol they will become very sick and could die.

Severe trembling of the hands Leaving Las Vegas

Hallucinations seeing Pink Elephants

Tranquilizers Help to relax and fall asleep decrease muscle tension suppress epileptic seizures

barbiturates - highly habit forming and can be fatal in high doses

Pentobarbital (Nembutal) Secobarbital (Seconal) Amobarbital (Amytal) phenobarbital (Luminal) slang names for these barbiturates include yellow

jackets, reds, blues, Amy's, and rainbows. benzodiazepines (Valium and Xanax) – better

therapeutic index still habit forming, but less so.

Tranquilizers and alcohol do not mix.

Benzodiazepines work by increasing the release of the neurotransmitter GABA.

GABA decreases the activity of the brain.

Alcohol works on GABA as well

If you take tranquilizers and drink alcohol you have a good chance of shutting down your medulla. The medulla is a primitive part of your

brain that controls the heart beat and breathing

Alcohol and tranquilizers interact - they increase GABA release much more

together than either would alone.

Opiates

Our body produces endorphins. Natural chemicals that bind to opiate

receptors in the brain. They serve to inhibit pain.

The opiates are drugs derived from the poppy, or human-made (synthetic) drugs that have a similar chemical structure to opium.

Morphine and heroin are opiates. Makes people feel happy and

content. Decreases anxiety and pain.

Tends to make people feel nauseous Having a good sick

Rat study Can become physically dependent

kicking the habit; going cold turkey

Myth about Morphine

Many people believe that if they take morphine to relieve pain from surgery or some injury that they risk becoming addicted. This is unlikely.

Methadone maintenance

Methadone maintenance is a program where people receive a drink that prevents the withdrawal symptoms associated with heroin addiction.

They are still addicted but they have more control.

No needles and less intense psychological effects.

Marijuana Variety of effects

drowsiness intensification of sensory experience illusion that time is passing slowly under high doses some report mild

hallucinations. Can reduce the pressure in the eye

associated with glaucoma Cancer patients - reduce nausea and pain

Can be detected for a long time

Marijuana dissolves in the fats of the body, so it can be detected weeks after taking the drug.

It is not physically addictive, but people do become psychologically addicted.

It would be very difficult to overdose on marijuana

Risks? Lung Cancer impairment of learning and memory

animal studies have shown that it can temporarily shrink dendrite size.

There are a large number of receptor sites for THC (the active ingredient in marijuana) in the hippocampus.

The hippocampus is an important brain structure involved in learning and memory

Stimulants

Boost energy, heighten alertness, increase activity, and produce a pleasant feeling. Coffee - contains caffeine. People can

become dependent drowsiness headaches

Cocaine and Amphetamine

They act by increasing the amount of dopamine in the synapse. Also increase the activity of

norepinephrine and serotonin Cocaine is also a local anesthetic.

Produces numbness - placing cocaine on the tongue. Novocaine is used by dentists

Cocaine was predominately inhaled as a powder into the nostrils until recently. This type of cocaine use has caused

addiction in many people. Makes people feel powerful, and vibrant. Can lead to holes in the nasal membrane severe use can lead to symptoms that

resemble paranoid schizophrenia (Cocaine Psychosis) - Insects under the skin.

Crack Cocaine Crack is cocaine that has been processed

so that it can be smoked. This increases it’s ability to get to the

brain. More intense rush high in seconds

It is very addictive - Addiction may not set in rapidly, but once it does the drug is more important than other basic drives.

Tobacco Cigarettes, cigars, dip, and chew all

contain nicotine. Nicotine acts at dopamine receptors much

like cocaine and amphetamine - however it produces a smaller high.

Increases heart rate and blood pressure. People still consider it calming, however nicotine addiction occurs slowly, but it is

hard to break the addiction.

Hallucinogens Drugs that cause sensory distortions. Derived from mushrooms and other

plants LSD, PCP (angel dust), and mescaline

intensify sensations. Can cause dream like states and mystical

experiences can cause hallucinations (probably due to

action at the serotonin receptors)

MDMA - Ecstasy 3,4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine

Related to amphetamine Also phenthylamine – a hallucinogen

Sense of well being People say it helps them to open up and talk

about their feelings The relationship drug

Destroys serotonin neurons in rat models Causes abnormalities in the serotonin system

of squirrel monkeys after 12-18 months of exposure

Mood – sleep Very high doses destroy DA cells in rats

Ketamine – Special K Described as a "dissociative" drug,

meaning that it feels as if the mind is separated from the body. PCP – Angel Dust

At low doses, K gives users a floating feeling, numb extremities and an increased heart rate.

At high doses, hallucinations, depressed breathing and unconsciousness can occur, therefore, it is very dangerous when combined with alcohol or Valium.