What is Dat1

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What is Data?

Data is a collection of facts, such as values or measurements.

It can be numbers, words, measurements, observations or even just descriptions of

things.

Qualitative vs Quantitative

Data can be qualitative or quantitative.

y Qualitative data is descriptive information (it describes something)

y Quantitative data, is numerical information (numbers)

And Quantitative data can also be Discrete or Continuous:

y Discrete data can only take certain values (like whole numbers)

y Continuous data can take any value (within a range)

Put simply: Discrete data is counted, Continuous data is measured


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Example: What do we know about Arrow the Dog?

Qualitative:

y He is brown and black

y He has long hair

y He has lots of energy

Quantitative:

y Discrete:

y He has 4 legs

y He has 2 brothers

Continuous:

y He weighs 25.5 kg

y He is 565 mm tall

To help you remember think "Quantitative is about Quantity"

You collect data by doing a Survey.

Census or Sample

ACensus is when you collect data for every member of the group (the whole

"population").

ASample is when you collect data just for selected members of the group.

Example: there are 120 people in your local football club.

You can ask everyone (all 120) what their age is. That is a census.

Or you could just choose the people that are there this afternoon. That is a sample.


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A census is accurate, but hard to do. A sample is not as accurate, but may be good

enough, and is a lot easier.

L

anguageData or Datum?

Strictly speaking, the word data is in the plural (the singular form is datum).

However, the word is often used as if it is a singular noun.

So we commonly say "the data is available" rather than the more correct way "the

data are available".


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What is primary data?

Primary data is important for all areas of research because it is unvarnished information about

the results of an experiment or observation. It is like the eyewitness testimony at a trial. No one

has tarnished it or spun it by adding their own opinion or bias so it can form the basis of

objective conclusions.

1.Identification

o Primary data is the specific information collected by the person who is doing the research. Itcan be obtained through clinical trials, case studies, true experiments and randomizedcontrolled studies. This information can be analyzed by other experts who may decide totest the validity of the data by repeating the same experiments.

Significanceo Suppose that you are researching the effects of a certain new substance on the nervous

system of mice. Because yours will be the first such experiment, the data that you collectwill be considered prospective in nature. It can be used to establish a baseline from whichother follow-up experiments can be devised. In the education context, prospective primarydata about the kindergartners in a school district might be to collect the actual test resultsfrom the first day of school showing how many could write their names, count to 20, andretell a simple story in a logical way. The information forms the base-line from which thedistrict must move their students so that they can meet the state standards for entering firstgraders within the next 180 days.

Typeso Primary data can also be retrospective, interventional and observational in nature.

Retrospective primary data gathers information about past conditions or behaviors. Theresearcher may be investigating a cause of a preventable disease, for instant as in theconnection between smoking and lung cancer. Interventional primary data may be gatheredto see the effect of a new drug or therapy. A recent study reported in the Journal ofOphthalmology, for example, described an interventional study about treatments forconvergence insufficiency. Patients with this diagnosis received one of three treatmentsover a 12-week period to determine which intervention would be the most effective.Observational studies gather primary data by means of case studies such as the work doneby naturalists like Jane Goodall on chimpanzees in the wild.

Features

o Two strategies are commonly employed when researchers gather primary data:randomizing and blinding. Both of these strategies serve to keep the results objective. Bothinvolve limiting the information given either to the researcher or the subject about which testgroup a subject has been assigned. The researcher is prevented from imposing her bias onthe data so she may be a more careful observer. The subject is prevented from becoming


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either encouraged or discouraged by any previous opinions about the treatment, in a drugtrial for example, that he may have started with.

Potential

o Once the primary data has been gathered, analysts study it using other research methods.

They look for relationships between factors that may suggest the designs for new studies.When they combine the primary data from more than one study, they are using integrativemethods. Their findings present secondary data, a synthesis of several streams of primarydata.

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Primary Research, Brand PositioningMessage Framing & Target Profiling

Secondary Data

Secondary data is the data that have been already collected by and readily available from other sources. Such data are cheape

and more quickly obtainable than the primary data and also may be available when primary data can not be obtained at all.

Advantages of Secondary data

1. It is economical. It saves efforts and expenses.2. It is time saving.3. It helps to make primary data collection more specific since with the help of secondary data, we are able to make out4. what are the gaps and deficiencies and what additional information needs to be collected.5. It helps to improve the understanding of the problem.6. It provides a basis for comparison for the data that is collected by the researcher.

Disadvantages of Secondary Data

1. Secondary data is something that seldom fits in the framework of the marketing research factors. Reason

its non-fitting are:-

a. Unit of secondary data collection-Suppose you want information on disposable income, but the da


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available on gross income. The information may not be same as we require.

b. Class Boundaries may be different when units are same.

Before 5 Years After 5 Years

2500-5000 5000-6000

5001-7500 6001-7000

7500-10000 7001-10000

c. Thus the data collected earlier is of no use to you.2. Accuracy of secondary data is not known.3. Data may be outdated.

Evaluation of Secondary DataBecause of the above mentioned disadvantages of secondary data, we will lead to evaluation of secondary dat.

Evaluation means the following four requirements must be satisfied:-

1. Availability- It has to be seen that the kind of data you want is available or not. If it is not available

then you have to go for primary data.

2. Relevance- It should be meeting the requirements of the problem. For this we have two criterion:-a. Units of measurement should be the same.b. Concepts used must be same and currency of data should not be outdated.

3. Accuracy- In order to find how accurate the data is, the following points must be considered: -

a. Specification and methodology used;b. Margin of error should be examined;c. The dependability of the source must be seen.

4. Sufficiency- Adequate data should be available.

Robert W Joselyn has classified the above discussion into eight steps. These eight steps are sub classified into th

categories. He has given a detailed procedure for evaluating secondary data.

1. Applicability of research objective.2. Cost of acquisition.3. Accuracy of data.


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Primary Data

y Data collected specifically for a research projecty Collect when secondary data are

o Unavailableo Inappropriate

y can be collected through a number of different methodsy sometimes more than one method can apply to a single

problem

Two Broad Approaches

y Same basic data collection methods can be used undereach.

o Although the formality or flexibility of the datacollection process varies

o Nature of the sample varieso Conditions under which data are collected vary

Questioning Approach Observation Approa

y Respondents play an active roley Interview or a formal questionnairey Question designy Can use either for exploratory, descriptive, or experimentaly Not all questioning or interviewing situations use formal

questionnairesy Questionnaire is a tool that is used in many, but not all,

research projects

y Passivey In-person or mechanical devicesy Time consuming

y Can use either for exploratory, descriptive, or ex

Observational Approachesexample: Johnson Controls

Covert observational research

y Researchers do not identify themselves.y Either they

o mix in with the subjects undetectedo observe from a distance.

y The advantages of this approach are:o It is not necessary to get the subjects cooperationo Subjects behavior will not be contaminated by the presence of the researcher

y Some researchers have ethical misgivings with this approach

Overt observational research

y Researchers identify themselves as researchersy Researchers explain the purpose of their observations.y Subjects tend to modify their behavior when they know they are being watched.

y They portray their ideal self rather than their true self


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ResearcherParticipation

y The researcher participates in what they are observingy They get a finer appreciation of the phenomena.

y Researchers that participate tend to lose their objectivity.

II. Questioning Versus Observation

y Not interchangeabley Each has certain unique capabilities.y Advantages may not hold true in every situation calling for primary-data collection.

y Neither approach is likely to always be better than the other along each of the following dimensions.

A.Versatility B.Time and Cost

Observation Observation

y limited to collecting data about visible characteristics orvariables

y may be inconclusive

y How does a customer feel?

y Can involve large amount of inactivity

Questioning Questioning

y may not be possible.y Difficult to get answers from children

y very versatile in the types of data it generates.

y Usually less expensivey Usually less time consumingy A variety of avenues are availabley Can search for the most rich data source

y More flexibility in the collection process.

C.Data Accuracy D. Respondent Conven

Questioning Questioning

y Unable to recall reaction/purchaseChryslerMinivany Unwilling or unable to reveal the truthy Erroneous answers

y Survey research did not support the introduction of minivan

y Answers specific questionsy Inaccurate

y Participation problems

Observing Observing

y Observation is more accurate for behaviory Lack of interaction minimizes data distortiony Pre-release observation of Junior(movie) showed support,

but the movie was a box office failure

y Subjectivity of questionery Carelessness of an observer.y Respondents' inability or unwillingness to provide accurate

data

y Respondents do not participatey Inability to account for all variables

y Waiting for events to take place


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Example Benetton

III.Questionnaire Format

y Format is a function ofo The level of structure desiredo The degree of disguise desired during data collection.

Structured Question Nonstructured question

y presented verbatim to every respondent

y fixed response categories.

y Not necessarily presented in exactly the same wording to every respo

y Does not have fixed responses.

Nondisguised Question Disguised Question

y Direct question

y Purpose is obvious to respondents.

y Indirect question whosey True purpose is not obvious to respondents

y Used to examine issues for which direct questions may not elicit truth

Types ofQuestionnaires

Structured - Non Disguised Non - Structured - Non Disguised

y Clear and directy Appropriate for large samples and

descriptive research

y Flexible and direct

y Appropriate when looking for in depth answers and exploratory resear

Structured - Disguised Non - Structured - Disguised

y Clear and investigativey Used to uncover peoples attitudes

y Flexible and investigative


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Criteria 1 2 3

Best Worst

Versatility

Number ofQuestions Personal Mail Web Phone

Amount/variety of information Personal Phone Web Mail

Presentation Stimuli Personal Web Phone Mail

Time Web Phone Personal Mail

Cost Web Mail Phone Personal

Accuracy

Sampling Control Personal Phone Mail Web

Supervisory Control Web Mail Phone Personal

Opportunity forClarification Personal Phone Web Mail

Respondent Convenience Web Mail Phone Personal

V.Types of Observation Techniques

A.Natural versus Contrived Observation

Natural Observation

y Reactions and behavior observed as they occur naturally in real-life situations

y A wide variety of companies are sending researchers to the field to observe consum

their natural environment.

y Natural observation (ethnographic research) is more suited than traditional qualitati

e research for studying non-Western cultures.

Contrived Observation

y Contrived settingy Environment artificially set up by the researcher.y Researchers are increasingly relying on computers to conduct simulated market tesy Offers a greater degree of control

o

Speedyo Efficiento Less expensive

y Would this data have resulted from a real-life setting??

B.Disguised versus Nondisguised Observation

Disguised Observation

y Respondents are unaware they are being observedy Respondents do change their behavior as a function of the observational techniy Allows for monitoring of the true reactions of individuals.y Unethical if disguised observation monitors

o Normally private behaviorso Behaviors that may not be voluntarily revealed to researchers.

y Mystery shoppingo

popular disguised observational techniqueo Mystery shopper Unknown to the retail establishment Visits the store Uses a structured script Observes and records the shopping experience.

Nondisguised observation

y Data may be contaminated by respondent-induced errors.

y Data gathered through using disguised observation might not be as rich as thos


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nondisguised observation.

C.Human versus Mechanical Observation

Human observation

y people taking observationsy observing products in use to detect usage patterns and problemy observing license plates in store parking lotsy determining the socio-economic status of shoppersy determining the level of package scrutiny

y determining the time it takes to make a purchase decision

Eye-Tracking

y Tacks eye movementso Measures which sections

Attract customers' attention how much time they spend looking at those s

y Used foro adso product packagingo promotional displayso websiteso

y Oculometers - what the subject is looking at

y Pupilometers - how interested is the viewer

Response Latency

y The speed with which a respondent provides an answery Measured to determine the ad effectiveness on brand preference

y Assumes that a quick expression of brand preference indicates

Voice Pitch Analysis (VOPAN) -

y Used to determineo how strongly a respondent feels about an answero how much emotional commitment is attached to an ans

y Variations from normal voice pitch is considered a measure of eanswer.

People Meter

y Electronic device to monitor television viewing behavioro who is watchingo what shows are being watched.

y used by ACNielsen Company

Psychogalvanometery measures galvanic skin response

D.Web-Based Observational Techniques

HTTP cookie

y Well-known mechanism for storing information about Internet users on their own computersy Often stores identification for subsequent recognition of aWebsite visitor.y Cookies and their use generally does not hide from users

y Considered ethical if the user gives permission

Spyware

y Computersoftware that gathers and reports information about a computer user without the user's

knowledge orconsent.

y Considered unethical

E.Direct versus Indirect Observation


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Direct observationy Captures actual behavior or phenomenon of interest

Indirect observation

y Consists of examining the results or consequences of the phenomenon.y can give only relatively crude or imprecise indications of a phenomenony More efficient use of timey More efficient fund usage

y May be the only way to get data from situations impractical to observe directly.

F.Structured versus Nonstructured Observation

Structured observation

y Study's data requirements areo well established ando can be broken into a set of discrete, clearly defined categories

y Generally easier to record and analyzey Limited in the depth and richness of data.

y More suitable for conclusive research projects

Non-structured observation

y Study's data requirementso Not well establishedo cannot be broken into a set of discrete, clearly defined categor

y More suitable for exploratory research projects.

G OtherTypes of Observational Techniques

Audits

y retail audits to determine the quality of service in storesy inventory audits to determine product acceptance

y shelf space audits

Trace Analysis

y credit card recordsy computer cookie recordsy garbology - looking for traces of purchase patterns in garbage

y detecting store traffic patterns by observing the wear in the floor (long term) or the dirt on

floor (short term)

y exposure to advertisements

Content Analysis

y observe either articles, programs, or advertising content ofo magazineso television broadcastso radio broadcastso newspapers


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Secondary data is data collected by someone other than the user. Common sources of

secondary data for social science include censuses, surveys, organizational records and data

collected through qualitative methodologies orqualitative research. Primary data, by contrast,are collected by the investigator conducting the research.

Secondary data analysis saves time that would otherwise be spent collecting data and,

particularly in the case of quantitative data, provides larger and higher-quality databases than

would be unfeasible for any individual researcher to collect on their own. In addition to that,

analysts of social and economic change consider secondary data essential, since it is

impossible to conduct a new survey that can adequately capture past change and/or

developments.

Sources of secondary data

As is the case in primary research, secondary data can be obtained from two different research

strands:

Quantitative: Census, housing, social security as well as electoral statistics and other

related databases.

Qualitative: Semi-structured and structured interviews, focus groups transcripts, field

notes, observation records and other personal, research-related documents.

A clear benefit of using secondary data is that much of the background work needed has been

already been carried out, for example: literature reviews, case studies might have been carried

out, published texts and statistic could have been already used elsewhere, media promotion

and personal contacts have also been utilized.

This wealth of background work means that secondary data generally have a pre-established

degree ofvalidity and reliability which need not be re-examined by the researcher who is re-

using such data.

Furthermore, secondary data can also be helpful in the research design of subsequent primary

research and can provide a baseline with which the collected primary data results can be

compared to. Therefore, it is always wise to begin any research activity with a review of the

secondar

[edit]Secondary analysis or re-use of qualitative data


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Qualitative data re-use provides a unique opportunity to study the raw materials of the recent or

more distant past to gain insights for both methodological and theoretical purposes.

In the secondary analysis of qualitative data, good documentation can not be underestimated as

it provides necessary background and much needed context both of which make re-use a more

worthwhile and systematic endeavour[1]. Actually one could go as far as claim that qualitative

secondary data analysis can be understood, not so much as the analysis of pre-existing data;

rather as involving a process of re-contextualising, and re-constructing, data[2].

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What is Dat1