Chapter 7

Basic Motivation

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Learning Objectives

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1 Describe the three key elements of motivation.

2 Compare the early theories of motivation.

3 Contrast the elements of self-determination theory and goal-setting theory.

4Demonstrate the differences among self-efficacy theory, reinforcement theory, equity theory, and

expectancy theory.

5 Identify the implications of employee job engagement for managers.

6 Describe how the contemporary theories of motivation complement one another.

Motivation

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Motivation

The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal – specifically, an organizational goal

Early Theories of Motivation

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Physiological Needs

Security / Safety Needs

Social / Belongingness Needs

Esteem Needs

Self Actualization

Needs

General Examples Organizational Examples

Sustenance Base Salary

Stability Pension Plan

Friendship Friends in Work

Status Job Title

Achievement Challenging Job

Early Theories of Motivation

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

1 No research was conducted to support the concept

2Individuals can’t move to the next higher level until all needs at the current (lower) level aresatisfied

3 Individuals must move in a hierarchical order

4 Paved the way for others to develop new concepts in the field

Early Theories of Motivation

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Two Factor Theory

“The Motivation Hygiene Theory”

= Supervision

= Working Conditions

= Interpersonal Relationships

= Pay and Job Security

= Company Policies

= Achievement

= Recognition

= The Work it self

= Responsibility

= Advancement and Growth

The Traditional ViewSatisfaction Dissatisfaction

The Herzberg’s ViewSatisfaction Dissatisfaction

The Motivation Factors

Satisfaction No Satisfaction

The Hygiene Factors

No Dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction

Extrinsic to the WorkIntrinsic to the Work

Early Theories of Motivation

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Two Factor Theory

“The Motivation Hygiene Theory”

1 Key Point: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites but separate constructs

2Herzberg assumed, but didn’t research, a strong relationship between satisfaction andproductivity

3Subsequent research has also shown that if hygiene and motivational factors are equallyimportant to a person, both are capable of motivating.

4 Regardless of the criticisms, Herzberg’s theory has been quite influential.

Early Theories of Motivation

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McClelland’s Needs Theory

“Three Needs Theory”

1 Need for AchievementThe drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, tostrive to succeed

2 Need for PowerThe need to make others behave in a way that they would not havebehaved otherwise

3 Need for Affiliation The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships

Early Theories of Motivation

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McClelland’s Needs Theory

“Three Needs Theory”

1 People have varying levels of each of the three needs which is hard to measure

2Prefer to undertake activities with a 50/50 chance of success “avoiding very low or high risksituations”

3Be motivated in jobs that offer high degree of personal responsibility, feedback, and moderaterisk

4 High need for achievement doesn’t necessarily make good managers “too personal a focus”

5Most good general managers do not have a high need for achievement. They have high level ofneed for power and low need for affiliation for managerial success

Contemporary Theories of Motivation

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Self-Determination Theory

A theory of motivation that is concerned with the beneficial effects of intrinsic motivation and the harmful effects of extrinsic motivation.

Cognitive Evaluation

Theory

Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that had been previously onlyintrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation

Self ConcordanceTheory

When the personal reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with personalinterests and core values (intrinsic motivation), people are happier and moresuccessful.

Contemporary Theories of Motivation

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Self-Determination Theory

Intrinsic “tangible” vs. Extrinsic “verbal” Rewards

1 Feel having control

2 Want to do the work vs. Have to do the work

Both are related and complementary for each other

Individual role vs. organization and managers role

Contemporary Theories of Motivation

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Goal Setting Theory

Specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance.

1 Why specific goals? Clear – focus … etc.

2 Why difficult goals? Energize – persistence – effective – efficient … etc.

3 Why feedback? Progress toward goal achievement

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What is the role of

employees

participation

Mixed results

Well supported by research theory

Contemporary Theories of Motivation

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Goal Setting Theory

Goals and performance relationship depends on:

1 Goal commitment (the more public the better!)

2 Task characteristics (simple, well-learned)

3 National culture (best match is in North America)

Contemporary Theories of Motivation

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Goal Setting Theory

Individual and Promotion

Promotion focus

A self-regulation strategy that involves striving

for goals through advancement and

accomplishment.

Prevention focus

A self-regulation strategy that involves striving

for goals by fulfilling duties and obligations.

Contemporary Theories of Motivation

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Goal Setting Theory

Goal Setting Implementation

Management byObjectives (MBO)

A program that encompasses specific goals, participatively set, for an explicittime period and including feedback on goal progress.

1 MBO is a systematic way to utilize goal-setting

2Four common ingredients to MBO programs: Goal Specificity - Participative decision making -Explicit time period - Performance feedback

3 Goals must be: Tangible – Verifiable - Measurable

4 Corporate goals are broken down into smaller, more specific goals at each level of organization.

Other Contemporary Theories of

Motivation

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Self-Efficacy Theory

“Social Cognitive Theory or Social Learning Theory”

1 Greater confidence

2 Greater persistence in the face of difficulties

3 Better response to negative feedback (work harder)

That’s why self-efficacy complements goal-setting theory

An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task

Other Contemporary Theories of

Motivation

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Self-Efficacy Theory

“Social Cognitive Theory or Social Learning Theory”

1Enactive mastery “gaining relevantexperience”

2Vicarious modeling “sea some one elsedoing the task”

3Verbal persuasion “some one convinceor motivate the individual”

Increasing self-efficacy:

4 Arousal “enthusiastic start”

Influencing self-Efficacy in Others:

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy“Pygmalion Effect”

What one person expects can come to serve a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Other Contemporary Theories of

Motivation

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Reinforcement Theory

Behavior is a function of its consequences

A counter point to goal setting theory “behavioristic vs. cognitive approach”

1 Environment cause behavior

2 Inner state is ignored “thought are ignored”

3 Behavior is controlled by its consequences

4 Not a motivational theory but a means of analysis of behavior

Other Contemporary Theories of

Motivation

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Reinforcement Theory

Operant ConditioningTheory

People learn to behave a certain way to either get something they want or toavoid something they don’t want.

Social-Learning Theory People can learn through both observation and direct experience.

Behaviorism A theory that behavior follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner.

Other Contemporary Theories of

Motivation

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Equity Theory / Organizational Justice

Compared With

(Ratio Analysis)

Outcomes (self)

Inputs (self) Inputs (others)

Outcomes (others)

No tension as the situation isconsidered fair

Tension exists due tounfairness

1 Ratios are equal

2 Ratios are unequal

State of equity exists

State of inequity exists (underrewarded or over rewarded)

Equity TheoryIndividuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others andthen respond to eliminate any inequities.

Other Contemporary Theories of

Motivation

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Equity Theory / Organizational Justice

Referent Comparisons:

Motivation to Equity: Maintain current situation

1 Self Inside / Outside 2 Others Inside / Outside

Motivation to Inequity: 1 Change inputs 2 Change outcomes

3Distort / change perceptionsof self

4Distort / change perceptionsof others

5Choose a different referentperson

6 Leave the field

Other Contemporary Theories of

Motivation

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Equity Theory / Organizational Justice

Organizational Justice An overall perception of what is fair in the workplace

1 Distributive Justice

2 Procedural Justice

Perceived fairness of outcome

Perceived fairness of the process used to determine outcome

3 Interactional Justice Perceived degree to which one is treated with dignity and respect

Components of the Organizational Justice:

Other Contemporary Theories of

Motivation

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Equity Theory / Organizational Justice

Informational JusticeThe degree to which employees are provided truthful explanations fordecisions.

Interpersonal Justice The degree to which employees are treated with dignity and respect.

Other Contemporary Theories of

Motivation

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Expectancy Theory

The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual

Individual

Effort

Individual

Performance

Organizational

Rewards

Personal

Goals

1 2 3

Effort - Performance Relationship

Performance – Reward Relationship

Rewards- Personal Goals Relationship

Job Engagement

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Job Engagement

The investment of an employee’s physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance.

What are the Consequences of High Job Engagement?

1 Higher levels of productivity 2 Fewer safety incidents

3 Lower turnover 4 Positive task performance

5Positive organizational citizenshipbehavior

6 Etc.

Integrating Contemporary Theories of

Motivation

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