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WhatShouldBetheContentforStudentLearning?—
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RUNNINGHEADER:WhatShouldBetheContentforStudentLearning?
WhatShouldBetheContentforStudentLearning?
TheodoreW.Frick
ProfessorEmeritus
DepartmentofInstructionalSystemsTechnology
IndianaUniversityBloomington
FinalDraft(4,923totalwords):August19,2018
Submittedasachapterfordiscussionatthe
SummerResearchSymposium
AssociationforEducationalCommunicationsandTechnology(AECT)
Bloomington,Indiana
July16-17,2018
WhatShouldBetheContentforStudentLearning?—
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Abstract
Content in education is typically conceived as subject matter, often divided into
disciplinessuchasmathematics,English,history,science,geography,andsoforth.Content
isoftenfurtherconceivedasbeingembeddedinmediasuchastextbooks,handouts,movies,
computers,posters,andbulletinboardsthatareused inthecontextofclassrooms inside
school buildings. I present Steiner’s alternative conception of content, namely that of
schemataforcognition,intention,andemotion,whichstandincontrasttotraditionalnotions
ofsubjectmatter.Ifurtherdistinguishsignsofcontentfromcontentasobjectsthemselves,
asdoesPeirce. IdiscussMaccia’s epistemologyof educationalobjectives that includes9
kindsofknowing:instantial,theoretical,andcriterial‘knowingthat’;protocolic,adaptive,
andcreative ‘knowinghow’; and recognitive, acquaintive, andappreciative ‘knowing that
one’.Next,throughretroductivereasoning,Iextendcontentobjectivestoincludeformation
of affective (emotional) and conative (intentional) mental structures. Finally, I briefly
discuss the theory of Totally Integrated Education (TIE) as a way to characterize the
educational aim of guiding students to form strongly connected cognitive, conative, and
affectivementalstructures. Insteadofconceivingsubjectmatterasacquiringknowledge
withinextantdisciplines,Iarguethateducationalcontentshouldbeconsideredwithrespect
tostudentmentalstructuresthatareexpectedtoresultfromteachingandlearningactivities.
Thisstandsininstarkcontrastto“coveringthecontent”presentedinprintedtextbooksand
other media. If we pursue totally integrated education (TIE), student learning will be
grounded.Groundingofknowing,feeling,andintendingisvitallyimportant.Studentswho
aregroundedarelesseasilydeceivedandmisledbyotherswhoareignorant,prejudiced,or
whointentionallylieordistorttruth.
WhatShouldBetheContentforStudentLearning?—
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1. Introduction:WhatisContent?
The great American philosopher of education, John Dewey, discussed the typical
conceptionoftheprimaryaimofeducationas:
… the formationofmindbymeansof a subjectmatter presented fromwithout (p.69,
italicsadded)….Inthetraditionalschemesofeducation,subjectmattermeanssomuch
material to be studied. Various branches of study represent so many independent
branches,eachhavingitsprinciplesofarrangementcompletewithinitself.Historyisone
such group of facts; algebra another; geography another; and so on till we have run
throughtheentirecurriculum(p.134)….[Subjectmatter]consistsofthefactsrecalled,
read,andtalkedabout,andtheideassuggested,incourseofdevelopmentofasituation
havingapurpose.(1916,p.180)
Dewey(1916)furtherlamentedthat:
…thebondswhichconnectthesubjectmatterofschoolstudywiththehabitsandideals
of a socialgrouparedisguisedandcoveredup. The tiesare so loosened that itoften
appearsasiftherewerenone;asifsubjectmatterexistedsimplyasknowledgeonitsown
independentbehoof,andasifstudywerethemereactofmasteringitforitsownsake,
irrespectiveofanysocialvalues.(p.181)
ElizabethSteiner(1988),anothergreatAmericanphilosopherofeducation,logically
characterizedcontent asoneof the componentsof aneducationsystem. Fromageneral
systemsperspective,shecontendedthat:
Education is defined as a system consistingof subsystems of teacher (T), student (S),
content(C),andcontext(X)….Learningisdefinedaspsychicaldevelopment:formation
WhatShouldBetheContentforStudentLearning?—
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ofmentalstructures.Contentisdefinedasstructuresforpsychicaldevelopment:either
cognitive(CG)orconative(CN)oraffective(AF).(p.40,italicsadded)
BasedonGeorgeMaccia’s(1973;1987;1988)conceptionsofknowing,Steiner(1988)
further described cognitivemental structures as being “schemata for thoughtwhich are
eitherquantitative(QN)orqualitative(QL)orperformative(PF)”(p.41). Steiner(1988)
furtherdefinedconative structuresas“schemata forvolition”, andaffective structuresas
“schemataforfeeling”(p.42).
IndiscussingElizabethSteiner’sconceptionofeducationandtheroleofcontent, I
previouslywrote:
Education cannot occur withoutcontent. The content is what is shared between
successive generations. Students must interact with content in order to construct
understandingsandtheirpersonalvaluesandbeliefs.Contentisnotjustmath,English,or
biology.Andcontent isnot found inbooksorcomputerprogramsoronthetelevision
screen either. Content is the stuff of human thoughts, ideas, aspirations, feelings, and
attitudes.WhatisfoundinmediasuchasbooksandTVarerepresentationsofcontent.The
contentmay be symbolically coded in language only, or itmay be conveyed through
drama,forexample.(Frick,1991,p.15)
CharlesSandersPeirce’s(1932)semiotictheoryclarifiedthenatureofsigns:
Asign,orrepresentamen,issomethingwhichstandstosomebodyforsomethinginsome
respectorcapacity….everyrepresentamenbeingthusconnectedwiththreethings,the
ground,theobject,andtheinterpretant(2:228)….TheSigncanonlyrepresenttheObject
andtellaboutit.ItcannotfurnishacquaintancewithorrecognitionofthatObject;forthat
WhatShouldBetheContentforStudentLearning?—
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is what is meant in this volume by the Object of a Sign; namely, that with which it
presupposes an acquaintance in order to convey some further information concerning
it(2:231,italicsadded).
Educologybuildsontheseconceptionsofeducationandsubjectmatter.Contentis
defined in educology as “signs of objects and objects selected for student learning”
(Educology,2018,http://educology.indiana.edu/content.html). Contentforlearningmay
be represented with signs only, or it may be the objects themselves with or without
mediation by their respective signs. In education, students are expected to formmental
structures(i.e.,tolearn)throughinteractionwithcontentinacontext.Whatthosemental
structuresshouldbeispartofthephilosophyofeducation,i.e.thedeterminationofwhatis
worthwhileeducation.
In order to address this question, the typology of cognitive mental structures is
discussed next. This is followed by a parallel characterization of conative and affective
mentalstructures.Buildingonthisfoundation,thetheoryofTotallyIntegratedEducation
(TIE) is subsequently introduced. Examples of extant cases are then provided which
illustrateimplementationsofTIE. Inconclusion,themajorgoalsofworthwhileeducation
aresummarized.
2. TypologyofCognitiveStructures
GeorgeMaccia(1973)developedanepistemologyofeducationalobjectives,whichhe
further refined and described in 1987 and 1988 (see Frick, 1997). Central to Maccia’s
argumentisthatstudentsshouldnotonlycometo‘knowthat’buttheyshouldalsocometo
WhatShouldBetheContentforStudentLearning?—
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‘knowhow’andto‘knowthatone’.Maccia(1987)particularlyemphasizedtheimportance
ofqualitativeknowing(‘thatone’).Thesetypesofknowingarebrieflydescribednext.
OverviewofTypesofKnowing
Therearethreefundamentaltypesofcognition:1)‘knowingthat’,2)‘knowinghow’,
and 3) ‘knowing that one’ (Brown, 1972; Estep, 2003, 2006; Frick, 1997; Geach, 1964;
Maccia,1973,1987,1988;Ryle,1959;Sheffler,1965).Clearly,thesethreeclassificationsof
cognitionarenotexclusiveinthesensethattwoormoreofthemcanoccuratthesametime
withinanindividual.Forexample,inFig.1,thepersonknowsRoverasaninstanceofthe
dog classification (‘knowing that’), away to giveRover a bath (‘knowing how’), and this
particularuniquedog,Rover(‘knowingthatone’).
Figure1.Threebasickindsofknowing(drawingsbyElizabethBoling)
On the physiological level, mental structures are encoded through strengthened
neuralconnectionsinthenervoussystem(Kandel,1989;2001;Squire&Kandel,1999).On
thebasisofaseriesofempiricalstudies,Kandel(2001)concludedthat“…learningresults
from changes in the strength of synaptic connections between precisely connected cells
WhatShouldBetheContentforStudentLearning?—
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[neurons]” (p. 1032). According to Eagleman (2015),whenwe are bornwe each have
approximately100billionneuronsinournervoussystem.Duringthefirst2-3yearsoflife,
ourbodycreatestrillionsofconnectionsamongthoseneurons.Aswefurthergrow,develop,
andlearn,ourindividualexperiencesliterallyprunethoseconnections,sothattheremaining
connectionsformauniquementalstructure,theuniquelong-termmemoriesandabilities
weeachhave.Certainconnectionsarestrengthenedthroughthoseexperiencesthroughout
ourlives,andotherconnectionsareweakened.
Moreover,asEagleman(2015)emphasizes:
When we look inside the brain, we see neurons, synapses, chemical transmitters,
electrical activity. We see billions of active, chattering cells…. To understand human
consciousness,wemayneedtothinknotintermsofthepiecesandpartsofthebrain,but
insteadintermsofhowthesecomponentsinteract.(Locations2724–2730,italicsadded)
Inshort,theuniquementalstructureeachofushasatanygivenpointintimeallowsusto
think, to intend, and to feel as we consciously interact with our surroundings.
Neuroscientistscanobservethepatternsofactivitiesofneuronscommunicatinginrealtime
through movies of functional magnetic resonance images (fMRI). Our unique mental
structuresdeterminehowourindividualmindscanfunctionfrommomenttomoment.
Since one’s knowing consists of cognitive mental structures that are not directly
observablebyanotherperson,itisnecessarytoidentifyobservableindicatorsorsignsof
suchknowing.Aseducators,wecanobservetheactionsofanotherperson,whichindicate
whatsheorheknows,wants,andfeels.Thesemaybeevidentfromobservingthisperson
carryoutsometask,fromexaminingaproductresultingfromthisperson’sactivity,andfrom
WhatShouldBetheContentforStudentLearning?—
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examining signs this person uses and creates (icons, indices and symbols) during that
activityorinthatproduct.Estep(2006)referstosuchindicatorsas:
signsofintelligence….[which]includethebroaderrealmofthree-dimensionalpatterns
of sign-making, sign-exhibiting, and sign-disclosure of dynamic intentional doings….
Three-dimensionalsignssuchassignalsandcues,includegestures(aswithhands),but
alsofull-bodydoingssuchastasksorotherperformances….Thesesigncategories...span
all sensorimotor capacities, including visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, and
somatosensorycategories(includingtouching,moving,andproprioception).(pp.38-39)
As an example, near the end of physicians’ medical education, medical students
becomeinternswheretheypracticemedicinewithactualpatientsandtheirmaladies.They
aresupervisedandobservedbyteacher-physicianswhoarealreadylicensedforpractice,
andwhoprovide further coachingand feedback to thesestudent-physicians-to-be.These
physician-coaches can infer from observation whether or not their student interns are
makingproperassessments,diagnoses,andcarryingoutappropriatetreatments.Inshort,
thetestisamethodbywhichateachercanunambiguouslyinferstudentmentalstructures
fromobservableindicatorsofstudentperformanceunderappropriateconditions.Testsare
not restricted to answering questions or solving problems, as typically conceived by
educators.Suchwrittenororalexamsarejustonekindofindicator.
Indiscussingpedagogicalepistemology,Maccia(1973)referredtotutorialconditions
ofknowing:
WhatShouldBetheContentforStudentLearning?—
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...knowingisviewedin lightof tutorialrequirements.Onlythoseknowingstowhicha
teacher has access, which a teacher can bring to a learner, and which a learner can
communicateinsomewaytoateacheraretakenseriously.(p.1)
Theremaybeotherkindsofstudentknowingtowhichteachershavenoaccesswhen
observingandcommunicatingwithstudents.Forexample,Polyani(2015)refers to"tacit
knowing,"whichessentiallymeansprivate,personalknowingnotsharablewithothersas
intersubjectivesigns.Similarly,studentfeelingsandintentionsmaybetacit,unavailableto
theirteachers.
Without further digression here, if teachers have no way to tell if students have
achieved suchunobservablekindsofknowing, then thesekindsofknowingareexcluded
fromeducology.This iswhyMaccia referred to tutorial conditionsofknowing in further
explicatinghispedagogicalepistemology(e.g.,Maccia,1987,1988).
Kinds of knowing are based onMaccia’s pedagogical epistemology, Estep’s (2003,
2006) evidential arguments about natural intelligence, and Frick’s (1997) discussion of
issues in artificial intelligence. Nine kinds of knowing are outlined below as goals for
worthwhileeducation—i.e.,cognitivestructuresthatstudentsoughttodevelop:
1. ‘Knowingthat’:whatareindicatorsof‘belief’—isitwarrantedbydisciplined
inquiry,i.e.,isittruebelief?
1.1. Instantial:classificationofobjectsofthesamekind.
1.2. Relational:rationalexplanationofrelationshipsbetweenkindsofobjects.
1.3. Criterial:rationaljudgmentofkindsofobjectsandtheirrelationsaccordingto
anorm.
WhatShouldBetheContentforStudentLearning?—
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2. ‘Knowinghow’:whatareindicatorsof‘performance’—isiteffectiveandethical?
2.1. Protocolic:takeonepathtogoal;inflexible,duplicativedoing.
2.2. Adaptive:takealternativepathstogoal,choosingorcombiningpathsbasedon
specificconditions.
2.3. Creative:innovateorinventanewwaytoreachanexistingornewgoal.
3. ‘Knowingthatone’:whatareindicatorsof‘opinion’—isitright?
3.1. Recognitive:selecttheuniqueQfromnot-Qandnot-QfromQ.
3.2. Acquaintive:identifyrelationsdeterminateoftheuniqueQ.
3.3. Appreciative:identifyrelationsappropriateoftheuniqueQ.
Normsforevaluatingthesekindsofknowingareindicatedbythequestionsfollowing
each of the threemajor types. Inworthwhile education,when students developmental
structuresfor‘knowingthat’,theirbeliefsmustbewarrantedbydisciplinedinquiry.Inother
words,studentsshouldcometoholdtruebeliefs.For‘knowinghow’,studentconductmust
bebotheffectiveandethical.For‘knowingthatone’,rightopinionisessential.Clearly,some
learned beliefs are unwarranted, some actions are unethical, and some opinions are not
right.
Unfortunately,studentscandevelopmentalstructuresforfalsebeliefs,badactions,
andwrongopinions.Onecan,forexample,believethattheearthisthecenteroftheuniverse;
however, Galileo and Copernicus long agoprovided empirical evidence that this belief is
false.Itisnotsupportedbyfacts.Onecanholdthefalsebeliefthatplainwaterfreezesat
100degreescentigrade.Suchbeliefisclearlyatoddswithempiricalevidence.Onecanlearn
how todeceiveothers,bymakingemotional appeals to their fearsandprejudices. Such
conductisunethical.
WhatShouldBetheContentforStudentLearning?—
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Note thatwithineach typeofknowing, eachhigher level requires the lower level.
Criterialknowing requires relationalknowing, and relationalknowing requires instantial
knowing. Creative ‘know how’ requires adaptive ‘know how’ that, in turn, requires
protocolic ‘know how’. Appreciation requires acquaintance, and acquaintance requires
recognition. In other words, within each classification of knowing, the categories are
progressivelyinclusive.
Thetypesofknowingarenotmutuallyexclusive.Wecan‘knowthat’withrespectto
someobject, ‘knowhow’and ‘knowthatone’. This is illustrated inFig.1,wherethedog
Rover, is theobjectof ‘knowingthat’, ‘knowinghow’, and ‘knowingthatone’. SeeFrick
(1997;2018)forfurtherexamplesofthesethreekindsofknowing.
3. TypologiesofConativeandAffectiveMentalStructures
Maccia’s typology for cognitive structures is used here as a starting point for
classifyingconativeandaffectivestructures.
Universals
There are classifications of universals.For example, 'justice' is a universal
(general).A student can learn to seek justice as a goal.This would be a conative
structure.That student could also develop affective mental structures for good feelings
aboutjustice,andbadfeelingsaboutinjustice.
MeanstoEnds
Thereare'meanstoends'.Forexample,theMacintoshoperatingsystemisameans
tolaunchapps,printdocuments,dotextmessaging,etc.OnemightwanttousetheMacOS,
WhatShouldBetheContentforStudentLearning?—
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timeandtimeagain.Thiswouldbeaconativementalstructure.Onemightalsohavegood
feelingstowarduseoftheMacOS.Hence,theremaybeconativeandaffectivestructuresfor
waysofdoing.
Uniques
Conativestructurescanhaveuniqueobjects,justascognitivethoughtsandmeansto
ends.Forexample,apersoncanwantaparticularthing,suchasMacBookcomputer,orto
befriendswithauniquepersonsuchasCesurDagli.Similarly,onecanhavefeelingstowards
thatMacBookorCesur.
ContentasConativeandAffectiveStructures
Inadditiontocognitivementalstructures,contentineducationshouldincludegoals
forstudentstodevelopconativeandaffectivestructures.Studentsshouldlearnmorethan
just ‘knowingthat’, ‘knowinghow’,and‘knowingthatone’. Theyshouldalsoformmoral
intentionsandgoodfeelingsaboutthoserespectiveobjectsofcognition.
4. PuttingItAllTogether:TIETheory
ThetheoryofTotallyIntegratedEducation(TIE)isbuiltonwell-definedterminology
fromeducology(Frick,2018).CentraltoTIEtheoryisthepremisethat,totheextentthat
studentmental structures are formedwhich integrate cognition, intention, and emotion,
thenstudentlearningwillbestrongerandmoreholistic.InTIEtheory,integratedmental
structuresarepredictedtobelessvulnerabletoforgetting(Fig.2,3,4,and5).
WhatShouldBetheContentforStudentLearning?—
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Figure2.Schemafordesiredconnectionsamongastudent’scognition(thinking),intention(willing),andemotion(feeling)duringalearningactivity(graphicbyColinGray).ReprintedwithpermissionfromFrick,2018.
Figure3.Illustrationofintegrationof9kindsofcognition.GraphicbyColinGrayandTheodoreFrick.ReprintedwithpermissionfromFrick,2018.
WhatShouldBetheContentforStudentLearning?—
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Figure4.Illustrationoftotallyintegratededucation,wherecognition,intentionsandemotionsarecompletelyconnected.Figures1-3arecombinedvisually.GraphicbyColinGrayandTheodoreFrick.ReprintedwithpermissionfromFrick,2018.
Figure5.Disconnectedmentalstructures(graphicbyColinGray).‘Knowinghow’and‘knowingthatone’aredisconnectedfrom ‘knowing that’. Student intention and emotion are disconnected from ‘knowing that’. This ungrounded anddissociatedlearningcanoccurwhensignsusedincommunicationareusedinisolationfromtheircorrespondingreal-worldobjectsandpurposefulactivity.Theresultingmentalstructuresareweaklyconnected,lackingwholenessandintegration.ReprintedwithpermissionfromFrick,2018.
WhatShouldBetheContentforStudentLearning?—
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5. Examples
Frick(2018)describedtwoextantcaseswhichillustrateTIE.Threemorecasesare
describedhere,the: UnionvilleElementarySchoolEARTHcurriculum;StateUniversityof
NewYork(SUNY)CobleskillFisheries,WildlifeandEnvironmentalSciencesprogram;SUNY
CobleskillBiotechnologyprogram.
5.1UnionvilleElementarySchoolCurriculum
The Unionville Elementary School inBloomington, Indiana, USA, has developed a
unique curriculum they identify by the acronym EARTH: Environment, Art, Resources,
TechnologyandHealth.Howell(2018)notes:
Youcanseeitwhenyoustopbytheschool:Traysfullofseedlingssproutingonclassroom
windowsills.Potatoesgrowingrootsincupsofwater.Largeshelvesbearinggardening
toolsandseedpacketsnearthebackdoor.Teachersandstudentsholdingclassoutside,
onthehill,bythegardenboxes,underthesheltered“learninglab”ontheplaygroundand
in the miniature amphitheater with wooden benches by the pond. Students planting
flowersandvegetables,orwatchingandsketchingthetrees,writingtheirobservationsin
sciencenotebooks.(paragraph2)
Howellfurtherwrites:
Inmanyways,thecurriculumharnessesthingsUnionvillehasbeendoingforyears.They
compostandrecycleintheschoolcafeteria,usetheoutdoorspacesoftenandgoforhikes
onUnionville’s18acres.Thefishingclubcatchesfishintheschool’spondfromalittle
dockbuiltforclasspurposes.Theyusedifferentkindsofart,includingquilting,tovisually
WhatShouldBetheContentforStudentLearning?—
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representwhatthey’relearning.Theschoolteachesdigitalcitizenshipandcoding,aswell
ashealthylivingandgoodlifestylechoices.
EARTH puts a renewed focus on those elements, increases the number of science
experiencesandputsanoutdoor,environmentaltwistonitall.(paragraphs7-8)
Howell quotes the Unionville principal, Lily Albright, who said, “It’s about
appreciating and understanding what’s going on right here in our own backyard, and
applying that as we think about the world and our place in the world” (Howell, 2018,
paragraph9).
The EARTH curriculum clearly leads Unionville elementary students to connect
‘knowingthat’,‘knowinghow’,and‘knowingthatone’(seeFig.1,2,3and4).Itillustratesa
practicalimplementationofTIEtheoryinthisparticularcontext.
5.2SUNYCobleskillFisheries,WildlifeandEnvironmentalSciencesProgram
Hands-onlearningiscentralforstudentsintheFisheries,WildlifeandEnvironmental
SciencesprogramattheStateUniversityofNewYork,inCobleskill,NY,USA.Theprogram
utilizesitsowncold-waterfishhatcherytanks(Fig.6).Oneclassroomincludesaquariums
with live fish as well as some taxidermized species on the walls (Fig. 7). Advanced
undergraduate students spend time in the outdoors doing scientific research, and
subsequentlypresenttheirfindingsatprofessionalconferences(Fig.8).
Feldman(2018)quotesdepartmentchair,MarkCornwell,whosays:
Asstudentsprogressintheprogram,movingupleveltolevel,themixoftheiractivities
changes… For example, those at the beginning of their study are taught in four-hour
blocksoftime.Thefirsthourisclassroominstructioncoveringtheoryandpractice;the
WhatShouldBetheContentforStudentLearning?—
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remainingthreehoursarespentinthewater,wherestudentsaresuddenlysurrounded
bywhattheywerejusttaughtaboutinclass.It’saterrificwaytoteachandlearn.”(p.7)
Figure6. Departmentchair,MarkCornwell,explains that largefish tankson campusareusedforbreedingpurposes.Studentslearnhowsuchhatcheriesaremanaged,engageinraisingfish,andthenreleasethemintothewildinupstateNewYork.PhotobyT.Frick.
WhatShouldBetheContentforStudentLearning?—
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Figure7.AclassroomatSUNYCobleskillincludesbothliveandmountedspeciesoffish.PhotobyT.Frick.
Figure8.Posterssuchasthisonearepresentedbyundergraduatestudentsatprofessionalresearchconferences.PhotobyT.Frick.
WhatShouldBetheContentforStudentLearning?—
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Feldman(2018)furtherdescribesthisuniqueprogram:
Astheycontinueintheprogram,studentscollectandinterpretdata,delvedeeplyintothe
biologyofthespecieswithwhichtheywork,evenbecomeconversantaboutthelawsand
regulationsthataffectthepresentandfutureofspecifichabitatsandoftheenvironment
ingeneral.(p.7)
Cornwellisfurtherquoted:“Ultimately,ourgoalistoproducegraduateswhoareboth
extremely knowledgeable about the real-world species and systems they study and the
relevantpublicpolicyissuesthatariseinourfield”(Feldman,2018,p.7).
ItisclearthatstudentsinthisundergraduatedegreeprogramatSUNYCobleskillare
abletoconnect‘knowingthat’,‘knowinghow’,and‘knowingthatone’.Partsoftherealworld
arebroughttothecampuslearningenvironment,andstudentsalsogooutintotherealworld
astheycontinuelearning.Thisisanexcellentexampleoftotallyintegratededucation(TIE),
as illustrated in Fig. 4. Contrast these SUNY learning environmentswith typical barren
classrooms where students read textbooks, perhaps watch some videos, sit at desks
discussing ideasduringclass,andsubsequently takepaper-and-pencil testsonwhat they
havelearned(schematizedinFig.5).
5.3SUNYCobleskillBiotechnologyProgram
Undergraduate students from the SUNY Biotechnology program are actively
recruitedbygraduateschoolsandcorporations. Feldman(2018)describestheintensive,
hands-onprogram,where juniorsandseniors“dovaluable leading-edgeresearch insuch
areasasdevelopingdiseaseanddrought-resistantcropsforagriculturalenhancement”(p.
8).
WhatShouldBetheContentforStudentLearning?—
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Student research involves genetics, and some of them are invited to present at
professional conferences. Students not only must understand genetic theory (‘knowing
that’),butengageincreative‘knowing-how’(Fig.4)astheydevelopnewstrainsofplants.
Student learning is purposeful (conative) and satisfying (affective). Feldman quotes
biotechnologyprofessor,PeiyuZeng:
Ourprogramdefinitelymakesitsmarkamongotherresearchersworkinginourfield…
Forinstance,SUNYCobleskillisoneofonlyahandfulofacademicinstitutionsthathave
beenabletocreateastrainofsoybeanscapableofwithstandinghighlyadversegrowing
conditions.Itiswonderfulforstudentstoknowthattheworktheydoherewillhavea
realimpact—andrealvisibility—intheworldoutsideourlabs.(p.8)
TheSUNYbiotechnologyprogramisafurtherexampleoftotallyintegratededucation
inhighereducation.TIEisnotjustatheory;itcanbeactualizedinpractice.Asdefinedin
educology,contentisconceivedas“objectsandsignsofobjectsselectedforstudentlearning”
(Educology, 2018, http://educology.indiana.edu/content.html). As C. S. Peirce (1932)
noted:
TheSigncanonlyrepresenttheObjectandtellaboutit.Itcannotfurnishacquaintance
withorrecognitionofthatObject;forthatiswhatismeant…namely,thatwithwhichit
presupposes an acquaintance in order to convey some further information concerning
it(2:231,italicsadded).
Contextisdefinedineducologyas“thesystemenvironmentforteachingandlearning
that includes content” (http://educology.indiana.edu/context.html). Clearly, teachers at
UnionvilleElementarySchoolandatSUNYCobleskillutilizecontentandcontextsbeyondthe
WhatShouldBetheContentforStudentLearning?—
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confinesofclassroomwallsandsigns(wordsandpictures)containedinbooksandother
media. These students become acquainted with particular, unique objects in their
immediate learning environments with which respective signs are directly associated
(‘knowing that one’). These students are able to connect cognition with emotion and
intention (Fig. 2, 3, and 4). Through hands-on learning activities, they are able to form
holistic,integratedmentalstructures.
6. SummaryandConclusion
Contentastypicallyconceivedisthesubjectmatterofeducation,oftencontainedin
textbooks, movies, posters, and more recently within software apps run by computers,
tablets,andsmartphones.Thischapterhas,hopefully,dispelledthislimitedconceptionof
content.Myargumentsforamuchbroaderconceptionofcontentarelargelybasedonthose
made by Dewey, Steiner, and Maccia (see the Educology Website:
http://educology.indiana.edu/). Ihave furtheralludedtoconativeandaffectiveschemata
forstudentlearningasSteiner(1988)described.Conativeandaffectivementalstructures
are also important parts of content for student learning. TIE theory (Totally Integrated
Education)predictsthatlearningwillbeenhancedwhencognitive,conative,andaffective
structuresare connectedvia student learningactivitieswhichholistically integrate these
structures(Fig.2,3,4,and5).TheUnionvilleElementarySchoolwasusedasanexemplary
case,aswellastwoundergraduateprogramsinthesciencesatSUNYCobleskill.
Worthwhilecontent ineducation iswhatstudentsought to learn. Withrespect to
typesofknowing,teachersshouldselectthebestofcultureandleadstudentsto:
WhatShouldBetheContentforStudentLearning?—
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• ‘Knowing that’: mental structures forbeliefs that arewarrantedbydisciplined
inquiry(i.e.,rigorousresearch);
• ‘Knowinghow’: mentalstructuresforeffectiveperformanceswhichareethical;
and
• ‘Knowingthatone’:mentalstructuresforrightopinions,wherestudentslearnto
appreciateuniqueelementsoftheircultureandsurroundings.(Educology,2018,
http://educology.indiana.edu/worthwhileContent.html)
Inotherwords,studentsshouldlearnto“distinguishopinion fromtruth,”“tellright from
wrong”andactethically,and“toappreciatebeauty”(Frick,1991,p.32).
Ifwe pursue totally integrated education (TIE), student learningwill be grounded.
Grounding of knowing, feeling, and intending is vitally important. Students who are
groundedarelesseasilydeceivedandmisledbyotherswhoareignorant,prejudiced,orwho
intentionally lie or distort truth. Studentswho can think critically become responsible
participantsinademocraticsociety.Criticalthinkerswillnotallowdeceitfulleaders,tyrants,
shysters,orslickpoliticianstocontrolusandtelluswhattobelieve,feel,ortodo.
Inconclusion,everyonehasarighttoaworthwhileeducationthatwill:
• enhancethequalityoflife,
• reduceinequality,
• minimizesuffering,and
• maximizeoverallgood.
(Educology,2018,http://educology.indiana.edu/we2.html)
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