What words What words should learners should learners

focus on?focus on?

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Task and Discussion: Task and Discussion: What criteria can we use in selecting What criteria can we use in selecting words for learners?words for learners?

Other than frequency, what criteria Other than frequency, what criteria can we use to decide which words can we use to decide which words our learners should learn?our learners should learn?

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Words that learners should focus on Usefulness

Frequently used (frequency); high-frequency words need to be learnt both receptively and productively whereas low-frequency words can be learnt receptively

Used in a wide range of topics/domains (range) Related to the personal experience

Ease of learning Words that look familiar to students, e.g. “quiet” as

an adjective > “quiet” as a verb) Words made up of some familiar word parts

(prefixes, roots, suffixes), e.g. prepare, predict, precede

Relevance to students’ needs specialized or technical words related to a

particular discipline that the student is studying

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Vocabulary teaching and learning Implict vs. Explicit learning of

vocabulary A balanced approach to vocabulary

teaching (Nation, 2008) Contextualized and decontextualized

vocabulary learning The lexical approach to vocabulary

learning & teaching Assessing vocabulary

DiscussionDiscussion

1. How would you define “incidental” (or “implicit”) and “explicit” (or “deliberate”) vocabulary learning?

2.  What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of these approaches?

3.  Can you think of possible reasons why incidental learning has been found to lead to little vocabulary gains in research studies?

4.  Do you believe in the benefits of extensive reading?

5.  What strategies do teachers in your school typically use to teach vocabulary?

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Implicit vs. Implicit vs. Explicit Explicit

Vocabulary Vocabulary LearningLearning

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Can incidental learning of vocabulary (alone) lead to gains in vocabulary size (quantity) and vocabulary knowledge (quality)??? Natural exposure to language (through listening

or reading) when focus is on understanding meaning of the text (not the vocabulary)

A few pre-requisites L2 vocabulary size (3000-5000 words to achieve 95%

coverage of texts) Knowledge about how to guess word meaning from

context Reading / Listening material must be rich in

contextual clues The number of repetitions of the target vocabulary in

the reading

Some training needed

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Pre-requisite for incidental learning of vocabulary Before learners can begin learning a language

through reading texts intended for adult native speakers, they need a threshold size of 3000-5000 word families.

Target Cumulative target

KS1 (Pri 3) 1000 1000 KS2 (Pri 6) 1000 2000 KS3 (Sec 3) 1500 3500 KS4 (Sec 6) 1500 5000

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Extensive Reading using Graded Readers Benefits

Fun; pleasurable Increase exposure to language; increase

comprehension Exercises help practice new vocabulary and

grammar Graded: according to number of

headwords (words most needed by students); word frequencies; length

Resource package: exercises and keys; ideas on how the readers can be used

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Incidental learning of vocabulary through reading / listening Very little vocabulary gains (average: 1 word out of 12-14 words) made from reading alone - low scores in vocabulary quizzes given to students after their reading (Zahar, Cobb & Spada, 2001; Horst, Cobb & Meara, 1998Horst, Cobb & Meara, 1998)

Upside: useful for revisiting / consolidating words learnt before; improve “depth” of vocab knowledge; develop intuition for collocation

Downside: massive amount of input required; intention to remember the language is usually absent

More effective if accompanied by vocabulary-focused exercises / quizzes / glosses

Acquisition through reading should be supplemented by direct vocabulary teaching or instructionally enhanced reading (Zahar, Cobb & Spada 2001)

SummarySummary

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Horst, M., Cobb, T., & Meara, P. (1998). Beyond a clockwork orange: Acquiring second language vocabulary through reading. Reading in a Foreign Langauge, 11 (2), 207-223.Zahar, R., Cobb, T., & Spada, N. (2001). Acquiring vocabulary through reading: Effects of frequency and contextual richness, The Canadian Modern Language Review, 57(4), 541-572.

Zahar, Cobb,and Spada Zahar, Cobb,and Spada (2001)(2001) 144 male Grade 7 ESL students144 male Grade 7 ESL students

Heard a story being read aloud in class, while reading itHeard a story being read aloud in class, while reading it Story contained 2,098 words (91% from the 1,000 word Story contained 2,098 words (91% from the 1,000 word

level)level) Post-test showed an Post-test showed an average gain of 2.16 words out of the average gain of 2.16 words out of the

30 words 30 words being tested, when compared to scores in the being tested, when compared to scores in the pre-test which was exactly the same test.pre-test which was exactly the same test.

The weakest group of students learned one word per 1,000 The weakest group of students learned one word per 1,000 words read (probably takes 29 years to learn 2,000 words read (probably takes 29 years to learn 2,000 words!!)words!!)

FrequencyFrequency is most determining – the most learned words is most determining – the most learned words appear most frequently in the story (7 times)appear most frequently in the story (7 times)

Zahar, R., Cobb, T., & Spada, N. (2001). Acquiring vocabulary through reading: Effects of frequency and Zahar, R., Cobb, T., & Spada, N. (2001). Acquiring vocabulary through reading: Effects of frequency and contextual richness, contextual richness, The Canadian Modern Language Review, 57The Canadian Modern Language Review, 57(4),(4), 541-572.541-572.

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Zimmerman, 1997 L2 students attending university-preparatory

intensive English programs were asked to read some materials required for the course

divided into two groups: Experimental group: received 3 hours a week of

vocabulary instruction related to the required reading (e.g. group discussion using the vocabulary; creating sentences using the vocabulary; repeated exposures)

Control group: did the reading only the experimental group had a higher mean score in

the vocab post-test (of UWL words)Zimmerman, C. B. (1997). Do reading and interactive vocabulary instruction make

a difference? An empirical study, TESOL Quarterly, 31(1), 121-140.

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Words that students should learn Words that students should learn explicitlyexplicitly

First 2,000 words 80% of text coverage

First 2,000 words + AWL 90% of text coverage

First 2,000 words + AWL + Technical vocab 95% of text coverage of a text that a student

would typically read First 2,000 words + AWL + Technical vocab

+ most frequently used prefixes, roots and suffixes

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Most frequently used Most frequently used prefixesprefixes

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Explicit (Deliberate) learning of vocabulary Attention directly focused on

learning of vocabulary

Upside: greatest chance for acquisition

Downside: time consuming to learn a large number of words; laborious

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Implicit vocab learning (e.g. thru extensive reading)

Explicit vocab learning

For revisiting learnt words to deepen word knowledgeFor students to learning low-frequency words by themselvesFor learning grammatical and collocational patternsFor understanding the actual meaning of the word / different senses of a wordVery little deliberate attention on the words > low retentionStudents may not be able to guess meaning from context

high-frequency words should be taught explicilty (e.g. the GSL or AWL words) (Nation, 1990)difficult, confusing words should be taught explicitly (Sokmen, 1997)Some research shows students can learn a large amount of vocab using word lists with L1 translations in a short time (Nation, 1990), so perhaps list-learning is good for initial acquisition of high-frequency wordsFocusing students’ attention, but word lists or word cards should only be used as an initial stage of learning; should be followed by learning words in context through reading and listening (Schmitt & Schmitt, 1995)Takes up class time

Pre-session 1 ReadingPre-session 1 ReadingA balanced approach to A balanced approach to

vocabulary teaching (Nation, vocabulary teaching (Nation, 2008)*2008)*

Each component should take up a Each component should take up a quarter of the curriculum:quarter of the curriculum:

*Chapter One, Nation, I.S. P. (2008). *Chapter One, Nation, I.S. P. (2008). Teaching Teaching vocabulary: Strategies and techniquesvocabulary: Strategies and techniques. Boston: . Boston: Heinle Cengage Learning.Heinle Cengage Learning.

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Post-session 3 reading:Sökmen (1997) Build a large sight vocabulary (e.g. GSL, AWL) Integrate new words with old (e.g. gradable antonyms on a

scale; from general words to precise words; semantic maps) Promote a deep level of processing Provide a number of encounters with a word (6-20

times; successful recall leads to longer retention) Facilitate imaging (e.g. mental pictures; mind maps) Making new words “concrete” by connecting them to

student’s world in some way (e.g. personal feelings, personal examples, current issues, pictures, videos, real objects & situations)

Use a variety of techniques (e.g. dictionary work, word parts activities, using rhymes, semantic grids, semantic maps, ...etc.)

Encourage independent learning strategies

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Sight vocabulary Words that students can recognize

instantly in reading Do not need any decoding or

pictorial clues children with a large sight

vocabulary can read more fluently and comprehend texts more easily

For very young / elementary For very young / elementary learnerslearners

The most basic / frequent words should be taught by sight

Repeated encounters in reading / wall postings

E.g. McNally & Murray’s 200 High Frequency words ((http://abcprimaryteachingresources.co.uk/downloads/1046-200-high-frequency-words-mcnally-murray.html

))

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The Ladybird Key Words The Ladybird Key Words Reading Scheme (Peter and Reading Scheme (Peter and

Jane books)Jane books) E.g. The first book uses the 12 key

words repeatedly ("Here is Peter", "Peter is here", "Here is Jane", "Jane is here", "I like Peter", "I like Jane").

http://www.theweeweb.co.uk/ladybird/key_words_reading_scheme.php

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Integrate new words with Integrate new words with learnt wordslearnt words

gradable antonyms on a scale e.g. cold …. warm e.g. rich … poor

from general words to precise words; semantic maps e.g. nice e.g. important

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Depth of Processing Hypothesis (DOPH)Deeper analysis of stimulus More persistent memory trace Better recall

Shallow vs Deep Shallow vs Deep ProcessingProcessing

Considered to be Considered to be shallowshallow:: Rote memorisation of word listsRote memorisation of word lists Verbal / written repeititionVerbal / written repeitition

Considered to be Considered to be deeperdeeper:: Contextual guessingContextual guessing Association / Grouping of wordsAssociation / Grouping of words Making mental images of wordsMaking mental images of words Using newly learnt words in speaking / writing Using newly learnt words in speaking / writing

(activation of newly learnt words)(activation of newly learnt words)

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Rhyming words in Rhyming words in songs / poemssongs / poems

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Rhyming words in Rhyming words in songs / poemssongs / poems

Learning Word PartsLearning Word Parts

1.1. Prefix: Prefix: added to the frontadded to the front

2.2. Root: Root: carries main meaningcarries main meaning

3.3. Suffix: Suffix: changes part of changes part of speechspeech

Trans / port / ationprefix root suffix

How many words can you How many words can you make?make?pre-

re-re-

inter-

omni- -scient

-cede

-tain

-scribe

-vene

bene-

con- -fit

sub-

Some word parts and their Some word parts and their meaningmeaning

Reference: www.prefixsuffix.comClick on “root chart” & “root search”

Resources for learning Resources for learning word partsword parts

www.prefixsuffix.com

Roots of English Free software to Free software to help you learn more about the Latin help you learn more about the Latin and Greek roots of English words. It and Greek roots of English words. It gives you a test on the words you gives you a test on the words you have looked up before you exit!have looked up before you exit!

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Helping students with Helping students with confusing wordsconfusing words

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THE LEXICAL APPROACHTHE LEXICAL APPROACH

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Teaching multiword units as individual Teaching multiword units as individual units units

(e.g. (e.g. Nattinger & DeCarrico, 1992; Sinclair, Nattinger & DeCarrico, 1992; Sinclair, 1996; 1996; Lewis, 1997Lewis, 1997))X Make a walk in the countryside. Enjoy the cool wind!

Take a walk in the countryside. Enjoy the cool breeze!

X The report will give recommendations at the end. The report will make recommendations at the end.

Lexical chunks are socially sanctioned independent units (the units can be words or phrases or sentences)

Lewis advocates de-emphasizing teaching of grammar and vocabulary in favor of teaching of lexical chunks.

Lexical items (Lewis, 1997)

(1) Words (e.g. pen, ball)(2) Polywords (e.g. so to speak, at any rate, by

and large, by the way)(3) Collocations (hitch a ride, make a wish,

catch a bus, take a walk)(4) Institutionalized utterances (mainly

spoken, e.g. Long time no see! How do you do? If I were you, I’d…, Give me a break! As far as I know)

(5) Sentence frames and heads (mainly written, e.g. I think that …., not only…. but also…. , That reminds me of …).

Why is it useful Why is it useful to learn multilexical units?to learn multilexical units?

To improve fluency To recognize collocational patterns

(e.g. take a walk, make a wish, have dinner)

To sound more native-like / natural

Learning lexical chunks Learning lexical chunks (lexical patterning)(lexical patterning)

Topic: Health – SymptomsTopic: Health – SymptomsI’ve gotI’ve got a headachea headache

(a) backache(a) backache(a) stomach-ache(a) stomach-achetoothachetoothachea pain in my chesta pain in my chesta pain in my lega pain in my lega sore throata sore throata cougha cougha temperature (a fever)a temperature (a fever)

I feelI feel sicksickillillunwellunwell

I’m going to be sick!I’m going to be sick! faint!faint!

When recording When recording vocabulary, note vocabulary, note

collocation patterns…collocation patterns…Pattern ExamplesNOUN + VERB people - slip / cars – skid

VERB + NOUN abandon - ship, make – a wish, catch – a bus

ADJECTIVE + NOUN handsome – man, beautiful - woman

Emphasize the combination of Emphasize the combination of wordswords

PEOPLE ACTION OBJECT PLACE

doctor examine patients health centre

restaurant

train station

park

Emphasize the Emphasize the combinability of wordscombinability of wordsPEOPLE ACTION OBJECT PLACE

doctor examine patients health centre

customerswaiters

dineserve customers

restaurant

train driver pull up train train station

gardener grow / trim plants park

Teaching Collocation in an Teaching Collocation in an economics class using a economics class using a

reading textreading text

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to offset powereconomic taxesto cut collapserunning the declinespending a deficitto boost growthto raise budgetmounting spendingsustainable demand

Matching exercise:

Teaching Collocation in an Teaching Collocation in an economics class using a economics class using a

reading textreading text

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to offset the declineeconomic collapseto cut spendingrunning a deficitspending powerto boost demandto raise taxesmounting budget

deficitssustainable growth

Answers:

The Lexical Approach

Pre-session 3 Reading: Moudraia, O. (2001) Lexical approach to

second language teaching. Available: http://www.cal.org/resources/digest/0102lexical.html

Post-session 3 Reading: Lewis, M. (1997) Pedagogical implications

of the lexical approach. In J. Coady and T. Huckin (eds.) Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 255-270.

Let’s try some of the tasks near the end of this reading

LEARNING VOCABULARY LEARNING VOCABULARY IN CONTEXTIN CONTEXT

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ContextContext

1. Co-text: words before and after the target word2. The real-world context that the text refers toWhat are the benefits of using decontextualized

word lists?What information can the context gives us that

cannot be given by decontextualised word lists? Learning grammatical and collocational patterns Understanding the actual meaning of the word /

different senses of a word

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Presenting words in contextPresenting words in context

Better show students: It was so stifling in the room that I could

hardly breathe. Rather than:

It was stifling in the room. Better say:

There’s a word in the first line that means “huge”. What word is that?

Rather than: “Enormous” in the first line means huge.

Provide rich contextual Provide rich contextual clues - answersclues - answers

Carnivorous Vehicles Huge / enormous Mean / stingy Cut Reduced / offset / compensated for Revenue / income / money; afford

Providing context rich in Providing context rich in contextual cluescontextual clues

Since plastic products are non-biodegradable, they are hard to be disposed of and are persistent environmental contaminants.

 To explain more clearly the data collection process, I append some samples of questionnaires used in the study.

It is time we stopped talking of elephants as if they were a commodity; they are not products / mechandise to be traded.

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Preparation for next Preparation for next sessionsession

Jigsaw reading:Jigsaw reading: In a group of 4, each student reads one In a group of 4, each student reads one

of the pre-session 4 texts about of the pre-session 4 texts about vocabulary learning strategiesvocabulary learning strategies

Report to your group next week:Report to your group next week:1.1. Methodology used in the researchMethodology used in the research

2.2. Results of the researchResults of the research

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