What You Should Have Picked Up This Year in Physical ScienceJubon2015-2016

1st Semester

What is Science?

Science is the process of collecting information about the world.

Physical Science is the study of matter and energy.

These branches of science include Chemistry (matter) and Physics (energy)

Scientific MethodThere are typically six common steps to the Scientific Method.

These include:1.Asking a question2.Making observations to help you form a hypothesis3.Testing the hypothesis4.Analysis of results5.Drawing conclusions6.Communicating the results.

Notice that these steps may be repeated as you work through your experimentation.

Scientific Models

Science uses models quite often. Models are used to represent an object or process that perhaps can’t be seen without very specialized equipment or would be too costly to make in its actual size.

There are 3 common types of scientific models - Physical Models - Mathematical Models - Conceptual Models

Theories and Laws

Theory – is an explanation for many hypotheses and observations. They are well supported by years and years of work. While theories are constantly being updated, these are not willy-nilly ideas.Theories give the WHY something might be happening .

Law – is a summary of many experimental results and observations. Laws tell us HOW something works. It is a matter of fact statement.

Theory LawWhy How

SI Units

System of International Units – used worldwide. Often the same as the Metric unit, but not always.

Measurement Definition Metric Base Unit Symbol

Length or Distance a measure of the distance between two points meter m

Mass the measure of the amount of matter making up an object and is measured with a balance. gram or kilogram g or kg

Volume (liquid)

the amount of space matter occupies. Liquid volume is usually measured in milliliters

(mL) or liters (L) using a graduated cylinder. Volume for a solid with a regular shape is

calculated using the formula: volume = length x width x height

Liter or cubic meters L or m3

Force (weight)a measure of the pull of gravity on an object and is measured with a Spring Scale (used to

measure weight and forces).Newton * N

Temperaturea measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a sample of matter and is measured

with a thermometer.Kelvin * K

Time a measure of increments of the day. second s

Weight vs. MassMass Property Weight

A measure of the amount of matter that

makes up an object.Definition

The measure of the force of gravity and its effect

on a mass.

g or kg Unit used N

Balance Measured with Scale

No Change with location? Yes, based on gravity

Physical Properties and ChangesPhysical Properties can be detected and measured without changing the identity of the substance.

These are properties like texture, color, malleability, ductility, state, density, conductivity, odor, solubility.

A physical change has occurred when you can still identify the original substance even though it has undergone some sort of change – like ripping paper, painting a car, transferring heat, changing from solid to liquid.

Chemical Properties and ChangesChemical properties tell you if the substance can change into something new. There are 3 main chemical properties to remember:

Fire, Boom, React – flammability, combustibility, and reactivity

A chemical change has occurred if after the change, you can no longer identify the original substance because it has changed into something new – milk spoiling, iron turning to rust, burning a piece of paper, baking soda reacting with vinegar.

Chemical Reactions

Look for these signs that a chemical reaction has taken place.

1.Gives off a gas or make bubbles. 2.Gives off a smell.3.Gives off light.4.Gives off heat.5.Creates a new substance.6.Changes color.7.Forms a precipitate.

States of MatterChanges of State

Property Solid Liquid Gas Plasma

Shape Definite shape No definite shape – takes shape of container

No definite shape – takes shape of container

No definite shape – takes shape of container

Volume – amount of space it takes up Definite volume Definite volume

No definite volume – takes vol. of container

No definite volume – takes vol. of container

Particle Arrangement Densely packed Close Far apart Far apartEnergy Binding the Particles Very strong Strong Weak Weak – particles broken

Particle movement Vibrate in place Slide past each other Fly apart Fly apartAmount of Energy Low Medium High VERY high

Energy is added (endothermic) energy is released (exothermic)

Energy and Changes of State

Energy added can either: - increase temperature - change stateNOT BOTH SIMULTANEOUSLY

Atomic Theory

Atomic Structure

Particle Electric Charge Symbol Mass Location

in Atom

Proton

Positive “positive permanent

protons” =Atomic # (Number)

+ 1 amu Nucleus

NeutronNeutral

“neutral neutrons”= Atomic Mass – Atomic #

± or noth-ing

1 amu Nucleus

ElectronNegative

= same as Atomic # in a neutral atom

- 0 Electron Cloud

Isotopes and IonsIsotopes – Ions – same protons, different neutrons same protons, different electrons. atoms has different masses due atom gains a charge by gaining orto different amount of neutrons losing electrons

4 Forces of Nature in the Atom

Periodic Table

Periodic Table Trends/Patterns• Periods – long horizontal rows• Tells you how many orbitals

• Groups or Families – vertical columns. • Families stand up for each other. They share similar traits because...• Group # tells you how many valence electrons – G1 = 1, G13 = 3

• Metals on left, stair/zigzag metalloids, nonmetals on right

Chemical Bonding

Chemical bonding – is the joining of atoms to form a new substance.Where they join is the bond. Atoms bond via their valence electrons.

We can easily draw out the bonds and organization using Lewis Dot diagrams. Each dot is a valence electron.

Ionic Bonds

Formed by the transfer of electrons from atom to atom.Occur between a metal and a non-metal to get a full outer shell.Atoms are attracted to each other because after the transfer occurs, each atom is now a ion (has a charge) Opposites attract.

As Na loses an electron it becomes positive. Cl gains it and it becomes negative.- Opposites attract.- Charges balance.

Covalent BondsFormed by the sharing of electrons. Become molecules.Occur between a nonmetal and a nonmetal. Each atom must have a full outer shell in a complete molecule.

Naming Compounds akaChemical Formulas

Ionic BondsPut the cation first. (This is the positive metal ion)

Then add the anion. (the negative non-metal)

Change the ending on the non-metal to - ide.

Covalent Bonds

Chemical Reactions

Look for these signs that a chemical reaction has taken place.

1.Gives off a gas or make bubbles. 2.Gives off a smell.3.Gives off light.4.Gives off heat.5.Creates a new substance.6.Changes color.7.Forms a precipitate.

Types of Chemical Reactions

Chemical EquationsA – Coefficienttells you how many of that compound you have. Multiplies across the whole compound.

B – Subscripttells you how many of just the element it is attached to you have.

C – Chemical Formulathe shortened version of the compound’s name.

D – Chemical Symbolthe abbrev for the element

E – Reactants the substances you are combining together – that will do the reacting…

F – Products the result or product of the combination after the reaction.

Balancing Chemical EquationsAccording to the Law of Conservation of Mass – what you have as reactants, you must be able to account for in your products.In other words, both sides must equal each other. To do this, you must balance your equations. You may only change coefficients to do this. You can not break up compounds or change subscripts – do that and you’ve changed your reactants or products.

Balancing Chemical Equations 21. Take an inventory of

each side.2. Make updates to your

inventory each timeyou change a coefficient.

3. Keep going until bothsides are matching.

The next step here wouldbe to add a coefficient of5 to the reactant O2.

Voila! It’s balanced.

Acids and Bases

Elements, Compounds, Mixtures

MatterPure Substance Mixture

ElementCan not be broken down further

Found on the Periodic Table

Compound2 or more elements that have

been chemically combined. Maintain a fixed ratio.

HomogeneousLooks the same all the way

throughout the sample

HeterogeneousYou can see the different

ingredients. Not the same.

Solutions Colloids Suspensions

Solutions = Solute + Solvent Colloids Suspensions

Particle size? Small Medium Large

Can it be filtered apart? No No Yes

Do the particles settle out to the bottom?

No No Yes

Light reaction? Light goes right through.Solutions appear clear.

You can see the beam of light.

Colloids tend to look cloudy.

You can see the chunks of stuff floating around. Will

settle to bottom unless stirred.

Examples? Clear GatoradeSugar Water

Whipped CreamClouds

Snow GlobesItalian Salad Dressing

Energy

Mechanical Mechanical Energy is the energy associated with the motion of an object

You have mechanical energy when you run or walk – combo of kinetic and potential

Thermal Thermal Energy is the total amount of energy in all of the particles contained in a sample of matter. Heat, itself is not a form of energy but it IS thermal energy that is transferred between two objects of different temperatures.

Movement of particles

Chemical Chemical Energy is the energy stored in chemical bonds (the atoms of elements that make up a compound are held together by chemical bonds)

Energy from a battery, the food you eat, given off in a chemical reaction

Electrical Electrical Energy is the energy that results from moving charges computers and televisions are examples of electrical devices that operate using electrical energy

Light/Electromagnetic

Electromagnetic Energy is the energy resulting from the motion of the particles within atoms

examples include light, microwaves, and X-rays

Sound Sound Energy is the energy given off by a vibrating (rapid, back-and-forth motion) object. The energy travels through matter in the form of waves.

Vibration of particles

Nuclear Nuclear Energy is the energy stored in the nucleus of an atom as a result of the nuclear forces. This form of energy can be released from the atom through nuclear fission (splitting of atoms) or nuclear fusion (joining of atoms).

Fission or Fusion of nuclei – NOT light from the Sun

Kinetic – MotionPotential – Stored by position or shape

Temp, TE, and HeatThermal Energy Temperature Heat

TOTAL amount of energy from all of the particles in an object

AVERAGE kinetic energy of the particles in an object.

TRANSFER of thermal energy from an area of higher energy to that of lower energy-hot to cold

More particles means more thermal energy, even if at the same temp.

Not all particles move at the same rate, this is why the average is taken.

Transfer continues until equilibrium is reached. Then, there’s no higher or lower from which to transfer.

Heat Transfer VocabThe terms conductor and insulator are used for both heat transfer as well as electricity.

These are the 3 ways that heat can be transferred.

Specific Heat Capacity

WavesWaves transfer ENERGY Transverse Wave

Wave Interactions - 1• Reflection

• Refraction

Wave Interactions - 2• Diffraction

• Interference

2nd Semester

Properties of Sound

Amplitude – determines the loudness of the sound - dB

Frequency – determines the pitch of the sound – Hz

The speed of sound is dependent on the medium through which is travels and the temperature of that medium.

Fastest-solids, Slowest - gases

Doppler Effect

Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Light Transmission

How Do We See Color?

Motion

Speed = distance / time s = d/t m/s

Velocity = speed and direction s = d/t direction m/s North

Acceleration = (final velocity – initial velocity) . time

a = (vf – vi) t

m/s/s orm/s2

ForceAny push or pull. Measured in Newtons (N)

Combination of all forces on an object = net forceSame direction – add them. Opposite direction – subtract them.

Balanced forces – no change in motion, net force = 0Unbalanced forces – changes motion, net force ≠ 0

Friction

Opposition to motion between two surfaces that touch.

Sliding Friction Rolling Friction

Static Friction – no movement Fluid Friction-Air Resistance

Gravity

A force of attraction between every object that has mass.Affected by the size of the mass and the distance between them.Bigger masses – more gravity, closer together – more gravity

Acceleration Due to Gravity

Around and on Earth, objects fall at a rate of 9.8 m/s/s or ≈10 m/s/s. This means that for every second they fall, they increase their speed by 9.8m/s. They travel more distance each second falling.

Free fall – only force acting on the object is gravity. No air resistance.Usually only in a vacuum.

Terminal Velocity – gravity and air resistance have balanced. The object is no longer accelerating.

Projectile Motion and Orbit

Newton’s 1st Law of Motion

An object at rest will remain at restAn object in motion will remain in motion at a constant velocityUnless acted upon by an outside force.

Often called the Law of Inertia – inertia is the resistance to a change in motion.

Outside forces can be: - air resistance - your foot kicking something - gravity - friction

REMEMBER:

More mass means more inertia.

Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion

F=ma

Newton’s 3rd Law of Motion

All forces act in pairs (not bananas)The forces are always equal in size and opposite in direction

MomentumMomentum = mass x velocity or p = mv

Law of Conservation of Momentum – Momentum can’t be created or destroyed, but it can be transferred to another object.

A moving object will transfer some or all of its momentum to an object at rest. Think about Curling, Billiards, or Newton’s Cradle.

WorkWork = Force x Distance or W = Fd Measured in Joules JYou work like a dog – Woofed!Force must move an object in the same direction as the force.

You’re actually NOT DOING WORK here.

Power

Rate at which work is done

P = W/t Power = work / time Measures in Watts W = J/s

Machines

Something that makes work easier by changing the size or direction of the force applied.– it does not decrease the amount of work

W = Fd If you increase the force, you decrease the distance. If you increase the distance, you decrease the force.

Mechanical Advantage = how many times the force was increased.

Mechanical Efficiency = What you get out of the machine as compared to what you had put in. Closer to 100% means the machine is more efficient.

Simple Machines

6 types of Simple Machines

3 – Inclined plane, Wedge, Screw2 – Wheel and Axel, Pulley1 – Lever

Levers – 3 classes – IFL FLI FIL

Radioactivity

Fission – ss – breaks into 2 piecesFusion – s – joins into 1 piece

Electric Charge

Charge comes from ions (atoms with a charge due to the loss or gain of electrons) Opposites attract, Likes repel.

There are 3 ways to charge an object: - Friction – ‘wipe’ the electrons from one object to another. - Induction – shift the electrons on a neutral object by bringing a charged object close to it. - Conduction – via direct contact or a spark transfer electrons from a charged object to an uncharged object.

You can detect a charge with an electroscope.

Static Electricity

Charges that aren’t moving, except for one jump via conduction when too many charges build up on an object.

Static Discharge or Electric Discharge is that little jolt you get after shuffling across the carpet in the winter.

Lightning is also static electricity.

Don’t forget – don’t take a shower, while on the phone, in a metal bathtub, with a tall metal pole in your hand, on the top of a hill during a thunderstorm!

Electric Current

Watch the .gif!

3 necessary parts of a circuit

Energy source

load

wire

Ohm’s Law – V = IR

V=IR –> IR have an Inverse Relationship

=

Resistance

Think of wires like straws or hallways. What is the easiest to get through?Which type of straw would you like to use to get the most of your drink as

easily as possible? A) Short McDonald’s? or B) a long coffee stirrer?

Or think of it as the hall at class change – students are electrons…do you want them acting hot or cold for you to get passed? Do you want them in a long, narrow hall or a short, wide hall?

Cells (electrical – not living)

Wet Cell and Dry Cell

Photocell and Thermocouple

Calculations

Ohm’s Law V=IR

Electric PowerEvery other combo!

Series vs. Parallel Circuits

Magnets

How a Compass WorksThere is a huge magnetic field around the earth. It is huge, but it is not very strong. The magnetized needle in a compass is aligned with this magnetic field. As the image below shows, the composition of the earth acts as a huge bar magnet sitting upside down in the middle of the planet. Since its South end is at the north pole and its North end is at the south pole, the North end of a compass needle is pulled north.

Likes repel, opposites attract

Summary – Part 1

Oersted Faraday

Summary - Part 2

Hans Christian Oersted Michael Faraday

Magnetism from Electricity Electricity from Magnetism

Move electrons to make a magnetic field

Move magnetsto make an electric current

Motorselectrical mechanical

Generatorsmechanical electrical

Electromagnetism along with Andre-Marie Ampere

Electromagnetic Induction along with Joseph Henry