Whole School Approaches to Sustainability - Geographical Education

GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION VOLUME 18, 2005 1

Editorial

Global sustainabilityKen Purnell

Report

Chairman of Directors Annual ReportEmilia Terry

Articles

Teaching and learning Geography in the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable DevelopmentJohn Fien

Ethics and sustainability—exploring the issuesPeter Marden and David Mercer

Whole school approaches to sustainabilityDanielle Tilbury and David Wortman

Climate change: How real is it? The issues and implicationsBob Miles and Ken Purnell

Book Reviews

Edited by Geoffrey Paterson

Geographical Education is published annually and is distributed to all members of the state and territory associations affiliated with the Australian Geography Teachers’ Association Limited.

The aims of the journal are to:• encourage school, college and university teachers

and all others interested in geography to share their ideas and experiences

• promote sound practice and encourage the developments of innovative strategies for teaching geography in the classroom and the field

• provide a forum for discussion between teachers on issues and direction to geographical education

• encourage reflection on the scope and purpose of geography and its role as a medium for the education of young people

• promote the diffusion of developments in geography and examples of ways they may be introduced into geography teaching

• examine educational issues and trends in the light of their relevance for geography teaching

• disseminate news of AGTA activities and information of national interest from state affiliates.

Review

Geographical Education is a refereed journal. Articles submitted to Geographical Education for consideration are reviewed anonymously by a minimum of two reviewers from the list below. Articles are selected by the editor based on the outcome of the anonymous reviews and ratified by the Journal advisory committee. Authors of accepted articles are sent guidelines for their final submission. Contributions to other sections such as Book Reviews and Reports are not refereed.

Editorial Review Panel

Assoc Prof Tammy Kwan, Hong KongDr Robin Hall, AustraliaEleanor Rawling, EnglandProf Joe Stoltman, United StatesDr Patrick Wiegand, EnglandDr Lam Chi-Chung, Hong KongProf Michael Williams, WalesDr Carol Fortino, United StatesDr Christine Lee, Singapore

Journal Advisory Committee

Anne ChesherMargaret McIvor

ISSN 0085–0969

Australian Geography Teachers’ Association Limited 2005Chairperson: Nick Hutchinson, NSWDeputy Chairperson: Margaret McIvor, QueenslandCompany Secretary: Debbie Doyle, TasmaniaCompany Treasurer: Bronwen Perry, VictoriaImmediate Past Chairperson: Emmy Terry, Western AustraliaEditor: Ken Purnell, QueenslandReviews editor: Geoffrey Paterson, VictoriaCorrespondence: c/o Debbie Doyle81 Peel Street West, Launceston TAS 7250 email: <[email protected]>Design, typesetting & layout: Simon Kwok, Infographics, Phone: (03) 9642 4661AGTA website maintained by Rob Berry <www.agta.asn.au>Proofreading: Geoffrey Paterson and Bronwen Perry

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Contents

GEOGRAPHICAL EDUCATION VOLUME 18, 20052

‘Global Sustainability’ is the theme for this volume of Geographical Education. Concerns about the lack of sustainability of many current practices are expressed regularly in the media and elsewhere. As John Fien asserts in the first article in this volume: ‘The lack of a culture of sustainability in almost all parts of the world has meant that schools have tended to reproduce a ‘business as usual’ culture of unsustainable lifestyles, inappropriate development strategies and a degraded environment’. Views on what is wrong and who should ‘fix it’ are commonly heard even in private social functions. However, often issues are raised and no solutions offered. That is, the ‘How?’ response is largely missing. Of key importance in the various debates about global sustainability are insightful suggestions of potential solutions that are realistic and contribute to a reduction of ecological footprints that will move us towards a more sustainable and preferred future.

The authors in this volume examine a number of issues related to global sustainability and provide insights into how to address these in a manner that will provide timely information and resources for teachers of Geography. To begin, John Fien examines the implications of the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development that commenced in 2005 and the implications for learning and teaching in Geography. John opens with the statement: ‘Teaching and learning for sustainability is the prime concern of geographical education. Indeed, educating young people with the knowledge and skills to be gainfully employed in socially uplifting work that respects Earth’s life support systems is the raison d’être of geography teaching’. John introduces a number of questions and ideas about ethics and this is followed in the second article by Peter Marden and David Mercer who critically examine ethics and sustainability. Peter and David conclude that ‘acting responsibly involves understanding the relation between thought and action. Ethics demands of us to

examine our actions and our motivations, quite often this means making uncomfortable decisions … An ethic of sustainability demands that we not only think long-term but also beyond ourselves and our immediate needs.’

Danielle Tilbury and David Wortman provide an extensive study of whole school approaches to sustainability – lessons from which many readers are likely to implement immediately in their practices. They look at a range of case studies and particularly focus on the Australian Sustainable Schools Initiative. Danielle and David contend that ‘uniting fragmented approaches to environmental and sustainability education, ‘whole school’ programs are emerging as models of good practice. These new approaches are pushing educational boundaries to address issues of governance, participation, consumption and curriculum, triggering cultural shifts and deep levels of change towards sustainability within schools and their communities.’

The refereed articles are then finished off by Bob Miles and Ken Purnell who look at climate change in Australia and the implications for sustainability of being in a drier phase of climate. Following the reviewed articles is an extensive range of reviews of resources that you may be interested in to consider for your classroom. Our thanks again to Geoff Paterson for overseeing those reviews and providing a wealth of information for readers.

‘Geography: Making Connections—Creating Futures’ is the theme of the AGTA biennial conference in Launceston, Tasmania in 2006 and this provides the theme for the next volume of Geographical Education. Connections and interrelationships between various human and natural environments, networks, and how Geography contributes analytical, evaluative and creative tools to assist in creating preferred futures, will be explored.

Should you or a colleague wish to contribute an article for review on the theme for the next volume, please do so by end April 2006.

Global sustainabilityAssociate Professor Ken PurnellEditor, Geographical Education


Chairman of Directors Annual Report 2005Emilia TerryAGTA Ltd Chairman of Directors

Annual General Meeting, 15 October 2005

The 94th meeting of AGTA Ltd signifies the third year of the incorporated association and is also the third Annual General Meeting under the new company Constitution. The Board continues to reassess the constitution, how we operate and review and build on its ‘standing orders’.

With the Commonwealth Government now setting the national agenda for educators it will be important for AGTA not only to react but also to be proactive in influencing the future structure and delivery of the curriculum within a rapidly changing environment.

Commonwealth initiatives including national testing, reporting requirements and Year 12 competency testing will be issues that will affect all affiliates at a state level. With the inevitability of a national curriculum, AGTA needs to also be in a position to promote a well-researched vision of how Geography can be incorporated as a significant area of learning within changing decision-making structures.

Significant events

The ongoing commitment of board members has been evident given the continuing diverse range of activities undertaken over the past twelve months.

Keys to Geography

Since the special AGTA publication Keys to Geography: Essential skills and tools was produced in 2004, we have seen a second print run which was perfect bound rather than spiral bound. The book, which includes an interactive CD, has been well regarded in Australian schools and stands as a testament to the capacity of AGTA to work towards national goals. Jeana Kriewaldt was Project Manager and Editor of this highly valued resource material. The book was a deserving recipient of the AGTA 2004 Award in the category ‘Geography teaching source material’.

National Geographic Channel Australian Geography Competition

The National Geographic Channel Australian Geography Competition Committee continues to be chaired by Kath Berg (Royal Geographical Society of Queensland), with support from Margaret McIvor (AGTA Director).

The National Geographic Channel Australian Geography Competition once again had a record year, with the number of students taking part increasing by 5 per cent to 85,407. However, school numbers dropped to 779 from 815, which was probably attributable to Easter falling in March. This year the competition was extended to the senior secondary years. Students were classified into three age groups—junior for students 13 years and under, intermediate for students 14 or 15 years old, and senior for students 16 years and over. The new senior level was popular with schools: 629 schools entered senior students, 714 schools entered intermediate students and 509 schools entered junior students. These results indicate that AGTA and RGSQ made the right decision in extending this competition to Year 12, rather than attempting to set up a separate competition for seniors. (The highest number of schools to submit an entry in the previous senior competition, GeoQuest, in one year was 13.)

Prizes were awarded to 12 students in the junior division, 25 students in the intermediate division and 7 students in the senior division. Nine schools received school prizes. The final for under-16s was held in Sydney with state and territory winners in that age group taking part. Two points of note: the South Australian finalist was from the junior division; and this was the first time a Northern Territory student had taken the territories place at the final. The finalists were treated to some very special experiences, with the highlight a Sydney Harbour Bridge Climb. At the final, the Hon Bob Carr, Premier of New South Wales, presented the school prize to James Ruse


Agricultural High School, which had the best school result in Australia for students under 16. The results of the final were: 1st—Norman Ma, James Ruse Agricultural High School, Sydney; 2nd—Michael Memeo, Mazenod College, Perth; 3rd—Angus Sandford, Darwin High School.

National Geographic World Championship

The 7th National Geographic World Championship was held in Budapest, Hungary, from 10 to 15 July 2005. Australia’s team was selected via the National Geographic Channel Australian Geography Competition. The team was composed of the 2004 and 2005 winners, and one of the second-placed students: Norman Ma, Chris McCanna (King’s Christian College, Gold Coast) and Michael Memeo.

The international competition has a preliminary written test and an outdoor activity where the students follow a map to answer another series of questions. Based on their combined score in these two tests, the top three teams then take part in a final that has a quiz-type format. Australia came ninth (out of 18) but the top half of the field was fairly close. The range of marks in the preliminaries was 46 to 86 and Australia scored 79. This was a very pleasing result, as Australia does not design its national competition to maximise our chance of winning in the international competition. The final was won by the USA, with Russia second and Canada third.

The National Geographic Society and the Hungarian National Tourist Office put on a wonderful program for the students, showcasing the attractions of Hungary. Another very important aspect is the mixing with students from all around the world. Countries competing in 2005 were Argentina, Australia, Bulgaria, Canada, Costa Rica, France, Germany, Hungary, India, Mexico, Poland, Romania, Russia, Singapore, Spain, Taiwan, United Kingdom and USA.

International Geography Olympiad

AGTA and RGSQ have agreed to co-host the 2006 International Geography Olympiad. This is a biennial competition for senior secondary students that focuses on testing higher-level thinking skills. It has three parts: a written

response test, a multimedia quiz and a substantial fieldwork exercise. The Olympiad will be held in Brisbane from 28 June to 3 July 2006. These dates are designed to overlap the IGU Regional Conference (3–7 July) and the Commission on Geographical Education Symposium (26 June–2 July). Much planning for the Olympiad has already taken place during 2004/05. Margaret McIvor, an AGTA Director, attended the Olympiad held in Gdynia, Poland, in August 2004 to assist in preparations. The Olympiad will be based at Brisbane Grammar School. Short excursions will be made within the greater Brisbane area and to the Gold or Sunshine Coasts so that students get a taste of what southeast Queensland is like. Teams of four students and two geography educators will be invited, with a limit of 20 countries taking part.

Australia will choose its own team for the Olympiad using the senior level of the National Geographic Channel Australian Geography Competition as the first filter. A group of high-performing students from Year 11 and below has been chosen from the 2005 Competition. Two pieces of existing school assessment will be requested for those who top geography in their school at the end of this year. Three students will be chosen from this group, and a fourth student by a similar method next year.

National Geographic Channel

Thanks to the commitment of Ann Chesher, National Geographic Channel continues its support of geography education in Australia. In 2005 NGC proudly took up its second year of Australian Geography Competition naming rights sponsorship contract with RGSQ. The national final was held at Sydney’s Taronga Zoo.

National Geographic Channel’s newly launched website, GSI Kids, features regularly updated school and individual achievements in geography and environmental studies, and each week eight documentaries suitable for secondary school studies are programmed. Every term, five schools are congratulated on-air for their excellence in geography education. NGC has pledged sponsorship for AGTA 2006 by way of advertising and conference satchels.


AGTA 2006 Conference

Registrations are now being accepted for the 18th national AGTA conference, incorporating the Australasian Conference for ESRI Education Users, titled ‘Geography: Making the Connections—Creating Futures’, which is being held in Launceston from 8–12 January 2006. Keynote speakers include Professor Jamie Kirkpatrick (Head of Geography & Environmental Studies, University of Tasmania), Professor Graeme Hugo (Professor of Geography, University of Adelaide), George Dailey (University of Missouri, Columbia) and Dr Margaret Robertson (Faculty of Education, University of Tasmania). Workshops will be led by Geography educators from across Australia, with a Tasmanian perspective provided through full-day and mini fieldtrips. A wide range of workshops will give geography and environmental educators the opportunity to explore some of the current thinking and concerns relating to world futures.

Of particular note will be a three-day GIS strand that will focus on software, classroom-relevant workshops and GIS-oriented fieldtrips. Primary and secondary school teachers will be catered for through the diversity of workshops being offered. Mini fieldtrips within the Launceston region and full-day fieldtrips to such areas as the Tamar Valley and Cradle Mountain will give delegates the opportunity to see the northern part of the state.

Information relating to the five-day pre-conference tour and social functions along with the program and registration details can be viewed at <www.agta.asn.au>. Debbie Doyle, President of TGTA, is to be congratulated for her tireless efforts in coordinating this significant national event.

Geographical Education

AGTA’s publication Geographical Education continues to maintain its high standard appropriate to our national body. Its editor, Dr Ken Purnell, is to be congratulated for his continuing efforts in maintaining this exceptionally high standard.

National participation

AGTA has maintained its involvement, participation and contribution to other groups on a national level including:

• National Institute for Quality Teaching and School Leadership (NIQTSL). Two AGTA representatives attended a conference/workshop held in Melbourne in August. The conference brought together teachers and educators to share their experiences, explore the issues, and work together on ways forward for advanced teaching standards. One of the NIQTSL goals is the development of a national system of advanced standards for teaching. The conference was an important step in continuing collaboration to achieve this goal.

• The Australian College of Educators (ACE) represented by Stephen Cranby

• Australian Federation of Societies for Studies of Society and Environment (AFSSSE) represented by Margaret McIvor

• GIS represented by Malcolm McInerney.The work of the secretariat is central to the functioning of AGTA. I must thank the work and support of the Secretary Mike Hanrahan and the Treasurer Bronwen Perry over the year.

Future challenges

There are a number of future challenges that arise and reflect on the work of AGTA and its affiliates this year, including:

• the continuing clarification of the AGTA Constitution and its standing orders

• ensuring the viability of AGTA through active involvement in national projects

• AFSSSE and its involvement in promoting national projects

• ensuring that Geography has a place in the redefinition of curriculum across Australia (national testing, redefined curricula, national curriculum, state and national priorities in curriculum) and that AGTA is the central body to keep an overview of them

• positively promoting and encouraging attendance at AGTA conferences

• providing support materials for events such as National Geography Week

• development of standards for professional excellence for teachers of geography.


Teaching and learning Geography in the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable DevelopmentJohn Fien1

1 Professor John Fien is Professor of Sustainability, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia

Teaching and learning for sustainability is the prime concern of geographical education. Indeed, educating young

people with the knowledge and skills to be gainfully employed in socially uplifting work that respects Earth’s life support systems is the raison d’être of geography teaching. Of course, there was a time in the history of the discipline and education when geography was a servant of Empire, helping to ensure that military cartographic skills and knowledge of production and trade patterns were inculcated. However, the focus on understanding the character of regions and the relationships between people and place that developed in the early twentieth century established a basis of education for intercultural empathy through geography that allowed it to easily synthesise the focus on social equity of development studies and on conservation in environmental studies. As a result, from the time of the 1973 ‘Man (sic) and the Environment’ syllabus in Queensland, Geography teaching has integrated the goals for conservation, social justice, appropriate development and democracy into a vision and a mission of personal and social change for students and society.

Thus, just under twenty years ago, AGTA hosted a national conference on the theme of Teaching Geography for a Better World. The papers were published as a book with a second edition published in the UK just two years later (Fien & Gerber 1988). Teaching Geography for a Better World outlined an approach to geography teaching based upon the development of geographical knowledge, skills and attitudes that would support ideals such as:

• a reverence for the earth and all its creatures

• the protection of the environment as a precondition of a healthy society

• a willingness to share the world’s wealth fairly among all its inhabitants

• the protection of the resource rights of future generations

• harmony between people of every race, colour and creed and positive discrimination to redress present inequalities

• a recognition of the geography of women’s environment and development, an appreciation of the role of women in economic production, and a willingness to learn from their examples of environmental and social activism

• a rejection of socially unjust and environmentally wasteful practices involved in mining, manufacturing and consumerism

• development of socially useful, personally rewarding and environmentally sound products, jobs and work practices

• a scaling down of armaments manufacture, reduced arms spending and the eventual destruction of nuclear arsenals

• development of non-nuclear energy policies based upon conservation, greater efficiency and renewable sources of energy

• open participatory democracy at all levels of society.

This was a year before the Brundtland Commission published its landmark report, Our Common Future (World Commission on Environment and Development 1987), which ushered in the growing awareness over the past two decades, of the importance of sustainable development and set the scene for the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio and the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg. The media focus on such issues has meant that most people around the world have come to appreciate the interlocking issues of the environment and sustainable development, and many of us have become increasingly aware of the need for changes in our lifestyle choices and in national and global


patterns of development, consumption and trade.

In response to such rising concerns, and the importance of education in developing the competencies needed to address them, the United Nations has established a Decade of Education for Sustainable Development, which began in 2005 and runs to 2014 to help build commitment and skills across the world’s education system so that children and youth can develop an enhanced understanding of what it means to work for a sustainable future, a sense of responsibility for future generations, and a spirit of optimism and hope for a sustainable future.

However, despite the progress being made on many fronts there are still many pressing issues and concerns that need to be addressed. For example, people in many parts of the world are suffering from the effects of ecosystem decline. Examples of this include: water shortages in Australia, India and the Middle East; unsafe water in many towns and cities in Africa; collapsed fisheries off the coast of Canada; landslides on the deforested slopes of Honduras; forest fires in Indonesia; spreading deserts in north Africa . . . the list is almost endless.

As a result of these environmental conditions and trends, Global Environmental Outlook 3 (UNEP, 2003) concludes that:

Degradation of natural resources such as land, fresh and marine waters, forests and biodiversity threatens the livelihood of many people but especially the poor. The ‘sink’ function of the environment operates through such processes as nutrient recycling, decomposition, and the natural purification and filtering of air and water. When these functions are impaired or overburdened, health can be jeopardized by contaminated water supplies including groundwater, and by urban air pollution and agrochemical pollution. Human health is increasingly determined by environmental conditions. For example:

• deteriorating environmental conditions are a major contributory factor to poor health and a reduced quality of life

• poor environmental quality is directly responsible for some 25 per cent of all

preventable ill-health, with diarrhoeal diseases and acute respiratory infections heading the list

• air pollution is a major contributor to a number of diseases

• globally, 7 per cent of all deaths and diseases are due to inadequate or unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene; approximately 5 per cent are attributable to air pollution.

The United Nations Decade

The basic vision of the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development is a world free from problems such as these and where education plays a leading role in giving people the opportunity to learn the values, behaviour and lifestyles required for a sustainable future. The aim of the Decade is for education to be integrated into national education plans at all levels and across all sectors. In order to achieve this, the Decade has five key objectives:

1. To give an enhanced profile to the central role of education and learning in the common pursuit of sustainable development;

2. To facilitate links and networking, exchange and interaction among stakeholders in ESD;

3. To provide a space and opportunity for refining and promoting the vision of, and transition to sustainable development – through all forms of learning and public awareness;

4. To foster increased quality of teaching and learning in education for sustainable development;

5. To develop strategies at every level to strengthen capacity in ESD. (UNESCO, 2004).

What would education for a sustainable future of this kind look like?Reorienting education towards sustainability is not just a question of more studies of sustainable development and environmental issues. It is also a matter of the purpose and form of these studies. As David Orr (1992, p. 82) wrote: ‘The crisis [of unsustainability] cannot be solved by the same kind of education that helped create the problems’.

Two strategies for enhancing the form of education for sustainability may be


recommended. The first is to focus on the balance of emphasis in education between reproducing existing social systems and promoting social change. This is the contemporary version of what John Dewey, the early 20th century American philosopher and educator, called the ‘reconstructionist’ tradition in education. Dewey believed that in many situations it is sufficient to do things according to custom and habit, but in some circumstances new responses are called for. If we are to envisage and instigate new ways of living and acting, we must have the capacity to evaluate and instigate social change. The second is a logical extension of the first and involves the development of teaching and learning processes that emphasise moral virtues, ethical discernment, learning how to learn, reflection, creativity, civic mindedness, and the motivation and abilities to work with others to help build a sustainable future.

Education for civil society

The lack of a culture of sustainability in almost all parts of the world has meant that schools have tended to reproduce a ‘business as usual’ culture of unsustainable lifestyles, inappropriate development strategies and a degraded environment. The environmental problems mentioned at the start of this article are – at the one time – a cause and an effect of inappropriate development. The problems we face around the world flow from this nexus of social, economic and ecological problems and have resulted in the political disillusionment felt by so many people today. Reorienting education towards sustainability recognises the importance of economic viability and productive employment at the community, regional and national levels and provides students with the life skills they need to be constructive and active citizens, capable of and committed to contributing to a peaceful, abundant and sustainable future.

A vision of a vibrant civil society is also an essential part of reorienting education towards sustainability, and requires ‘an unwavering commitment by educational institutions to foster widespread civic competence’ (Orr, 1992, p. 84). Schools can help build a more sustainable society in this regard by helping students to:

• develop criteria for determining what is best to conserve in their cultural, economic and natural heritage

• discern values and strategies for creating sustainability in their local communities

• apply their understandings, so formed, with others, to investigate and address national and global concerns.

Thus, education for sustainability is part of the process of building an informed, concerned and active civil society. This is not social engineering or indoctrination. Nor does it not encourage students to adopt only one view of what a sustainable society would be like or undermine their capacities for independent, critical thinking. Rather, the essentially democratic foundations of education for sustainability encourages teachers and students to engage in a ‘shared speculation’ about possible and alternative futures and ‘reflectively construct and reconstruct’ their visions of the future (Huckle, 1991, p. 61).

Exploring alternative visions of the future can help young people contribute to local, national and global sustainability by learning how to:

• value diverse ways of knowing• appreciate the implications and

responsibilities of their places in a complex web of relationships and systems

• identify with their own cultural heritage and value it as a contribution to the global diversity

• appreciate the views and experiences of people from other cultures

• respect democratic approaches to social continuity and change

• respect the rights of present and future generations and of other species

• develop and practise vocational knowledge and skills that support not only themselves and their families but also the long-term social and economic well-being of society

• choose lifestyle habits in the areas of consumption, recreation, transport that conserve natural resources and minimise their social and ecological footprints on the planet

• work, individually and with others, to analyse issues and problems, envision and evaluate alternative solutions, and make and enact plans to achieve the futures they prefer.


Empowering teaching and learning

Education for sustainability requires approaches to teaching and learning that enhance knowledge and understanding, promote ethical and critical reasoning, and motivate and equip young people to participate in community affairs. Issues of pedagogy are therefore vital in reorienting education towards sustainability. Pedagogy is a term that involves more than the traditional concept of teaching and learning strategies; pedagogy includes the teacher’s visions of what education is for and how society might be. Whatever sustainable development themes and topics are adopted, or whatever curriculum structures are adopted, the teacher’s beliefs and attitudes, together with the teaching strategies chosen, will significantly affect the nature of students’ learning experiences and the objectives achieved. Such choices and attitudes determine whether or not curriculum plans reproduce the existing social and cultural mores, or contribute to empowering people for participation in civil society, as do the styles of communication in and beyond the school.

Important aspects of pedagogy in education for sustainability include encouraging students to explore questions, issues and problems of sustainability, especially in contexts relevant to them and their communities; this involves student-centred and interactive enquiry-based approaches to teaching and learning. Such approaches do not preclude the use of more teacher-centred methods such as explanation, narration and demonstration where appropriate. However, they do emphasise using the environment and community as a resource for learning and student-centred activities such as debating controversial issues, role play, simulation games, values clarification and analysis, as well as a range of creative and experiential activities.

Teaching and learning for a sustainable futureTo help educators plan lessons that contribute to civil society through empowering teaching and learning, UNESCO has developed a 100-hour on-line multimedia teacher education program called Teaching and Learning for a Sustainable Future (TLSF). This program is freely available on the internet at

<www.unessco.org/education/tlsf>. Originally published as UNESCO’s contribution to the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development, the program has recently been revised and updated to incorporate changes in thinking about education and sustainable development since 2002 and to provide educational capacity building for the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development.

The program contains 25 modules for a total of around 100 hours of highly interactive activities, designed to:

• enhance teachers’ understanding of sustainable development and develop an appreciation of the scope and purpose of Education for a Sustainable Future

• promote practical skills for integrating sustainable development themes into all subject areas of the curriculum.

Teaching and Learning for a Sustainable Future combines the power of internet technology and multimedia professional training strategies. The modules address the difficult challenge of planning for whole-school change, teaching interdisciplinary themes, using learner-centred approaches to classroom teaching, and developing outcomes-based assessment strategies. All 25 modules are of direct relevance to Geography teaching (see Box) and have been written to a common format to facilitate ease of navigation and use. Each module includes:

• experiential learning strategies that give practice in:— analysing and interpreting information in

a variety of forms, e.g. text, tables, diagrams, and linked internet sites

— applying the ideas to local curriculum and teaching contexts and practices

— reflecting on these ideas in relation to your deepening appreciation of education for a sustainable future via a ‘Learning Journal’ that can be used for on-going professional reflection and as student learning material

• links to more than 500 internet sites which provide multiple perspectives and can enrich critical thinking about the emerging concepts of sustainable development and education for a sustainable future and


References

Fien, J. & Gerber, R. (1988). Teaching Geography for a better world. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd.

Huckle, J. (1991). Education for sustainability: Assessing pathways to the future. Australian Journal of Environmental Education, 7, 49–69.

Orr, D. (1992). Ecological literacy: Education and the transition to a postmodern world, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

United Nations Environment Programme. (2003). Global environment outlook 3. London: Earthscan.

UNESCO. (2004). International implementation scheme for the United Nations decade of education for sustainable development. Paris: UNESCO.

World Commission on Environment and Development. (1987). Our common future. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

provide alternatives for developing learning activities for students.

A team of geography teachers in Sydney is currently using Teaching and Learning for a Sustainable Future to develop teaching units for the Global Change section of their Years 8 to 10 syllabus in a program organised by the University of New South Wales Sustainable Living Program – but the internet base of Teaching and Learning for a Sustainable Future means that the modules can be used by all geography teachers anywhere, anytime without needing to wait for a special in-service program to be organised.

Teaching and Learning for a Sustainable FutureContents

<www.unesco.org/education/tlsf>

Curriculum rationale

1. Exploring global realities

2. Understanding sustainable development

3. A futures perspective in the curriculum

4. Reorienting education for a sustainable future

5. Accepting the challenge

Teaching about sustainability across the curriculum

6. Sustainable futures across the curriculum

7. Citizenship education

8. Health education

9. Consumer education

Interdisciplinary curriculum themes

10. Culture and religion for a sustainable future

11. Indigenous knowledge and sustainability

12. Women and sustainable development

13. Population and development

14. Understanding world hunger

15. Sustainable agriculture

16. Sustainable tourism

17. Sustainable communities

Teaching and learning strategies

18. Experiential learning

19. Story-telling

20. Values education

21. Enquiry learning

22. Appropriate assessment

23. Future problem-solving

24. Learning outside the classroom

25. Community problem solving


What can I know? What shall I do? What may I hope? (Kant, 1934, p. 399.)

Ethics has always been the subject matter for philosophers often regarded as important by a few well-trained

professionals. Ethics however is everything but that. It involves everyday life choices by all individuals living in society. It enables us to reflect on what we do and whether or not we have acted for the good of others or for our own selfish ends. We are constantly told by politicians and the media that we inhabit a world with endless opportunities, especially if you are fortunate enough to live in a highly developed society. The emergence of industrialism and mass production over recent centuries has fundamentally altered the way we produce and consume things in society, and the continuing list of environmental problems from salinity to pollution reminds us that our choices have not always been wisely made (Eckersley, 2004).

Increasingly, as we shall see, questions are being asked about the ethical behaviour of global institutions such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the World Bank, as well as individual countries and agencies within those nations (Singer & Gregg, 2004). The World Bank, for example, has frequently been in the position of deciding whether or not large dams for hydro-electricity production should be allowed to proceed in areas of high biodiversity value in developing countries. For many years the supposed economic advantages of such projects for poor countries were deemed to be beyond question, but gradually the counter-evidence mounted and the institution became reluctant to fund dams because of their adverse environmental impacts and long-term costs (World Commission on Dams, 2001). Increasingly too, the WTO is becoming an ‘ethical adjudicator’, having to balance environmental concerns against the alleged benefits of ‘free trade’ for poorer nations. In

this context, the long-running dispute over excessive dolphin kills associated with the global tuna fishing industry is a perfect example of a conflict where animal rights and economic arguments clash head on (Bonanno & Constance, 1998).

In an era characterised by spectacular corporate scandals and collapses, such as those associated with HIH, Enron and James Hardie, ethics is also more commonly now an element in decision-making that is taken into account by many corporations and superannuation fund managers when making choices about what to produce and where to invest; indeed, in many instances in recent years investment returns in specialist ethical fund schemes have outperformed their traditional competitors (Davidson, 2002; Fuller & Tilley, 2005). At another level, ethics involves everyday life choices by all individuals living in society and acting in a range of capacities (Singer, 1995). Among others, these include our overlapping and sometimes contradictory roles as consumers, employees, voters, teachers, and members of a range of family and community networks. Consumer power, in particular, has a proven capacity to effect policy change. It was used by US consumers to boycott tuna products in the 1990s and it is currently being employed by the 800,000-strong, animal rights organisation, People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA), against Australian sheep farmers (Johnston, 2005).

Arguably, as ‘international citizens’ in a world with a conservative estimate of over 20 million refugees, we all have shared responsibilities to: (i) the vast majority of the world’s six billion population living in low-income countries, (ii) future generations (intergenerational equity), and (iii) to the non-human world. These are all interconnected and indeed are now enshrined in numerous United Nations rights’ conventions as well as in the eight UN Millenium

Ethics and sustainability—exploring the issuesPeter Marden and David Mercer1

1 Dr. Peter Marden and Associate Professor David Mercer are in the School of Social Science & Planning at RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia


Development Goals. Drawing on the earlier work of Chapman (2000) on the moral responsibility of rich nations, Singer (2004) has argued controversially that, as the highest per capita emitter of greenhouse gases in the world, Australia has to bear much of the blame for projected sea-level rise and associated extreme weather events in the Asia-Pacific region and should therefore be prepared to accept thousands of possible ‘environmental refugees’ from low-lying island states such as Tuvalu in the future. An equally compelling, ‘environmental justice’ argument could be mounted in relation to the United States’ responsibility to vulnerable Mexican settlements around the Gulf of Mexico (Strauss, 2003). Clearly, in the Australian case this poses an ethical dilemma because there is a compelling argument that, on environmental grounds, the country is already grossly ‘overpopulated’ (Mercer, 1995).

The recent outpouring of international support for the victims of the December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami (which resulted in over $7 billion being raised) is one clear demonstration that, under certain circumstances, compassion can be harnessed and translated very quickly into practical action. But at the same time it challenges us to reflect on why it is that this sum of money pales into insignificance by comparison with daily expenditures on armaments and warfare and why other, less dramatic and ongoing crises are not treated with the same sense of urgency. A conservative estimate is that each day around 29,000 children around the world die from preventable diseases. The annual total is 10.6 million and many of these deaths are associated with poor quality water (Costello, 2005). The ongoing AIDS epidemic in Africa also springs to mind in this context as does the current, unprecedented pace of human-induced species extinction highlighted in the recently released Millenium Ecosystem Assessment by 1360 scientists from 95 countries (Radford, 2005). We also need to be aware that there is a strong body of opinion which states that a nation’s first priority always has to be to look after itself, its environment and its citizens. Garrett Hardin argued this forcefully in relation to the United States in his famous ‘lifeboat ethics’ paper, first published in 1974.

Ethics, Geography and democracy

These are all classic ‘geographical’ examples, and it is important to remember that professional geographers have long had an interest in ethics and its relevance to their discipline. In 1885, for instance, Peter Kropotkin published his landmark essay with the title ‘What geography ought to be’ (Kropotkin 1885). Subsequently, debate surrounding this issue was pushed to the margins rather than being ‘mainstream’, but from the 1970s onwards, especially in the United States, there was growing interest in the question of values in geography and geographical education (Mitchell & Draper, 1982). In 1997 this culminated in the formation of the ‘Values, Justice and Ethics Specialty Group (VJESG)’ within the Association of American Geographers. As Kobayashi and Proctor (2004, p. 723) explain:

The group was formed at a time when questions of whether geographers should be concerned about the moral, ethical implications of their work had long since been replaced with questions of how geographers could focus attention on these issues.

More recently, the specialist journal, Ethics, Place & Environment was launched to provide a forum for professional geographers and others to explore the connections between place, ethics and environmental concerns. It is important to remember though that no matter what institution is being discussed, ethics begins with the individual irrespective of professional affiliation or institutional membership.

The present paper explores a number of themes associated with the links between ethics and the sustainability agenda. Following a background discussion of ethics, ideas and the concept of progress, we present a case study of the Australian hardwood, woodchip export industry that illustrates the complexity of the relationship between ethics and sustainability. The main lesson of the case study is that in the contemporary world, external, global forces constantly impinge on the ‘local’ so that it is now inappropriate to draw a line around a country, region or state as if it were an insulated ‘container’ (Merrett,


1996). With di Castri (1995), the authors believe strongly that ‘true’ sustainable development involves emphasising and balancing four interrelated dimensions—the social, economic, environmental and cultural. A given society, for example, at certain times, may place undue emphasis on the economic dimension, but ignore the social, environmental, and cultural elements (see Figure 1). At other times, perhaps under a different political regime, there may be a quite different configuration of emphasis.

functions around the world and a move to the private provision of many services such as health care, education, transport and so on, traditionally considered to be the state’s primary responsibility. One of the most far-reaching of these transformations has been the wholesale privatisation of water in many countries leading to a growing divide between the rich who can afford to pay for clean drinking water and the poor who cannot. Whether or not to go down the water privatisation path is a fundamental ethical issue facing many nations, and it is interesting to note that in a recent referendum the people of Uruguay voted overwhelmingly against such a proposal.

When allied with strengthening links between big business and big government and the increasingly tight control of information through ‘commercial-in-confidence’ agreements, media monopolies and government media units, we regard all of the above changes as deeply troubling tendencies, both for society and the environment (Beder, 2004; Young, 2005). In 1982, 50 companies dominated the world media market. Today, there are less than ten so that an ever-diminishing pool of powerful corporations are filtering the ‘messages’ and information we receive. Ainger (2001, p.4) notes that:

We are creating a world in which a small and shrinking commercial monopoly gets to tell all the stories while the rest of us get to watch and listen . . . coverage of international news in the West has dropped by an average of 50 per cent in the past 10 years. On a single British channel, ITV, it has dropped by 80 per cent since the onset of satellite competition.

For all who care about ‘true’ democracy, and for those of us involved in professional geographical education these are worrying trends indeed (Marden, 2003). One of the enduring legacies of Alasdair MacIntyre’s (1967) classic, A short history of ethics is his insightful linking of changing ethical systems with their social and political context. Thus active citizenship and widespread political engagement were originally seen as virtues in Ancient Greece and Rome. But, as in the contemporary world, this changed markedly as political and economic power became

A particular concern of the authors is the significance of the ‘framing’ of ideas and issues (Lakoff, 2005) and the extent to which, in recent times, affluent societies such as Australia have apparently shifted markedly away from having a governance focus to a consumer focus. The former emphasises people’s roles as citizens and their responsibilities and social and political rights as members of a shared and collaborative community. The latter places far more emphasis on people as individual consumers, as well as on consumer rights and competition. This shift has paralleled a significant ‘downsizing’ of government

Figure 1: The ‘chair’ of sustainable development (after di Castri, 1995)


concentrated in fewer and fewer hands and people became apathetic and disengaged (Kenny, 2004/2005). Active engagement was replaced by ‘bread and circuses’. Are we more concerned with our own comforts and lifestyle consumption to care about these broader issues?

Ethics and environmental concerns

In the United States, expenditure on entertainment now far exceeds that on health care and clothing (Ainger, 2001); and, in March 2005, the Australia Institute published the results of a nationwide study of the consumption habits of 1644 Australian adults that probed their expenditure on ‘throwaway’ items that subsequently were never used. The main finding was that in 2004 approximately $10.5 billion (or $1226 per household) was spent on unused goods and services such as food, clothes and other personal items (Hamilton, Denniss & Baker, 2005; see also, Danziger, 2004). As vastly more populous countries like India and China join the headlong rush to ape extravagant western consumerist lifestyles it is alarming to contemplate what this will mean for the concomitant pressure on natural resources to feed the production/consumption frenzy (Fishman, 2005).

Recent studies of (un)sustainability have taught us that we have fragile horizons from which to enact changes in our lifestyle and the choices we make. Indeed. Jared Diamond’s most recent book, Collapse, is sub-titled ‘How societies choose to fail or survive’ (emphasis added, Diamond 2005). However, the hard-edged reality of economic growth and politics means that decisions about sustainability often have to be made with a duty of care, first to the economy and then to the environment. For example, the continued resistance of both the United States and Australia to the signing of the Kyoto Protocol to reduce greenhouse gas emissions has been constantly justified over the years on the grounds that such action would seriously ‘damage’ those two economies. This argument does not stand up to close scrutiny, especially if a long time-horizon is used.

Much of our policy on the environment is still driven by minimising the economic impact rather than on maximising the environmental

benefit for present and future generations. There is a constant trade-off between economic and political objectives and the objective of a sustainable environment. There are many theories about why this occurs. Some argue it is a symptom of political decision-making without any thought given to alternative policies that may impact on those in power. Hence, hanging on to power and serving those who support you is the dominant motivation for policy-makers. Others argue though that this is too cynical an approach that does not give any credence to the fact that people and governments can change their minds, once they are aware of the consequences. Recent examples include the banning of such products as DDT, asbestos, plastic bags (in some countries) and ozone-depleting halons and chlorofluorocarbons. In all such cases a number of key elements needed to be in place at just the right time so that radical change could be effected. Gladwell (2002) refers to this as the ‘tipping point’; once the critical elements are in place, change can occur extremely rapidly.

But we need to look deeper than this by addressing the very basics of the way we choose to live, or the ways others choose for us. What values are we exhibiting if we continue to neglect the lessons of the past and willfully choose to do things in a reckless and carefree manner? Sustainability is more than simply enacting policy, it is about altering perceptions and developing a duty of care, even about those things we may never see in our lifetime; it is about thinking on a different time scale, not on the short-term but on the long-term with a clear understanding of the costs and consequences of our actions; or indeed, our inaction. This is the foundation for the various initiatives that are being developed internationally as part of the current UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development 2005–2014 (UNESCO, 2002).

As hinted at earlier, there is also a spatial dimension to ethical thinking, if for example,

. . . the group to which we must justify ourselves is the tribe, or the nation, then our morality is likely to be tribal or nationalistic. If though on the other hand the globalization of communications technology has created a global audience, then we might feel a need to


justify our behaviour to the whole world (Singer, 2004, p.14).

Achieving this is not easy and some key concepts need to be examined closely as they are often taken for granted. Sometimes we all need to simply stop and think, and then perhaps we may formulate a set of different questions.

Philosophy can help us with this task, and it is interesting to note that at a time of immense moral confusion like the present there is greatly renewed interest around the world in the wisdom of Ancient Greece and what the philosophers and playwrights of that time such as Plato, Socrates, Euripides and Sophocles, can teach us about the serious problems we currently confront.

How can Socrates help us?

Although Socrates never wrote a word, he is still regarded as one of the most significant philosophers in history. We mainly know Socrates through the writings of Plato, his student. Socrates taught us to ‘examine our lives’ to think about our values and actions on an ongoing basis. Moral courage was important for Socrates, and this will sometimes mean standing on a point of argument even though it may be unpopular. Socrates warned that because something was popular or appealed to a vast populace does not necessarily mean that it is ‘correct’ or ‘true’. He also argued that it is only through self-examination and thoughtful reflection that we as individuals can make responsible judgments. There are many examples of courageous individuals standing up for what they believe in, often at immense personal cost. Rachel Carson’s (1963) crusade against pesticide use in American agriculture immediately springs to mind as does Griffith Taylor’s fierce opposition in the 1920s to the prevailing view that Australia could easily support a population of 100 million or more (Powell, 1984).

In modern times we can find many examples where this Socratic practice is much needed, yet too often ignored. Indeed, we have already drawn attention to the dangerous monopolisation of media ownership in the contemporary world which results in the

transmission of a limited range of opinions and viewpoints to millions of people. Arguments concerning economic growth and environmental care are often couched (‘framed’) in robust language from both sides. People with strongly-held, persistent views may sometimes not take the time to listen and try and understand the other position and this can lead to dogmatic approaches. For example, many proponents of economic development often use language imbued with notions of ‘progress’ and ‘inevitability’, as if alternatives do not exist. Earlier, mention was made of di Castri’s (1995) four-legged ‘chair’ of sustainable development and Figure 1 presented examples of ‘unbalanced’ chairs. There is no doubt where the present Australian Government’s priorities lie. In his address to the World Economic Forum in Melbourne in 1998 Prime Minister Howard stated emphatically: ‘The overriding aim of our agenda is to deliver Australia an annual (economic) growth rate of over 4 per cent on average during the decade to 2010’ (quoted in Eckersley, 2005, p.5).

The idea of progress

Progress itself is by no means a simple phenomenon. At one level, it could be assumed that there has always been progress. Eckersley (2005, p.5), for example, reminds us that in 1000 AD, the 270 million people in the world could be expected to live an average of around 24 years by comparison with today’s average of 67 years. The invention of the wheel, too, was a significant leap forward in human history. However, averages can mask huge differences between countries and the selective use of indicators can present quite different results. As well, progress can be considered as an idea in itself and has a specific meaning that does not relate simply to the appearance of new inventions or improved living conditions.

So what do we mean by the idea of progress? Does the fact that Australian Aborigines did not know of the wheel mean that they had not ‘progressed’ for some 40,000 years prior to European colonisation? The most common view found among Enlightenment thinkers, which will subsequently be explained below, was that progress was the evolution of a slow,


continuous and inevitable, but controllable, development in the ability of the human intellect over time. The Enlightenment is generally referred to as that period in 18th Century European history when science and reason became dominant over tradition and superstition—it marked the beginning of modern society. The motto of the Enlightenment was, according to the great German philosopher, Immanuel Kant, Sapere Aude! (‘dare to know!’).

A new attitude to progress emerged as a consequence. Progress was no longer just the invention of new technology or the creation of art that had existed in cyclical progression since the Ancient Greeks; it was the very progression of the human mind itself. This was an important time in our relationship to the environment because it was believed that humans were in control of their own destiny; through science we can manage, manipulate and direct the natural world to our own needs and aspirations—we could control nature. In 1780, in a letter to Joseph Priestley, Benjamin Franklin wrote that:

the rapid progress true science now makes . . . (makes it) impossible to imagine the height to which may be carried, in a thousand years, the power of man over matter’; science, he argues, will solve all the world’s problems ‘not accepting that of old age . . . (reprinted in Kramnick, 1995, p.73).

Franklin was a perennial optimist because, as we now know, science has not been able to solve all problems; indeed, some argue it has created many of the most intractable problems of the present time.

Science is often used as a source of legitimate authority in many environmental debates. At the time of writing, for example, Japan is pressing to be allowed to resume the hunting of large fin and humpback whales in Antarctic waters because their research has demonstrated an increase in the population of these cetaceans (Darby, 2005). This represents the latest phase in the ongoing cultural clash between pro- and anti-whaling nations, and is contrary to the wishes of the Australian government that, on five separate occasions, has failed in its bid to have a large whale sanctuary declared in the Southern

Ocean. Consider, too, the arguments raised over global warming with scientific adversaries on both sides of the debate claiming that their position is the only viable one. As Socrates insisted, we need to always stop and think about the evidence before us and not be too hasty to make up our minds. What is reasonable in this particular case: the less than five per cent of international scientists arguing against the greenhouse problem, or the remaining 95 per cent who have accepted the evidence and moved on to try and find workable solutions? (Traxler, 2002). Reason and logic will help us in this regard but no matter how the evidence is presented we need to think the issues through carefully and not simply accept things at face value.

Ideas: good, bad and dangerous

There are good ideas, bad ideas and dangerous ideas. Now we all have ideas, and we like to think that we can discriminate between a bright idea, or a good idea, and a bad one. We pride ourselves in the knowledge that we have a mature sense of awareness, that we can tell what is useful from the huge amount of ‘psycho-babble’ and ‘info-toxins’ with which we are inundated on a daily basis (Lasn, 2000). We like to think of ourselves as reasoned individuals with a capacity to judge, to evaluate and to make decisions on the basis of what we take in as knowledge. But how many of us have been swayed into doing things based on a blind belief in an idea that is basically flawed and stupid? The great writer Victor Hugo (1877, p.143) once claimed that ‘a stand can be made against an invasion by an army; but no stand can be made against an invasion by an idea’. He was alluding to the intricate, complex and unconscious ways certain ideas creep into everyday thought processes. It was a warning about how bad ideas can find their way into common sense thinking.

Ideas are products of history, they are products of culture, and they are products of the social world which creates them. The benefit of hindsight is always good to have, but how are we to judge ideas of the past? Can we do so with the knowledge and cultural habits of today? We can think of many examples of this: it was once fashionable and considered


reasonable to suggest that the earth is flat, or that the moon and the stars revolve around us, that if you exceed the speed of sound you will dissolve, that flight is impossible, and so on, and so on. It can be argued that the history of science and its historical path is that of one bad idea being replaced with a better one, and that each progressive idea will be superior to that which went before. It is not difficult for us to apply this good idea/bad idea template to the realms of science and technology because clear lines of innovation and invention can be detected, as well as their social significance. But it is more difficult to apply the same logic to the social world, to ideas suggested to make life better and more fulfilling, ideas from economists, from historians, from philosophers down through the ages. These are harder to gauge and sometimes the impact and effects of these ideas are not easily definable. For example, how do we know what future generations will value with regard to the environment? Present generations living in Australia have witnessed the introduction of the concept of ‘environmental flows’ to improve river ecosystem health. Such an idea would have been inconceivable to the early pioneers of irrigation or hydroelectric power in this country.

Our present concerns with sustainability are premised on what we value today and what we believe people in the future will also value, but it is possible that future generations may have very different values. Not knowing this with any certainty however should not prevent us from making a reasoned judgment based on the simple lesson that future generations will still need resources, even though they may use technologies not yet conceived of in our lifetime. Futures thinking is difficult and fraught with ethical dilemmas and this is why many argue that we should only be concerned with the present and let the future take care of itself (Cocks, 2003). Certain ideas are tagged as optimistic or pessimistic and are judged by their outcomes and their potential impact. This is an important consideration for thinking about the environment because good and bad ideas (like irrigation or hydro-power) may not be identified as such until the next generation. For example, it was once thought wise to combat pests and weeds with harsh chemicals like 245T but today we know that this has had

a serious impact on the environment. More recently, following the US example, there have been calls to ban the dangerous pesticide, chlorpyrifos, from use in Australia. This follows a large spill of the chemical on the Sunshine Coast in January, 2005, which had a devastating impact on fish and native birds (Roberts, 2005). An optimist will always point to those ideas that have carried humanity further and advanced our understanding of our place in the universe as an indication of progress. A pessimist on the other hand would focus on the costs and impacts associated with certain achievements, both intentional and unintentional: the wars, the environmental devastation, the persistent poverty, the violence, the pollution and, some even argue, the loss of morality and an enduring duty of care. Science, and those who do science must be guided by an ethic of care and responsibility in terms of how we gain knowledge and to what end.

It is important to remember that some ideas are presented (‘framed’) to the public as being complete and in need of no further discussion or debate. One example of this is the way the ‘market’ is often used as a fundamental reality, a tangible thing that will lead the way for the acquisition of other social and environmental benefits—especially if it is a so-called ‘free’ market. However, the idea of a market is a social construction, a creation of human thought and practice, concerning transactions and the exchange of goods and services. The market does not define itself; it does not have a will of its own accord; it is not a living, breathing thing capable of making choices—but the language of today’s politicians and the majority of economic commentators is that we have no choice but to follow whatever the market ‘dictates’ (Seabrook, 1990). As Socrates would emphasise, this is an ‘unexamined idea’ and therefore, one in need of critical appraisal. This is an extremely difficult task in the modern world because it has dominated much of our thinking regarding the economic organisation of life. Hence, the idea of the market has outlived many other ideas as a thing that defines us, provides us with an identity and a status—it is an idea associated with sources of power in modern society, and therein lies the key. Ideas are powerful expressions of the human condition


and they are quite often linked to very powerful vested interests. People and institutions today, and throughout history, have propped up a certain idea to maintain their own position in society. This is often done at the expense of other alternative ideas. So the longevity of an idea may not be directly linked to its appeal to reason, or to its superior logic, but rather to the powerful network of people and institutions determined to keep it on (or alternatively, off) the public agenda. For example, why has Australia not signed and ratified the Kyoto agreement? Are the reasons offered by the current federal government justified and reasonable?

Being environmentally responsible

So with an understanding of ideas we need to now ask the question: what does being environmentally responsible mean? First of all we need to recognise that all actions will be guided by our view of the world and the ideas we value. Subsequently, we need to constantly put ideas to the test which requires making moral and ethical judgments. After all, if we were to ask a classroom of students whether they thought genetically modified food is a good idea and a technology we should be encouraging because it may help solve food shortages in the future, we would get many different responses. Some would be quite definite in their ‘yes’ or ‘no’ responses. Others may however request some time to think about the issues before making a judgment.

We live life at a fast pace and most of us simply do not have the time to sit back, gain the knowledge and make our minds up this way; instead, we tend to use our intuitive insight or be persuaded by what others think, or by the rhetoric of others claiming to be experts. Being responsible also implies judging an idea by other ideas; are there viable alternatives to a specific action or policy and have they been canvassed to a satisfactory level? Economists often talk about costs and benefits concerning actions, or for not taking action. However, as we have discovered to our dismay some of these costs have been borne by too few and by other species that do not have a voice. At the same time the benefits have frequently been exaggerated. An environmentally responsible action will be one

not solely anthropocentric (human-centred) in its consideration of environmental impact but will concern the impact on other species and their natural habitats. An environmentally responsible action will be judged on its ability to minimise the harm for future generations while ensuring that today’s needs are met. Thinking ‘sustainability’ involves thinking about the ethics of our actions and inactions. We sometimes need to proceed cautiously by developing the best knowledge we can possibly gain, and recognise that environmental problems are often complex and require considerable research. We now turn to a case study which illustrates the complex relationship between ethics and sustainable development.

The Australian woodchip export industry

Since the 1970s, in particular, a number of industries in Australia have been the target of strong opposition from green groups for the scale of their activities, their high level of subsidisation by the tax-payer, deleterious environmental impacts, and their inappropriate practices. At different times these have included the irrigation and hydro-electricity sectors, the mineral sands and aluminium industries and the native timber harvesting sector. The latter was the focus of concerted environmental campaigns with high media exposure in several states throughout the 1980s and 1990s and culminated in an attempted compromise between the states, the Commonwealth Government and green activists in the late 1990s in the form of negotiated Regional Forest Agreements (RFAs), most of which it has to be said, have now failed (Mercer, 2000).

At the heart of the conflict was—and indeed still is—opposition to a highly subsidised industry that was destroying native forests and Australia’s biodiversity at a rapid rate for high-volume woodchip exports, mainly to Japanese paper manufacturing plants for bargain-basement prices. Had the industry been one that concentrated on selective logging from native forests and an extensive network of hardwood plantations for the production of high-value products such as furniture, and also employed relatively large numbers of skilled


labour, there would certainly have been far less opposition from environmentalists. Export woodchip volumes rose dramatically over a thirty-year period from around 22,000 tonnes in 1969 to 6 million tones in 1999. By 2004, 5 million tonnes were exported from Tasmania alone, and that figure is set to increase dramatically. Moreover, under Tasmania’s RFA logging can proceed in the iconic forests of the Styx Valley and the Tarkine wilderness. Meanwhile employment in the timber industry has continued to fall year by year and imports of paper and timber products have increased to such an extent that there is now a $2 billion trade deficit in wood and paper products.

There are several ethical issues of concern here. First, there are serious problems with the state encouraging a woodchip-driven timber industry that fuels the continued destruction of Australia’s biodiversity and compromises other valuable ecosystem services, such as catchment protection, for short-term profit in a volatile, high-risk global market. Second, the fact that such a large proportion of Australia’s wood and wood-related products are imported means that, in the words of the Chief Executive of the Victorian Association of Forest Industries, ‘we encourage imports from poor countries with poor practices’ (Caswell, 2005, p. 16). Third, state governments are faced with the perceived ethical dilemma of choosing between ‘jobs and the environment’. In the days leading up to the October 2004 federal election, the Coalition government successfully campaigned to put jobs in the timber industry ahead of environmental protection. The Labor opposition, by contrast, had floated the idea of a generous restructuring package for the timber industry. The ‘jobs’ argument eventually won the day convincingly even though the research evidence strongly supports the employment-generating capacity of environmental protection measures (Gale, 2005).

Conclusion

Acting responsibly involves understanding the relation between thought and action. Ethics demands of us to examine our actions and our motivations, and quite often this means making uncomfortable decisions. This may require that we intervene to prevent further damage; such is the case with greenhouse. It may mean that we have to change the way we think about the environment and our place in the natural world. Geography does matter because we now know that local and regional processes of environmental change can have global implications. When we stop and think before we act we are better able to choose alternatives and consider the impact of our choices. This does not mean that all decisions made will reflect a genuine sustainable ethic but at least it will enable us to do the least harm. We also need to constantly scrutinise government policies and hold them to account for what they do because unfortunately there are still many in politics who think only in the short-term. An ethic of sustainability demands that we not only think long-term but also beyond ourselves and our immediate needs.

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Strauss, A. L. (2003). The legal option: suing the United States in international forums for global warming emissions. Environmental Law Reporter, 33, 10185–10191.

Traxler, M. (2002). Fair chore division for climate change. Social Theory & Practice, 28, 101–134.

UNESCO (2002). Education for sustainability: From Rio to Johannesburg—lessons learnt from a decade of commitment. Paris: UNESCO.

World Commission on Dams. (2001). Dams and development: A new framework for decision-making. London: Earthscan.

Young, S. (2005). The persuaders: inside the hidden machines of political advertising. Sydney: Pluto.


The emergence of whole schools

The formal education sector has been a focus for change towards sustainability since as early as the 1970s and 1980s (Henderson & Tilbury, 2004). Early educational initiatives sought to establish new roles for schools in their communities and society beyond traditional classroom-oriented pedagogies through projects such as ‘greening’ of school grounds. Such programs extended learning beyond classroom walls to incorporate experiences in the ‘outdoor classroom’, focusing on elements such as the physical landscape, the built environment and the community. Early evidence of this shifting emphasis of education programs emerged from programs in the United Kingdom, Europe and North America (Henderson & Tilbury, 2004). Programs such as the UK’s ‘Learning Through Landscapes’, Canada’s ‘Evergreen’ and the Environment and School Initiatives ‘Learnscapes’ all provided new approaches to learning through environmental experiences (Learning Through Landscapes, 2003; Evergreen, 2000; Environment and School Initiatives, 2004).

Building on these early initiatives, the last decade has witnessed a substantial movement worldwide to expand environmental education programs, and to focus on reorienting school infrastructure, management and curriculum to create more holistic learning environments and engage learners in action towards sustainability (Pedersen, Dymont & Tilbury, 2004). Such whole school programs have emerged in response to heightened global calls to reorient the management and practice of formal education to address issues of sustainability (see UNCED, 1992; UNESCO, 2002). Over time, whole school programs have spread across the continents and evolved to address a wider range of issues, broadening their scope beyond physical

improvements to school grounds and environmental practices to address sustainability as it relates to governance, resource consumption, curriculum, extracurricular activities, resource management and community partnerships. In doing so, whole school programs are highlighting new possibilities for schools as a focus of innovation, and as places to showcase changes in practice to work toward a better future. Such programs are also demonstrating an ability to trigger deep levels of change in students, teachers and school administrators, resulting in cultural shifts in both schools and the wider community.

The nature of whole schools

So what do whole school programs look like? A number of international whole school programs have emerged, and they reflect a wide range of approaches, the rich diversity in how different regions define sustainability, and a focus on the issues that are of most local relevance in various regions of the world. These programs exhibit a wide array of focus areas, including issues such as teacher education, environmental schools and landscapes, solid waste, water conservation, energy use, democracy, consumption, culture and health (Henderson & Tilbury, 2004). Many European ‘eco-school’ programs focus on issues such as waste, litter, energy, water, transport and school grounds. Whole school programs in Africa, however, tend to place greater focus on issues such as health, sanitation, and community based natural resource management. Programs are managed and funded by a variety of interests, including national government agencies, non-governmental organisations and regional and local partners (Table 1).

Schools participating in whole school programs engage in a variety of processes in

Whole school approaches to sustainabilityDaniella Tilbury1 and David Wortman2

1 Associate Professor Danielle Tilbury is the Director of the Australian Research Institute in Education for Sustainability at Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia2 David Wortman is the Environmental Program Manager for Adolfson Associates, Seattle USA


working towards sustainability. Many schools perform ‘audits’ of school grounds and operations, including resource use, waste and environmental conditions. Audits may be followed by implementation plans, monitoring and evaluation of progress towards sustainability. Several whole school programs also employ some sort of accreditation and achievement recognition, and many use a tiered system (e.g., bronze, silver or gold) to benchmark a school’s progress toward sustainability. Awards such as plaques, logos, flags and diplomas are often used to motivate participation and implementation, and help to celebrate success.

As a foundation of these processes, many whole school programs share a strong focus on participation, partnerships and action (Henderson & Tilbury, 2004). Democratic decisionmaking and meaningful participation of all stakeholders are fundamental components

of whole school programs. Such decision-making involves students, teachers, management and administrators working equitably on issues such as curriculum planning and school operations, often with an equally diverse ‘environmental committee’ overseeing the process. Participation and democratic decisionmaking span all phases of the whole school process, from initial exercises to develop a shared vision for a more sustainable school to conducting audits, and implementing and evaluating changes in school operations, management and curriculum. Whole school programs seek participation from students of all levels, from kindergarten through secondary and special schools.

Partnerships are also an integral component of all whole school programs. Partnerships are at the core of the implementation plan for the United Nations Decade of Education for

Program Scope Management Education focus Key focus and principles

ENSI Eco-schools

12 member countries across Europe

International Secretariat manages professional development and research.

National education agencies manage national eco-school programs in each country

Schools, students, teachers, teacher trainers, and administrators

Develop, test and publish methods of teaching and learning to define good practices in environmental education

Establish international school partnerships and conduct comparative studies

FEE Eco-schools

12,000 schools in 20 nations in Africa, Asia, South America1,400 schools in Ireland, nearly 5,000 schools in UK

Ireland, South Africa: Environmental NGOs

UK: national environmental charity and regional arms

UK: Infants, primary, secondary, and special needs schoolsSouth Africa and Europe: Kindergarten, primary, and secondary schools

UK and Europe: waste, water and energy

South Africa: curriculum-based action for healthy environment, environment, community knowledge, resource management, culture, others

Green Schools 15,000 schools in China

State Environmental Protection Administration, Centre for Environmental Education and Communications, local CEEC networks

Middle schools, primary schools, kindergarten, vocational schools, and special needs schools

Chinese social and political facts: use resources to benefit environment and integrate environmental education into school curricula

Green School Award

218 schools in Sweden

National Agency for Education

Pre-schools, compulsory schools, and non-compulsory schools

Methods for teaching and learning about sustainable development.

Democratic principles, ethical, aesthetic, cultural and health considerations.

Enviroschools 85 schools across the New Zealand

Enviroschools Foundation, regional partners

Kindergarten, primary, and secondary schools

Sustainability, environmental education, cultural diversity, student participation, knowledge enriching the learning process

Table 1: Major International Whole School Programs


Sustainable Development, and they are vital to reorienting formal education towards sustainability (UNESCO, 2003). Through partnerships, whole schools become the focus of learning in their communities, involving not only teachers, students and school administration, but also community organisations, institutions, civil society associations, businesses, government authorities and individuals. Partnerships involve all stakeholders in both learning from and contributing to programs, helping the school learn from the community, and the community from the school (ENSI, 2004). Such partnerships can leverage technical and financial support and expertise, align whole school programs with government priorities, avoid duplication of resources and personnel and facilitate sharing of visions and decision- making within and outside schools (FEE International, 2004a, 2004b; Enviroschools Foundation, 2004).

Environmental education and education for sustainability: shifting the focus

Underpinning whole school approaches is a pedagogy focused on education for sustainability. It is an approach that diverges from traditional school strategies that have focused on raising awareness ‘about’ the environment, and providing positive experiences ‘in’ the environment. The premise behind such traditional approaches has been that raising awareness of environmental issues would lead learners to take action to protect or improve the environment. Recent research, however, has shown that raising awareness and providing experiences in the environment are alone not sufficient to lead learners to take action toward a more sustainable future (Fien & Tilbury, 2002; Tilbury, Coleman & Garlick, 2004). The 1992 Rio Earth Summit and Agenda 21, and the subsequent 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development support the reorientation of the role of education in addressing sustainability (UNESCO, 2002). Several other international documents have reinforced this shifting of focus of environmental education to education for sustainability, including the Tbilisi Declaration, the Dakar Framework for Action, and the 2004 United Nations Economic Commission for

Europe. (UNESCO-UNEP, 1978; UNCED, 1992; UNECE, 2004).

Education for sustainability is about shifting the focus from ‘what to teach students’ to envisioning schools as a place where students, adults and the community interact and learn together (Henderson & Tilbury, 2004). It involves reorienting traditional classroom approaches to more student centred and interactive, inquiry-based approaches to teaching and learning (Fien, 2001) as well as changing school structures (Sterling, 2001). Important aspects of pedagogy in education for sustainability include encouraging learners to actively explore questions, issues and problems of sustainability in contexts relevant to them and their communities. It provides space for learners to envision positive futures rather than focus on negative aspects of sustainability problems, and to critically reflect on current lifestyles to make more informed decisions (Tilbury, 2004; Fien & Tilbury, 2002). It engages learners in participation and action, providing opportunities for adults and students to interact, learn and take action towards sustainability together, and to explore more complex social issues such as human rights, equality, peace and politics. It is based on the premise that reorienting society towards sustainability will require citizens with critical inquiry and systemic thinking skills to deal with today’s complex sustainability issues (Huckle & Sterling, 1996; Sterling, 2001; Fien, 2001; Tilbury, Coleman & Garlick, 2004). Education for sustainability creates opportunities for students and the wider community to learn together through partnerships, participation and action to work towards a more sustainable future.

Australia’s whole school approach: the sustainable schools initiative

In Australia, the Sustainable Schools Initiative is among the most significant educational initiatives in the country over recent years (Pedersen, Dymont & Tilbury, 2004). The initiative reflects recent trends in Australia to transform primary, secondary, and higher education to be more inclusive of sustainability, embodied in documents such as Environment Australia’s National Action Plan for a Sustainable Future and the National Statement on Education for Sustainability (Environment Australia, 2000;


Curriculum Corporation, 2005). The Initiative includes agreements from all states and territories to participate through the National Environmental Education Network (NEEN), and the launching of pilot programs, planning efforts and proposals across the country.

Initial proposals for the program grew out of a 2000 NEEN meeting, in which participants drafted a proposal calling for a new school environmental management program modelled after Sweden’s ‘Green Flag’ program (Malone, Fien, Guevara & Lang, 2004). The proposal articulated a vision for ‘sustainable schools’ based on a national accreditation network that would also help to influence curricula. The Sustainable Schools Initiative seeks to integrate fragmented approaches to education and sustainability into a holistic program with measurable financial, environmental, and curriculum change outcomes. While the program includes a list of common elements that are required for each state or territory to receive funding from the Australian Government Department of Environment and Heritage, each state will have the flexibility for implementing the program in a locally relevant way. Options include incorporating the Initiative into their school curricula and programs by directing it through state government, non-government organisations, or directly through participating local schools (Pedersen, Dymont & Tilbury, 2004).

In its early stages of development, initial funding of A$200,000 was directed in 2002 to New South Wales and Victoria for implementation of pilot programs, supported by matching funding from state governments and A$1.5 million from partner organisations (Malone et al., 2004). Of the two, the New South Wales program is the largest, with 198 government and non-government schools across the state opting to participate since the program began in 2002. Coordinated by an environment committee, each participating school develops an environmental management plan to address curriculum, management of school resources, and stewardship of school grounds. Schools engage in a visioning for sustainability exercise, conduct a school environmental audit, and set targets for resource management and curriculum integration. This process is the first stage of a continuous cycle

of visioning, monitoring, and evaluating progress towards sustainability (Pedersen, Dymont & Tilbury, 2004).

Participating schools in New South Wales also undergo three phases of accreditation. While the first two phases are self-assessed, once a school believes that it has reached a state of continual improvements towards sustainability, an outside team assesses whether or not the school has gone through approved processes and can match certain indicators of progress towards sustainability. The New South Wales Department of Environment has dedicated significant support for the project, providing funding for a full-time coordinator, an environmental manager and 22 sustainable schools support teachers (Pedersen, Dymont & Tilbury, 2004).

Victoria’s program, also initiated in 2002, is a collaboration between two community organisations – the Gould League and the Centre for Education and Research in Environmental Strategies (CERES). Overseen by the Victorian Department of Education and Training, it is based on an open and collaborative structure accessible by many organisations, including government agencies, businesses, and stakeholders across the state. With support from government and non-government organisation grants, Victoria’s program has expanded to 80 schools across the state. Core to the program is a module called ‘Schools Becoming Sustainable’, which engages teachers in professional development and the principles of education for sustainability. Additional modules include Waste Wise Schools, Energy Wise Schools, Water Ways for Schools and Biodiversity in Schools (Gould League & CERES, 2002). Future modules may include climate change, sustainable technology, air quality, and greenhouse concerns (CERES, 2004). Once schools select modules, facilitators from the Gould League and CERES guide development and implementation actions to carry out the program. Through a process of whole school participation and integrating curricula, schools set targets and implement actions. Facilitators expect that program outcomes have the potential to reduce waste and schoolyard litter by 50 percent, reduce water use by 15 percent, and substantially increase schoolyard biodiversity (Gould League & CERES, 2002).


Sustainable school initiatives in other states and territories remain in the design and planning stages. In Tasmania, the Department of Education is exploring how Sustainable Schools can support the state’s new ‘Essential Learnings Framework’ curriculum, which includes a component called ‘creating sustainable futures’ (Department of Education Tasmania, 2002). Three schools are piloting a Sustainable schools program, and the results will be used to help the Department draft a proposal for Tasmania’s inclusion in the national initiative.

With in-kind funding from Education Queensland, a wide network of outdoor and environmental education centres as well as teachers and principals have helped to draft Queensland’s Environmentally Sustainable Schools Initiative. It is anticipated that the program will be managed through a partnership between Education Queensland and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. Holistic in nature and building on other state environmental education programs, plans call for a core unit with optional modules to deal with energy, waste, water, and climate issues, similar to Victoria’s program (Education Queensland, Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Queensland Environmental Protection Agency & Commonwealth Department of Environment and Heritage, 2004). South Australia, West Australia, the Australian Capital Territory and Northern Territory are all moving ahead with initial phases of their own programs, with plans to apply for Commonwealth funding to develop frameworks for their own sustainable schools programs.

Whole school program achievements

Whole school programs in Australia and internationally are in their early stages of implementation, and there has been limited research on the full extent of their achievements. However, initial findings from many whole school programs show promising and positive results. Among their most tangible achievements to date have been substantial improvements in the environmental performances of schools through reducing consumption and increasing resource efficiency (Henderson & Tilbury, 2004). For example, schools participating in Ireland’s

Green Schools program, showed as much as a 45 percent reduction in waste (Taylor, 2004). New Zealand’s Enviroschools program and others have demonstrated extensive improvements in the ‘greening’ of school grounds through planting of trees and vegetable gardens, organic waste composting, installation of water tanks, and development of soil erosion reduction programs (Mardon & Ritchie, 2002; FEE International, 2004a, 2004b; Conde-Aller, 2004).

Whole schools are also cultivating greater student participation, although what this participation looks like varies across whole school programs. Most common among many whole school programs is participation by learners in physical improvement projects, including environmental audits, school ground greening programs, consumption and resource use reduction programs, and monitoring (Henderson & Tilbury, 2004). Deeper levels of participation in decisionmaking appear to be less common, though programs such as Sweden’s Green School Award have reported increased student participation in selecting weekly teaching and learning content and greater involvement of students in environmental and local Agenda 21 groups (Sweden National Agency for Education, 2001).

Still other shifts appear to be emerging from whole school programs in the practice and process of taking action towards sustainability. Results from South Africa’s Eco-schools program shows that through participation in whole school programs, students gained life skills, an increased awareness of local and indigenous knowledge, improved group working skills, and an increasing capacity to respond to social issues such as poverty (Conde-Aller, 2004). In New Zealand, the Enviroschools program has initiated and driven student action to work towards sustainability through participation in school planning, visioning exercises, problem solving, and assessment and evaluation. Through the process, students’ practical project skills increased, and there were positive changes in attitude, knowledge, and level of involvement (Mardon & Ritchie, 2002). Students participating in Sweden’s Green School Award schools have extended skills gained through participating in school audits to conduct environmental certification of their own homes


to tackle consumption and resource efficiency issues (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2001). Students in the Irish Green School Program not only reduced waste in their own schools, but have increasingly participated in local government projects, took personal action toward greater energy and water conservation, and focused more on environmental concerns in their consumption habits (O’Mahony & Fitzgerald, 2001).

Teachers and administrators are also benefiting from whole school programs, changing and refining pedagogies to reorient teaching towards more learner centred approaches to engage future generations of students. In South Africa, teachers from one FEE Eco-school reported that their involvement in a whole school program had helped them to not only reflect on their own practice, but to take actions to improve it (Conde-Aller, 2004). Building on these experiences, some schools are fundamentally restructuring the ways in which they make decisions about curricula, management, and operations by engaging in partnerships with the whole school community, including governing boards, school management, teachers, caretakers, parents, and students. Evidence emerging from these experiences suggests that participating schools are more likely to demonstrate leadership and models of good practice than non-participating schools (Henderson & Tilbury, 2004). Such schools have also experienced greater levels of involvement in school life by parents and the community as a whole, and better relationships between schools and parent groups and between pupils and teachers (Scottish Executive Education Department, 2004).

Successful whole school programs: critical success factors and needs

What factors are leading to the success of such whole school programs? Their ultimate success appears to depend on several key factors. Many whole school programs have found success by aligning themselves with government priorities, while others have been successfully developed as tools for implementing national policies (Henderson & Tilbury, 2004). Such alignment can build political support for whole school programs, increasing their relevance, effectiveness, and

longevity. The Wales Eco-schools program, as one example, has established a reciprocal relationship with the national Healthy Schools Campaign. This relationship has resulted in significant increases in uptake of the program over the last 5 years due to the recognition of the program by the Welsh School Curriculum Authority as a model in recognising ‘citizenship in action’ (Taylor, 2004).

Success of whole school programs also depends on dedicated support in the form of information resources, staffing, and funding (Henderson & Tilbury, 2004). Sweden’s Green School Award program has supported participating schools by providing reference material, maintaining a program website, and allocating dedicated staff and regional coordinators to assist schools in developing award applications (Sweden National Agency for Education, 2001). Similarly, New Zealand’s Enviroschools program provides participating schools with an ‘Enviroschools Kit’, a classroom resource to assist teachers with the cycles of action learning (Wilson-Hill & van Rossem, 2001). Support in the form of significant, predictable, and continuous funding can also help whole school programs focus on long-term strategic program plans rather than short-term fundraising, and on improving program support for more effective outcomes.

Programs with access to experts in education for sustainability and professional development opportunities have also fared better, although this remains a significant challenge to many whole school programs that rarely have the combination of both education and environmental expertise (Henderson & Tilbury, 2004). With in-service training largely absent from many whole school programs, some programs are addressing this need by developing partnerships with or links to external environmental education and education for sustainability organisations or authorities. Access to such expertise during program management, design, and development is critical to orient whole school programs toward sustainability. Many teachers are keen to engage in environmental education and education for sustainability, but few have the knowledge and capacity to reorient curricula and engage in participatory pedagogies. In New Zealand, dedicated facilitators have been the key to program support, motivation, and


guidance in action learning cycles and are seen as critical to program effectiveness in evaluations, along with professional exchanges and networking opportunities (Mardon & Ritchie, 2004).

For some whole school programs, monitoring and evaluation have not been a high priority, limiting the ability to reflect and improve upon practice. Monitoring and evaluation can take many forms, and play a key role in cycles of learning and improvement. New Zealand’s Enviroschools program uses a 2-day reflection meeting, or ‘Hui’ to address guiding principles, accomplishments, obstacles, and ideas for improvements to provide qualitative data on program performance (Enviroschools Foundation, 2004). In South Africa, teacher ‘clusters’ have helped teachers to improve practice through dialogue and personal interactions (Conde-Aller, 2004).

Multi-stakeholder partnerships are helping whole school programs to address many of these issues, along with helping to build on knowledge and skills, provide support and motivation, improve teaching and learning approaches, and build capacity for institutional change. Programs like the international FEE Eco-schools have benefited from international partnerships with governments and community, adding value to the program, sharing commitments to environmental responsibility, and supporting initiatives in EFS, the environment, and citizenship. Others like New Zealand’s Enviroschools program are benefiting from partnerships with business and others on a regional and national level (Mardon and Ritchie, 2002). South Africa’s Eco-schools program has benefited from strong school-community partnerships, while China’s Green Schools project has focused on international partnerships to draw in expertise (Zeng, H. pers.comm., 15 April, 2004). In Scotland, local groups provide the country’s Eco-school program with support through local education advisors, biodiversity action plan officers, Local Agenda 21 officers, and others involved in resource and transport issues (Keep Scotland Beautiful, 2004).

The potential of whole schools: moving towards sustainability

‘Imagine . . . a generation of innovative and motivated young people, who instinctively think and act sustainably.’ (Enviroschools Foundation, 2004, p.1.)

Even with the early signs of success emerging from whole school initiatives around the world, numerous research questions must be addressed as whole school initiatives move forward. It is not clear, for example, how different institutional contexts such as different Sustainable Schools program frameworks in New South Wales (managed by state government) and Victoria (managed by a non-governmental organisation) influence the effectiveness of whole school programs (Pedersen, Dymont & Tilbury, 2004). More research is also needed into the long-term effects of such programs. How do such programs affect student cognition, social behaviour, play, and environmental values? What are the benefits of participation and action to students, teachers, parents, and school administrators, and what do they carry into their later lives?

Even with these remaining questions, the need is imperative to continue to re-orient schools to work towards a more sustainable future. The formal education system is particularly well suited to address these issues (Parliamentary Commissioner for Education, 2003; Tilbury et al., 2004), and global sustainability agendas such as Agenda 21 and the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development Implementation Plan highlight the urgent need for education to address the issues of sustainability (UNCED, 1992; United Nations, 2002). Continuing to support and improve on whole school approaches will help us move from awareness to action, to re-orient and connect schools and our communities in a reciprocal relationship of learning for the entire community. They will help our future generations to participate in change and develop the vital skills needed to think critically and holistically about more sustainable futures, and move forward towards a more sustainable future with vision, inspiration and confidence.


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Research Report

For further information about the programs and research referred to in this paper please consult ‘Whole-school approaches to sustainability: an international review of whole-school sustainability programs’. This report is available for download in pdf format from www.aries.mq.edu.au and www.deh.gov.au/ education. Contact the Australian Research Institute in Education for Sustainability to obtain a hard copy <[email protected]>.


For many people confusion still exists about climate change, how real is it, what does it mean, what are the impacts and

can we ameliorate them, how do we adapt? For more than a decade, scientists and governments throughout the world have been investing resources in a collaborative effort to examine and address emerging issues in the stability of the world’s climate. This collaborative effort has largely been driven by concern over the changing climate and the impact that major climatic events have on the global economy. One of the major products to emerge from this effort was the formation of the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2001a). The IPCC’s three major working groups that include internationally-recognised scientists examined the science behind understanding climate change and the cause, the impacts of the change in climate and possible adaptation strategies, and the mitigation of the impacts (IPCC, 2001a).

‘The global average surface temperature has increased over the 20th Century by 0.6o C’ (IPCC, 2001b) was a key finding. While that is a global average, the local level implications are significant. These include increased energy demands for cooling, and consequent rises in greenhouse gas emissions, more health care infrastructure for the aged, increases in pests and more widespread distributions of diseases (see IPCC, 2001c). The CSIRO noted that temperatures in Australia are likely to rise and predicted that by 2070 the number of days Brisbane experiences temperatures above 35oC will increase tenfold from its present three per annum. Major groups such as the CSIRO and the Bureau of Meteorology (BoM) have made clear the issues about emerging trends in climate (Bureau of Meteorology, 2003; CSIRO, 2003a). Adaptation strategies to climate change are now a priority for

governments in Australia with, for example, many local governments seeking to ‘drought proof’ their areas as we remain in this drier phase of the climate. An authoritative overview of likely Australian impacts and responses to climate change is provided in chapter 4 of ‘Climate Activities in Australia 2003’ by the Bureau of Meteorology (see www.bom.gov.au/inside/eiab/reports/caa03/chapter4/introduction.shtml):

Climate variability and trends impact on Australia’s economy, environment and society. Australian research organisations are conducting many research projects to understand the magnitude of climate change (including natural variability and human induced climate change) and the physical drivers that underpin our ability to forecast and manage its impacts.

Australia’s average temperature varies by up to 1 degree Celsius from year to year, and has experienced a warming trend of about 0.8°C since 1910, most of this since 1950. Averaged over Australia, maximum temperatures have risen 0.56°C since 1910 and minimum temperatures have risen 0.96°C, with the largest warming since about 1950. According to CSIRO projections released in mid-2001, which use as their reference point the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), annual average temperatures over most of the continent could be 0.4 to 2°C greater than 1990 by 2030. By 2070, average temperatures are projected to increase by 1 to 6°C. Warmer conditions will produce more extremely hot days and fewer cold days and frosts. Greatest warming is to be expected in spring and winter will warm the least.

Climate Change: How real is it? The issues and implicationsProfessor Bob Miles1 and Associate Professor Ken Purnell2

1Executive Director, Institute for Sustainable Regional Development, Central Queensland University2Associate Dean (Teaching and Learning) and Head of School of Education and Innovation, Faculty of Education and Creative Arts, Central Queensland University


Australia’s current rainfall averaged over the whole continent is about 450mm a year, varying between 300–800mm in any year (with the variability much larger in specific regions). Averaged over Australia, annual total rainfall has increased slightly since 1910 and the intensity of heavy rainfall has also risen. According to the CSIRO projections, rainfall decreases are projected for the southwest of Western Australia and for parts of the southeast of the continent and Queensland. Most other locations have an even chance of wetter or drier conditions. Decreases are projected to be most pronounced in winter and spring. Some inland and eastern coastal areas are projected to become wetter in summer, and some inland areas to become wetter in autumn. These projections include the effect of simulated changes in El Niño and La Niña events.

The following data are largely drawn from information available through the IPCC, the Bureau of Meteorology, the Australian Academy of Science, CSIRO and the Australian Greenhouse Office. A detailed review of climate activities in Australia is provided by the Bureau of Meteorology (2003b).

Key drivers and historical trends in Australia’s climate

Australia is the driest continent that has a significant population and also has some of the greatest variability in climate in the world. The eastern seaboard of Australia where almost 80per cent of the population live is subject to a high degree of climate variability with a concentration of this around the Tropic of Capricorn and the mid-latitudes and, within that, especially Queensland.

The Walker Circulation (Southern Oscillation) is a key driver of climate in the south Pacific. This is where La Niña events occur as the sea surface temperatures on the eastern coast of Australia rise and there is a concurrent cooling in the eastern equatorial areas and the eastern Pacific causing, generally, above-average rainfall. Conversely, when the western Pacific cools, the eastern coast of Australia experiences El Niño-like conditions and, therefore, generally lower-than-average rainfall.

For a quality animation showing El Niño and La Niña, you may care to look at the animation provided on the Bureau of Meteorology website at <www.bom.gov.au/lam/Students_Teachers/elnanim/elani.shtml>.

The Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) measures the barometric pressure differential between Tahiti and Darwin. A sustained negative SOI is indicative of El Niño events and positive SOI values of La Niña events (Bureau of Meteorology, 2002). The IPCC reported that El Niño events are dominant over the last three decades and likely to dominate into the foreseeable future (IPPC, 2001a). El Niño has a major impact on Queensland precipitation and consequently river systems that are the major water source for life and economic activity in the state. The IPCC (2001a). has predicted increased dry summers over most continental interiors of the world, decreased crop yield from that drier phase and decreased water resource quantity and quality as well as increased risk of bushfires (wildfires). Figure 1 provides a graphic representation of the SOI changes from 1970 and the resultant drier or wetter periods and their duration in Queensland.

In Figure 2 the 20-year moving average of the SOI is provided. As there are high levels of variability in the data, mathematical smoothing is used that creates a moving average to highlight long term trends. In Figure 2 you can observe that the long term SOI changed in the mid-1970s (1976 to be precise). The question from Figure 2 is—will that long term negative SOI be likely to continue? The IPCC reports clearly indicate that El Niño conditions (negative SOI) are likely to prevail into the foreseeable future as noted previously.

Data in Figure 2 is from 1890—in geological time this is very short for the many millions of years of phenomena such as the SOI. So where this century plus data sits in the longer-term scenario as being ‘typical or atypical’ of trends or cycles cannot be predicted.

SOI changes align with changes in the activity and movement of cyclones. El Niño conditions cause cyclones that would normally cross the Queensland coast and cause significant rain episodes to track eastwards instead, as can be seen in Figure 3. This may reduce


insurance premiums, but results in less precipitation and adversely affects land dependent on cyclonic rainfall events. Conversely, in La Niña episodes, cyclones that form in the equatorial areas track south and west and can bring torrential rain to the eastern seaboard.

However, the reverse is true on the other side of the continent in Western Australia. For example, El Niño events result in the north west coast of Western Australia having significant rainfall events.

The patterns shown in Figure 3 are over about a twenty-year period—miniscule in geological time. We know that world climate over extended periods of time varies between wet phases and dry phases. Scientific evidence indicates the ‘normality’ of these phases and we can see the extent to which current events correlate to past climate episodes. Such evidence includes carbon dioxide (CO2) that accumulates in the polar ice caps. Deep core samples from the ice have enabled scientists to look back 400,000 years and measure levels of CO2. The evidence from the ice core samples clearly shows that CO2 levels vary considerably over time. Notwithstanding this, more recent monitoring of CO2 levels over the past century reveals that present levels are well beyond concentrations evidenced in the past 400,000 years. There has been a steep recent rise to unprecedented levels above 370ppm when the average previously has been around 230ppm and once, some 300,000 years ago, reached 300ppm.

Figure 4 shows graphically the analysis completed by the CSIRO that there is a high correlation between CO2 levels and atmospheric temperature. There are natural causes of temperature changes from, for example, volcanic and solar activities. In addition there are ones that humans create such as through additional greenhouse gases (see Purnell, 2001). The CSIRO has analysed the relative contributions of these natural and anthropogenic sources and this is presented in Figure 5. It is evident that the trend for the natural contributions has remained fairly constant for thousands of years but more recent human activities, especially in the last fifty years, has added much by way of greenhouse gases and sulphates to the

Figure 1: The relationship between positive and negative Southern Oscillation Index values and wet and drought conditions in Queensland

Figure 2: Twenty year moving average of SOI since 1880

Figure 3: Patterns of cyclone movement in El Niño and La Niña years

Source: courtesy of Dr Roger Stone, Queensland Centre for Climate Applications.

Source: courtesy of Steven Crimp Department of Natural Resources and Mines, Queensland.

Source: Peter Hasting, University of Queensland


atmosphere and in Figure 5 you can see that this coincides with warmer temperatures.

The IPCC (2001c) has predicted that the average temperature in Australia could rise by as much as 6ºC by 2030. This will have a significant impact on pests with, for example, the extent and spread of the mosquito borne diseases such as Malaria and Ross River Fever, and the general well being of our ageing population (IPCC, 2001c). Naturally, energy demands for cooling are likely to increase thus adding further to greenhouse gas emissions.

Case study of Queensland’s drier climate phase

Increasing temperatures will affect water balance and much of Queensland is expected to experience an increased deficit in the water balance of the order of 40 to 130mm per annum caused by evapotranspiration (CSIRO, 2003). This will result in less water availability in water storages and adversely affect plant and crop growth (IPCC, 2001c).

Queensland has already experienced a significant reduction in rainfall over the past hundred years. One example is in Central Queensland, where the coastal city of Rockhampton, located on the Tropic of Capricorn, receives about two-thirds of the rainfall it did a hundred years ago (see Figure 6). As shown in Figure 7, this trend is symptomatic of many towns and cities where the Bureau undertakes official measuring of rainfall.

In Figure 8, which presents data on rainfall changes in Australia over the 50 years to 1999, you can see an increase in average rainfall throughout much of the western half of the country and a drying in the eastern half. As stated previously, this is as a consequence of the changes to the effects of cyclonic activity in El Niño years that mean increased rainfall in the west and reduced rainfall in the east of Australia.

A case study of rainfall changes in Western Australia

In the lower portion of Western Australia there has been considerable change in rainfall reliability in an area that was always previously described as having a reliable Mediterranean style of rainfall has also shown considerable

Figure 4: CO2 levels and temperature over the last 1000 years

Figure 5: Parallel climate model ensembles of global temperature anomalies

Figure 6: Twenty-year running mean rainfall for Rockhampton, Queensland 1890–2003

Source: CSIRO, 2003.

Source: CSIRO, 2003.

Source: Bureau of Meteorology, 2003


change. As this area had displayed high levels of reliability, the Western Australian government in collaboration with the BMRC and CSIRO set up a major initiative called the Indian Ocean Climate Initiative (IOCI) to investigate this. The IOCI looked at climate change and the impact on water resources experienced in southwest Western Australia since the 1970s (see Figure 9). Key findings from the IOCI (2002) study were:

• winter rainfall has decreased sharply and suddenly in the region since the mid 1970s

• the decline was more of a switching to an alternative rainfall regime

• the rainfall decrease was apparently associated with a change in large-scale atmospheric circulation at the time.

Implications for policy-makers and planners

The current shifts in climate and the projected changes are of significant interest to policy makers, community and business and industry sectors. The data collected on climate change and measures of the impact are increasingly being applied to and tested against a diverse range of industry sectors by scientists, the government, and by members of the of the general public concerned over future impacts. Implications of climate change include planning of infrastructure, structural design, risk management, business investment and the formulation of government policy. The next section deals with a range of industry sectors and areas that climate change will impact on and the potential implications.

Agriculture and natural resource management

There are numerous studies on the problems faced by our natural resources under current land use practices. Climate change will significantly add to this pressure as there is a complex inter-relationship between climate and environment—with changes in each impacting on the other, often interactively.

A significant amount of research is underway to better understand these relationships and the risks climate change poses. Many agencies, such as Commonwealth and state government departments, universities, the CSIRO and private sector organisations, are

Figure 7: Changes in rainfall trends for Queensland over the past 100 years

Figure 8: Rainfall trends for Australia 1950–1999

Figure 9: Yearly inflow into Perth’s water supply (columns) also showing the ten-year moving average (solid line)

Note: isohyets are in millimetres per decadeSource: Bureau of Meteorology, 2003.

Note: isohyets are in millimetres per decadeSource: Bureau of Meteorology, 2003.

Source: Bureau of Meteorology, 2003b.


engaged in assessing the risk and management associated with climate variability and climate change implications in agriculture and natural resource management. This research has identified a number of serious points of concern (Bureau of Meteorology, 2003b).

For example, pasture growth rates (kg dry matter/ha/yr) and the subsequent growth rates of animals (live-weight gain) and wool production are dependent on rainfall. Minor changes in rainfall in terms of seasonality, intensity and duration all have a major impact on the plant species mix within pastures and thus the productivity of the grazing landscape. In sheep production systems, the tensile strength and fineness of the fibre can be adversely affected by changes in pasture quality and quantity.

Researchers at Queensland Department of Natural Resources and Mines (Crimp, Flood, Carter, Conroy & McKeon, 2002) used a pasture production model to explore the impact of climate change on native grasses. Their modelling showed that with even small increase in temperature and a decrease in rainfall, such as those projected for 2030 by CSIRO, pasture growth would decline by 10 to 50per cent in the state.

Water use by plants is affected by increases in temperature, and grain yield and quality are affected by the quality and timeliness of precipitation. Changes in frost incidence and number of frosts also have implications for fruiting of horticultural and grain crops. Examples of this include olives in Victoria, grapes in South Australia and citrus in Queensland. Climate change modelling is needed to determine the future suitability of areas for various land use practices in terms of sustainability, as changes in rainfall and temperature will affect economic viability and production risk. Outcomes of climate change will likely affect producer viability, the cost of some commodities, and require national disaster relief, assistance and restructuring programs.

Climate change is already affecting Australian cropping systems and the way they are managed, according to scientists from the Queensland Department of Primary Industries (Menke, 2005, personal communication).

Continuing increases in the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide will affect growth patterns of crops, trees and pastures while changes in rainfall patterns will influence production. Temperature increases are already leading to changes such as the planting dates for wheat. For example, in Emerald, in Central Queensland, there are around three weeks each year of frost, compared with the ten weeks experienced each year in the 1900s (Stone 2005, personal communication). Further temperature increases will also affect crop rotations and limit the expansion of crops such as canola in Queensland, or supporting the expansion of cotton production further south than it is grown today. Farmers in marginal regions might need to switch from their current grain/grazing mixed operations to grazing or even plantation forestry—evidence of this is already seen in the marginal areas of the Western Downs in Queensland around Miles and Roma. Management changes recommended to farmers may now need to include changes in varieties and planting dates, changes in crop species, erosion and salinity management, pest and disease management, and greater use of seasonal forecast information (Crimp, 2005, personal communication).

CSIRO researchers have shown that under climate change many of Australian viticultural regions, particularly in the north, are projected to experience warmer and drier conditions, especially in winter and spring. It is expected that this will result in earlier ripening and a possible reduction in grape quality. However, in the cooler, southern regions higher temperatures may allow for new varieties. Higher carbon dioxide concentrations may lead to more canopy growth and shading, leading to decreased fruitfulness. Water supplies available and the reliability of supply for irrigation may decrease.

The sugar cane industry is another example of an industry susceptible to climate change. Already under financial stress through global competition, the industry involves an integrated value chain in which climate influences many factors, including:

• determining the amount of sugar produced by sugar cane


• controlling the development and spread of fungal diseases insects, pests and weeds

• influencing runoff and deep drainage, with possible environmental impact associated with nutrients and pesticides, and also

• affecting the harvesting, transport, milling, marketing and shipping of the product.

Long-term crops such as forestry are also likely to be affected and susceptible to changes in climate. For example, pine species planted along the coast on the expectation of rainfall above 1000mm may not grow or mature in a climate that yields less than 800mm. This will make some coastal Queensland areas traditionally considered suitable for forestry no longer suited.

Many wetlands in Australia are under threat from agriculture, dams, irrigation, coastal urban development, and the pollution of the waterways. As an example, the Murray-Darling Basin Commission reported that the quality of wetlands has been significantly reduced in the Murray-Darling Basin, particularly between the Hume Dam and Mildura. Climate change will add to the vulnerability of these sensitive wetlands. Furthermore in northern Australia, if the projected sea level rises occur, the vast freshwater floodplains of the north will be subject to significant saltwater inundation (CSIRO, 2002).

Fisheries (commercial and recreational) are another industry likely to be affected by climate change. Recruitment and survival of coastal and riverine breeding species are likely to be affected by changes in rainfall and temperatures. Sediment transport and deposition following heavy rainfall can smother extensive areas of estuarine habitat, killing trees and resulting in loss of breeding habitat essential to many coastal fish species, dugong and turtles. Any increase in extreme rainfall events and sedimentation would be likely to have major impacts on river, lake, estuarine and coastal waters and lead to reduced ecosystem health and reduced recreational and tourist use. There may be impacts on commercially important fisheries, such as prawns and barramundi, but the economic impacts are unclear (CSIRO, 2002).

Mangroves occur on low-energy, sedimentary shorelines and are the nursery areas for many

commercially important fish, prawns and mud crabs. They are highly vulnerable but could be adaptable to climate change, migrating shorewards in response to gradual sea level rise. However, in many locations this adaptation will now be inhibited by human infrastructure such as causeways, flood protection levees and urban and tourist developments, leading to a reduction in the area of wetland or mangrove (CSIRO, 2002).

While it is easy to focus on the negative, it should also be remembered that opportunities emerge out of change. For example, a collaborative project between CSIRO Marine Research and CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems investigated connections between ocean temperatures and farm management. Using sea surface temperature measurements to estimate atmospheric changes for up to six months ahead, researchers found that production increases in northern Australia of 16per cent are possible, as well as a 12per cent reduction in soil loss (CSIRO, 2002).

Insects, pests and weeds

Australia’s crops, horticulture and forestry are vulnerable to introduced pests that have no local biological controls. Climate change may increase the chance that such pests will become established. Researchers at the CRC for Australian Weed Management Systems have found that the moths, weevils and beetles that play a vital role in bio-control of weeds are suffering severely in the current drought.

Researchers at the University of Queensland and CSIRO (White, Sutherst, Hall & Wish-Wilson, in press) investigated the vulnerability of the Australian beef industry to the cattle tick Boophilus microplus under climate change. Compared to current estimated losses of 6000 tonnes per year, they found potential losses in live weight gain from 7800 tonnes per year by 2030 to 21,600 tonnes per year by 2100. These figures are in the absence of adaptation measures such as changing to tick-resistant breeds or increasing tick control treatment.

Many insect populations will be affected by climate change. As an example Macquarie University researchers reported on the current distribution of 77 species of Australian native


butterflies, and the potential changes in distribution of 24 species in response to climate change. They found that even species with currently wide climatic ranges are vulnerable to climate change. Under a very conservative climate change scenario, the distribution of about 90per cent of species of Australian native butterflies would decrease, and around half of species distributions would decrease by at least 20per cent. The potential changes for insects may be hidden or well removed from the temperature and rainfall distribution impacts (CSIRO, 2002).

Water management and use

Efficient management of water will become increasingly important as we enter times of increasing water use and shrinking sources of supply. Climate variability is the main factor impacting on the availability and reliability of water resources. Improved understanding of the processes linking rainfall, evaporation, soil moisture, groundwater and surface water rely heavily on long time series of hydrological or climate-related data.

Management of Australia’s water resources is the responsibility of the state and territory governments. National co-ordination of resource management policy is through the Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council and its underpinning structure of committees. It is of interest to note that the bulk of Australia’s surface water resources occur in the eastern portion of Australia which is also the area currently recording the highest rate of reduction in rainfall. It is also the area of highest population density.

Low rainfall conditions during the year resulted in 2002 being one of the driest years on record for Australia as a whole. Much of eastern Australia and southwestern Australia also experienced a dry year in 2001. In parts of southeastern Australia these two dry years came on top of below average rainfall over the proceeding 6 years. The successive dry years have had a serious impact on water resources in eastern Australia with increasingly severe water restrictions being placed on the irrigation supplies and urban water use. By November 2002, almost 62per cent of Australia had serious or severe 9-month rainfall

deficiencies, making it the most widespread 9-month drought on record. In Victoria during February 2003, many streams had dried up and irrigation and/or water diversion bans were in place in 23 of the 28 river basins.

High temperatures were also a feature of this drought, with Australian-average maximum temperatures the highest on record. On an annual basis, maximum temperature and rainfall are negatively correlated, i.e. droughts tend to have anomalously high temperatures. However, since about 1973, temperatures have tended to be higher for a given rainfall amount, i.e. droughts have become hotter, Australian researchers concluded that the drought of 2002 and the associated impacts on agriculture, water resources and fire were made more severe than past droughts due to the high temperatures and evaporation which may be partly due to human-induced global warming (Karoly, Risbey & Reynolds, 2003; Nicholls, 2003).

One of the greatest challenges facing Australia is how to stop using more water and to use what we have more efficiently. Water supplies per capita have fallen dramatically since 1970 and are set to continue declining according to a United Nations report (United Nations, 2003). In Australia, consumption of freshwater resources rose from 14,600GL in 1983/1984 to 23,300GL in 1996/1997. Irrigation increased by 30per cent between 1990 and 2000 (CSIRO, 2003). Many solutions have been canvassed, including water trading and more efficient irrigation methods.

In many Australian communities, much of their limited water supply is used to provide evaporative air-conditioning during hot weather. For example during a three-week period during early 2003 in Cobar, the maximum daily temperature did not drop below 40 degrees Celsius. Even with water restrictions, the town used a million litres of water a day on air-conditioning (Bureau of Meteorology, 2003b). At this rate of usage the town’s water supply was predicted to run out by June 2003. In 2002 the Queensland Government formed a special cabinet committee to address the emerging water crisis with over 80per cent of towns in Queensland facing severe water shortages. In February 2002, most of these


communities had less than 6 months water supply left (CSIRO, 2003).

Australia’s highly variable climate creates uncertainty in hydrologic systems that must be taken into account in the design and operation of water resource projects. Perth’s water supply reduced by 50per cent following a 25per cent reduction in rainfall (CSIRO, 2003).

Community health and wellbeing

Environmental health is the interaction between the environment and the health of populations of people and has been defined as ‘those aspects of human health determined by physical, biological, and social factors in the environment’. Climate is one of those factors and the number of studies examining the influence of climate is growing. A recent investigation by the Bureau of Meteorology’s Northern Territory Regional Office and the Australian National University on the influence of climate on outbreaks of meningitis among indigenous people of central Australia provides an example (Bureau of Meteorology, 2003b).

Arboviruses

In Australia, there are more than 70 viruses that are spread by insects, which can breed rapidly during unusually rainy periods. Murray Valley Encephalitis (MVE), Kunjin (KUN) Disease, Barmah Forest Disease, Dengue Fever and Ross River Fever are examples of diseases observed in Australia, which are carried by mosquitoes. An outbreak of Barmah Forest virus disease in Victoria in early 2002, and many cases of dengue fever in Cairns in early 2003, has highlighted the public health threat from arboviruses (diseases carried by arthropods).

MVE is carried from northern Australia by migratory water birds (hosts), which move far into the southern parts of Australia during very wet years. Mosquitoes (vectors) can carry the virus from infected water birds to humans. Monitoring of weather conditions and vector surveillance determines whether there is a potential for MVE activity to occur.

Government (federal, state and local) based programs in most Australian states undertake mosquito monitoring and virus surveillance from mosquitoes. They also aim to provide

increasing understanding of interrelationships between arboviruses, vectors and climatic conditions. Organisations involved include state health departments, the Department of Medical Entomology at Westmead Hospital and the Queensland Institute for Medical Research’s Mosquito Control Laboratory. The Bureau of Meteorology’s Seasonal Climate Outlook is used to predict likely arbovirus risk for the coming summer.

The National Centre for Environmental Public Health has carried out studies of how climatic variations influence the occurrence of several infectious diseases, especially Ross River virus disease and bacterial food poisoning. For example, Ross River Virus in the north of Australia has been shown to be directly linked to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation phenomenon, as La Niña (higher rainfall) years provide ideal conditions for the breeding of the virus’ hosts and vectors. Health authorities are concerned that climate change could be bringing Ross River virus further south, threatening Australia’s southern cities (CSIRO, 2003).

Between 1991 and 2002 in Australia there were 51,761 notifications of the disease of Ross River virus (CSIRO, 2003). It is well recognised that weather directly affects the breeding, abundance, and survival of mosquitoes, the principal vector of many arboviruses such Ross River Fever. Hence, researchers from the Australian National University believe that an increase in incidence of this disease is highly likely under the projected climate changes.

Malaria is not endemic in Australia. However modelled results in a health risk assessment report (McMichael et al., 2002) indicate that under climate change there is a hypothetical risk of the zone where Australia’s only malaria vector could exist, expanding as far south as Bundaberg, a three-hour drive north of Brisbane.

Food poisoning outbreaks may be linked to unusually hot weather, which can enhance bacterial replication. Reports of food poisoning outbreaks are higher during unusually hot summers in Australia. Assuming that a sustained temperature rise has a similar effect to monthly temperature variations, then the incidence of salmonellosis may rise in future decades.


Higher global temperatures could increase human exposure to toxins produced by cyanobacteria (blue–green algae) in water supplies and recreational water bodies, which can cause gastrointestinal and dermatological symptoms.

Natural hazards

The increased incidence of extreme weather events as predicted by the IPCC (2001a) is significant in terms of the social, economic and environmental impacts. The degree of concern over this is reflected in the investment in research into such impacts. For example, the Natural Hazards Research Centre at Macquarie University now record and model the impacts and fatalities caused by tropical cyclones. Data recorded include the effect on areas such as health, the built environment, agriculture, the physical environment, economics and the bio-system as well as the characteristics of the tropical cyclones. Such databases will prove invaluable in determining risk and exposure into the future.

Mood and violence

The Australian Institute of Suicide Research and Prevention has found suicide rates are higher during the hottest times of the year—changes in temperature appear to be a major contributing factor for people who are vulnerable to suicide. It is reasonably well established that violent crime also increases with increasing temperature. Researchers at James Cook University’s Psychology Department have linked the unusually hot 2002–03 summer in North Queensland with mood problems among people in the region.

Heat stress

Evaluation of the impact of high temperatures and heat stress is important in areas such as air-conditioning design, industrial relations and sports medicine. Heat is an issue of fundamental concern to those who play sport because it is potentially fatal. Sporting organisations such as Soccer Australia have guidelines for event planning and cancellation, based on thermal conditions (temperature and humidity).

Skin cancer

Skin cancer in humans is linked with sunlight

exposure. It is the most common and the most costly cancer in Australia, where light coloured skin and high levels of solar radiation predominate. Australia is recognised as a leader in the field of skin cancer research; one in four adults is likely to contract some form of skin cancer during their life. Skin cancer is directly linked to exposure to the sun and climate change will have a significant negative impact. The World Health Organization has begun work in estimating the global burden of disease attributable to UV exposure—with particular attention to skin cancers, impacts on the eye, and effects due to alterations of immune activity and vitamin D synthesis.

Human health

Climate change can affect human health directly through, for example, heat stress or the consequence of natural disasters, and indirectly through, for example, disrupted agriculture. Several of the health impacts of climate change identified by the IPCC are relevant to Australia, including an increase in vector, food and water-borne infectious diseases; a decrease in winter deaths but an increase in heat-related deaths and illness.

In Australia more than 1100 people aged over 65 die from temperature-related causes each year. The projected rise in temperature for the next 50 years is predicted to result in a total of three to five thousand additional heat-related deaths a year (McMichael et al., 2002). Under climate change modelling, temperate cities show higher rates of deaths due to greater temperature extremes than tropical cities.

The built environment

Climate information is essential in most aspects of building siting and design. Energy efficiency, structural integrity, even protection of verandas and loading zones from wind-driven rain are among the climate sensitive aspects of building design.

Low-energy building design

Many architecture schools now place considerable emphasis on the use of climate data for design of climate-responsive buildings. This includes the design of low-energy (hence, climate-sensitive) buildings. It is of note that the construction and operation of homes, and


industry and urban infrastructure is one of the most significant human activities contributing to global warming (Bureau of Meteorology, 2003b).

Solar energy

The continued use of fossil fuel energy is likely to affect the global climate. Australian organisations are among world leaders in research and development of renewable energy technology. Renewable energy, mainly hydro, now accounts for about 10.5 per cent of all power generated in Australia. The government’s Mandatory Renewable Energy Target requires that 2 per cent of the forecast market in 1997 must come from renewable energy by 2010. The photovoltaic industry (solar electricity) is currently growing at around 30per cent a year worldwide. Australia is already a key player in photovoltaics as the largest manufacturer per capita and a research leader (Prasad & Snow, 2003).

Wind energy

Australia has one of the world’s best wind resources, particularly along the southeastern coast. Approximately 40 proposals for installation of wind power systems are awaiting evaluation in South Australia. It is anticipated that South Australia will be the largest producer of wind power in the southeast Pacific area within 10 years. Analyses from the Bureau of Meteorology’s regional prediction model and CSIRO’s Air Pollution Model are being used to model the potential for wind power generation throughout eastern Australia’s mountainous regions.

Industry viability

Climate variability has huge economic impacts, most clearly shown by the financial impact of drought on the Australian economy, but also evident in many industry sectors, such as retailing and tourism.

Dealing with drought is a difficult but essential part of farming in Australia. Climate statistics confirm the 2002 drought ranks as one of the worst. The drought has had a significant impact on economic growth in Australia through the direct and indirect linkages between agriculture and other industries. In March 2003, the drought was estimated to

have reduced the rate of economic growth in Australia in 2002–03 by around 0.7 percentage points, or around A$5.4 billion (Bureau of Meteorology 2003b).

The insurance sector is particularly vulnerable to natural hazards such as droughts, storms and floods. The trend toward higher insured losses continues in view of the risk factors: higher population densities and higher concentrations of insured values, especially in endangered areas such as coastal zones. The effects of this trend are illustrated by the experience of Christmas Island and Cocos Island, where the sole insurer withdrew all forms of insurance from the islands due to climatic risk.

Marine ecosystems

Evidence of a global rise in sea level over the past 100 years of between 10 and 20cm comes from measurements around the world, corrected for land movements. The rise is primarily a result of increasing water temperatures and consequent expansion, with some contribution from melting land ice. Additional evidence of sea level rise in Australia has come to light following the discovery of 160-year-old records of observations taken at Port Arthur, Tasmania. The observations, compared with data from a modern tide gauge, indicate an average sea level rise of about 1mm a year, consistent with other Australian observations and the lower end of estimates from the IPCC (2001b).

Another consequence of rising water temperatures is coral bleaching. Coral reefs around the world are becoming stressed by a number of factors: bleaching due to warmer oceans, occasional reductions in salinity due to extreme river outflows, increased cloudiness of water, chemical pollutants, local fishing practices and damage from tropical cyclones. The frequency of occurrence of mass coral bleaching (when reef-building corals lose their symbiotic algae and associated pigments) has increased globally since the late 1970s. During 1997–98 coral bleaching was reported on many of the world’s coral reefs and also affected coral reefs in parts of Australia’s Great Barrier Reef and Northwest Shelf. Mass coral bleaching was again observed on the Great Barrier Reef in early 2002 (Bureau of Meteorology, 2003a).


Australian Institute of Marine Science (AIMS) researchers are investigating whether the Great Barrier Reef will survive global warming. A rise of 1°C, predicted to occur within 50 years, could cause mass bleaching of coral reefs when combined with seasonal fluctuations. AIMS researchers heated to various temperatures tanks containing different corals. They found some corals bleached or even died, while others coped under the same conditions. They conclude global warming will not destroy the Great Barrier Reef, but there may be a reduction in species of coral, leaving only those species with a special protein that protects them from prolonged temperature rises. However, CSIRO research has shown an increase of 2°C is likely to change the tropical near-shore marine life from coral to algal dominated communities (CSIRO, 2003).

Coastal communities and infrastructure

While there has been a decrease in tropical cyclone numbers affecting the Eastern Australian region between 1969 and 2004, there has been an increase in the number of intense tropical cyclones with pressures of less than 970hPa. Recent decades have also seen a reduction in the number of mid-latitude storms to the south of Australia, but the intensity of these storms has on average increased. Climate models suggest a future decrease in the number of storm centres over southern Australia but an increase in their intensity (CSIRO, 2002).

By 2050, sea levels may rise 0.1 to 0.4 metres and tropical cyclone intensity (not frequency) around Cairns in northern Queensland could increase by up to 20 per cent (CSIRO, 2002). This would increase the flood level associated with a 1-in-100 year flood in Cairns and cover an area about twice that historically affected by floods.

More than 80 per cent of Australia’s population live within 50km of the coast. This population is growing rapidly and this growth adds to the exposure of the community to extreme events such as tropical cyclones, storm surges and river flooding. CSIRO (2002) reports that coastal communities and urban infrastructure will be affected by changes in sea level and

extreme weather. Torrential rainfall over cities and surrounding catchments can produce severe runoff and flooding and more frequent high-intensity rain in some areas could also be expected to increase the risks of landslides and erosion, particularly in the urbanised catchments on Australia’s east coast.

As sea level rises, sediment from sandy shorelines is eroded from the beach and the shoreline recedes. It is generally accepted that the coastline will retreat horizontally 50 to 100 times the vertical sea level rise. Hence global sea level rise of between 9 and 88 cm as projected to occur by 2100 under the IPCC range of emission scenarios would cause a coastal recession of sandy beaches by 5.5 to 88 metres. The Bureau of Meteorology now recommends allowance should be made for the estimated rise in sea level due to the enhanced greenhouse effect and a 10 to 20per cent increase in the maximum intensity of tropical cyclones.

Warmer temperatures favour pathogen survival and extreme rainfall events may increase nutrient levels. As Australian coastal waters are sometimes contaminated with untreated sewage, it is possible these combined effects may favour the production of harmful algal toxins, resulting in fish and shellfish food poisoning.

Severe storms and tropical cyclones have cost about A$9 billion each over the past 30 years, while the cost of bushfires has been about A$2 billion over the same period (CSIRO, 2002). The annual number of events shows an increasing trend in Australia as it has globally, but this is partly due to better reporting, increasing population and investment in vulnerable areas.

A study of flood damage along the Hawkesbury–Nepean corridor of New South Wales has shown that, by about 2070, average annual direct damage could increase significantly. At present, the 1-in-100 year flood would cause failure of about 70 dwellings and for 2070 this rises to 1200 dwellings. Other intangible losses would include illness and death, and indirect losses such as alternative accommodation in the residential sector or loss of trading profit in the commercial sector (CSIRO, 2002).


Conclusions

The evidence of climate change or at least a downward trend in long-term rainfall patterns and enhanced variability is considerable and there is little doubt that the climate of the eastern Australian seaboard is at present becoming drier and hotter. Given this evidence it is appropriate to consider how the hotter and drier conditions can be factored into the decision-making framework of the local, state and federal government.

Concern over the risk of reliability in water supply and availability

The research and data presented to date highlight the vulnerability of the Australia’s economy and community wellbeing to water shortages. Extending this to include potential changes to future international investment in Australia is demonstrated in the recent water shortage in the Awonga Dam in Central Queensland. This dam supplies the large industrial hub of Gladstone (also the fastest growing industrial site in Australia). At this site the Queensland and federal governments have invested considerable resources in attracting offshore investors in the heavy industrial estate. The significant water shortages experienced in the Awonga Dam in 2002 placed at risk the future investment in Australia by large scale multi-nationals.

In addition, in 2002/03 the plight of a large number of rural and urban communities faced by extreme water shortages as the drought gripped the entire eastern seaboard of Australia highlights the need for sound water risk management to include supply and distribution needs to be considered along with water use efficiency, reuse and alternatives such as desalinisation.

The pressure for downstream use of water and the need for environmental flows as well as equity of access are leading to considerable concern by some sectors of the agricultural industry. Supply risk management and the development of water use efficiency strategies are seen as key imperatives for policy makers and industry groups.

Community health and wellbeing

There is now a near constant flow of reports and media articles throughout the world on the

effects of higher temperatures, floods and droughts. In 2003, Britain recorded the highest temperatures on record (370C); on the same day in mid-winter in Australia, Urandangie recorded 350C. The effect of high temperatures is known to impact on the personal comfort of all people and has considerable impact on the mortality rate of the aged. As reported earlier in August 2003 France recorded over 15,000 deaths related to the European heat wave conditions. Huge rainfall events in California were reported in February 2005 and on the same day history was created with snow falling in Paris. Clear policies are needed on how community health and wellbeing are to be managed into the future under a scenario of climate change.

Shifts in tourism

Many of the people who live on the coastline of Queensland have some reliance or connection with the tourist industry. With current coral bleaching recorded by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority and a drier and hotter environment with the subsequent impact on the vegetation and aesthetics of the area, many tourists may not see the Queensland coast as a desirable tourist destination in the decades to come. The impact of this potential change in tourism on the economy and land values is significant concern for policy makers involved in the Queensland’s development and growth.

Industry rationalisation and investment changes

The financial viability of Australia’s cropping and grazing industries are declining due to lower commodity prices and the extended droughts. Grazing representatives feel that the government needs to enhance drought assistance measures, others feel that the government’s policy should move toward self reliance in a deregulated environment. If the productivity of the landscape is reduced due to reduced rainfall and higher temperatures then the industry will need to consider what areas are suitable for continued cropping and what ones are not. If the productivity of the grazing lands declines then there is a need to reduce stocking rates to avoid land degradation. This has significant industry restructuring and industry viability implications.


Producers from the cropping industry realise that after ten years of failed crops there is a need to look for alternatives. Examples of the need for industry restructuring included the eight years in ten that the grazing sector in Paroo River was drought declared. A further example of industry-directed change is provided in the cropping industry in the central highlands of Queensland. This industry has shifted to pulse crops such as mung beans and chickpeas after years of failed summer and winter crops. The impact of the changes on land values as other areas in Australia receive increased rainfall.

Use and management of groundwater

Many rural communities and industries are dependent on groundwater reserves from local aquifers. Examples in Queensland where concern is evident include the Yarwun-Targinni fruit growers around Gladstone, the Lucerne growers in the Callide Valley and the dairy farmers in the lower Fitzroy region of Central Queensland. All these industry groups/communities have experienced a significant and progressive decline in their under ground water reserves over the past 10 to 20 years. In the Callide valley irrigators have been working with the Department of Natural Resources to reassess water usage and reallocation. However locally the problem is seen as over allocation as opposed to over use of a diminishing reserve.

Throughout much of Australia there is a high dependence on groundwater reserves. As rainfall patterns change the recharge of these areas will be dependent on the intensity, frequency and duration of rainfall in the intake areas. Aquifers in the wet tropics of the Cairns area have failed. This is an important area requiring more detailed research, risk management and contingency planning by government at all levels.

Water quality and health

Over the past two decades there has been considerable interest in blooms of blue green algae in many of our major waterways. The cause identified is a combination of increased inflow of nutrients, higher temperatures and fewer flows flushing the river systems. Direct costs included stock losses and water

treatment for human consumption. Loss of the recreational resource was also regarded as a significant issue. People from local government reported that many local government water supplies had to be treated extensively due to algae blooms. The Rockhampton City Council is given as an example.

Planning for infrastructure

There is considerable need to consider the adequacy of existing infrastructure to meet the future needs of communities, especially water storages. Examples of this are seen in the discussion on the limits of the existing Sydney water supply to meets the future demand. Much of our existing infrastructure was built around a dataset that was based on a higher rainfall period and may not adequately reflect the current and emerging risks margins.

It is clearly evident that the climate in Australia is changing. The climate on the eastern seaboard of Australia has become drier and hotter over the past 100 years, while the northwestern Australian coast and hinterland is becoming wetter. It is also clear that there is considerable regional variation and that the trend is accelerating and most evident in the past 50 years. While this paper draws no conclusion as to the permanency of these changes, from the data available there is no evidence that the trend is likely to change in the immediate future.

The research undertaken by the IPCC (2001a) and others suggest that the trend is likely to increase. The implications for risk management in water supply, changes in land use, health, energy and infrastructure, etc. are significant. Water affects every part of our life and our lifestyles. Policy makers and planners should now factor the data and trends presented here into their planning horizons. The planning needs to consider how to accommodate or ameliorate these changes and avoid the crisis management that invariably follows major climatic events. There is more than enough evidence to suggest that the time for action is now.


References

CSIRO. (2002). Climate change and Australia’s coastal communities. Available at: www.dar.csiro.au/publications/Coasta lBroch2002.pdf.

CSIRO. (2003). Climate change projections for Australia. Available at: www.dar.csiro.au/publications.

Bureau of Meteorology. (2003a). The greenhouse effect and climate change. Available at: www.bom.gov.au/info/climate/change.

Bureau of Meteorology. (2003b). Climate activities in Australia 2003. Available at: www.bom.gov.au/inside/eiab/reports/caa03/index.shtml.

Bureau of Meteorology. (2002). Climate glossary. Available at www.bom.gov.au/climate/glossary/soi.shtml.

Bureau of Meteorology. (N. D.). El Niño - La Niña animation. Available at: www.bom.gov.au/lam/Students_Teachers/elnanim/elani.shtml.

Crimp, S. J., Flood, N. R., Carter, J. O., Conroy, J. P. & McKeon, G. M. (2002). A report to the Australian Greenhouse Office: Evaluation of the potential impacts of climate change on native pasture production - Implications for livestock carrying capacity. Canberra: Australian Greenhouse Office.

IOCI. (2002). Climate variability and seasonal change in south west Western Australia. Available at: www.wrc.wa.gov.au/ioci.

IPCC. (2000). Emissions scenarios. 2000 - Special report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

IPCC. (2001a). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Geneva. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

IPCC. (2001b). Climate change 2001: Synthesis report – A contribution of working groups I, II and III to the third assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

IPCC. (2001c). Climate Change 2001: The scientific basis contribution of working group I to the third assessment report of

the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). [Houghton, J. T., Ding, Y., Griggs, D. J., Noguer, M., van der Linden, P. J. & Xiaosu, D. (Eds.)]. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Karoly, D., Risbey, J. & Reynolds, A. (2003. Global warming contributes to Australia’s worst drought. Monash University consultancy report for World Wildlife Fund. Available at: www.wwf.org.au.

McMichael, A., Woodruff, R., Whetton, P., Hennessy, K., Nicholls, N., Hales, S., Woodward, A., & Kjellstrom, T. (2002). Human health and climate change in Oceania: A risk assessment. Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra. Available at: www.health.gov.au/pubhlth/strateg/en vhlth/climate/.

Nicholls, N. (2003). Continued anomalous warming in Australia. Geophysical Research Letters, 30, No 7, 10.

Purnell, K. (2001). Greenhouse effect and energy efficiency in schools. Available at kp.cqu.edu.au/energyefficiency/greenhouse.html

Prasad, D. & Snow, M. (Eds.). (2003). Designing with solar power – A source book for building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV). Mulgrave, Vic: Images Publishing.

United Nations. (2003). The world water development report: Water for people, water for life. Paris, New York & Oxford: UNESCO and Berghahn Books.

White, N.A., Sutherst, R.W., Hall, N. & Wish-Wilson, P. (In press). The vulnerability of the Australian beef industry to impacts of the cattle tick (Boophilus microplus) under climate change. Climatic Change.


Australia’s volcanoes. By Russell Ferrett. Sydney: Reed New Holland, 2005, 160 pages, paper, ISBN 1877069094.

URL: http://www.newholland.com.au

In this compact reference book, Ferrett has used his teaching experience to produce a text which includes both a concise summary of volcanoes and their features, as well as a survey of their existence in Australia.

The start of the book covers all the fundamentals of volcanoes. The first three chapters are dedicated to the formation of volcanoes, eruptions, tephra, lava, rocks and landforms. These sections provide a useful general reference for geography teachers as well as senior students.

The book then follows with a state by state summary of volcanic hot spots. For each area covered, Ferrett provides information about the volcanic features, geographical location with a map, volcanic history and a summary of specific locations in the area.

The most appealing feature of this text is the generous inclusion of photos and diagrams throughout.

Book ReviewsReviews Editor: Geoffrey Paterson

Australian cities: continuity and change 3rd edition. By Clive Forster. South Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 2004, 236 pages, paper, ISBN 0195517342.

URL: http://www.oup.com.au

This is a high quality book on the urban geography of Australian cities, strongly recommended for higher-level high school, and early tertiary courses in geography, urban studies, planning and urban sustainability. Its quality emanates from a well-ordered structure, good graphics and photographs and a well-paced text that carries its story by providing an

Almost every page contains a diagram to assist in the explanation of the process of volcanic formation. These hand drawn diagrams will appeal to students and teachers alike for their simplicity. The photos have also been selected for their usefulness in illustrating a point rather then their scenic qualities.

The book could be of great use to Victorian Certificate of Education Unit 1 Geography students and teachers, where the focus is on natural environments and where landforms and fieldwork is mandated. Occasionally throughout the text, Ferrett has included an “Activities” section, providing details about what to look for if walking through the area. Perhaps these were written with fieldwork trips in mind, but they aren’t as instructional as general guidebooks and do not include maps specifying how to structure a visit to these areas.

Overall though, the book is a handy, compact resource, most valuable to anyone who is teaching about volcanoes or senior students for whom volcanoes are a curriculum focus.

Magda StachowiakCaroline Chisholm Catholic College, Braybrook, Victoria.

appropriate level of detail, with links and connections made between the sections. It is in fact the third edition in the very successful Meridian Series produced by Oxford University Press under the auspice of The Institute of Australian Geographers.

The essence of the book is that urban outcomes reflect history, especially economic history, and these outcomes can be understood through an analysis of the location of jobs, housing and transport linkages, which raise issues for management and sustainability. This set of ideas converges at the end in a very topical outline of the urban planning and policy debate emerging in most of the metropolitan areas in Australia at the moment. The strength of this framework can be seen in the fact that Clive Forster has been able to use it in three editions adding some detail here and there and updating the photographs, statistics and policy concerns in each edition.

This edition benefits from 2001 Census material, as well as from some new perspectives on transport and urban sustainability. In particular, there is an impressive new chapter on

Image reproduced by permission of Oxford University Press from Australian cities 3rd edition by C. Forster & Oxford University Press, www.oup.com.au


the way cities are shaped by their linkages to the global economy; many other small changes and upgrades have been connected to the established framework in a very effective way. The book has details of most of our large cities so that the book is about Australia, rather than just Melbourne or Sydney, although the size of the latter naturally attracts some more attention in some sections.

The book’s contribution is the way it utilises the power of geography: it shows how the economic and social processes at work within Australia are expressed unevenly in a variety of locations and these outcomes call for some policy reactions. The time of writing this review has coincided with news of riots in the streets of a housing commission suburb in the outer southwestern suburbs of Sydney. That outcome provides a stark example of an outcome that has connections to economic and social processes expressed in a place and it would provide a rich class discussion to follow some of the material presented in this book.

Hence, I believe this book could be used effectively in a variety of teaching situations, but in particular to set up a broad understanding of a selected issue prior to some detailed local field work, investigation or further reading.

Professor Kevin O’ConnorThe University of Melbourne, Victoria.

recognises the interdisciplinary nature of tourism and, indeed celebrates it by highlighting its diversity through a series of 48 essays with 57 contributors. It also emphasises the richness of knowledge available at the boundaries of tourism with other disciplines.

Most tourism texts are written primarily from the positivist viewpoint of the industry in terms of statistics, trends, management and impacts. This book addresses the issues arising from tourism that have increasingly engaged social science researchers. It explores tourism from the standpoints of both spatial and cultural geography, political economy and behavioural theory. The role of transnational corporations, small business, labour mobility and transport are examined as part of the production of tourism spaces. Information technology, theme parks, cities and the place of indigenous peoples form the basis for discussions of globalisation. Modernity, postmodernity, consumption, travel writing, gender and sexuality contribute to a broad ranging section on tourist values and practices. Essays on resource management, ecotourism and community partnerships lend pertinent critique on tourism’s potential for contributing to sustainable development and point to important implications for tourism planning, policy and governance.

While not exhaustive reviews, the essays distil the essentials of topics, cite a range of important publications, point to critical debates, and elaborate on elements required for better conceptualisation and, therefore, theory. It is inevitable in a volume of this type that a number of issues appear in different contexts. Nevertheless, this overlap allows important themes for further study to emerge: the balance between sociocultural and economic factors, voices other than those of western, male positivists, the local/global dialectic, risk and uncertainty, relationships to other forms of mobility, use of different representations of nature and more sophisticated studies of environmental impacts.

This Companion is an essential reference text for any serious student, teacher or researcher in areas of tourism, geography and environmental or cultural studies. In a secondary school context, it would be primarily a resource for teachers, although individual chapters would be very useful in final years for pithy expositions of particular topics. At tertiary level, the text will be an important reference for both students and teachers and, therefore, an essential component of any library.

Dr Sharron PfuellerMonash University, Clayton Victoria.

A companion to tourism. Edited by Alan A. Lew, C. Michael Hall & Allan M Williams. Malden: Blackwell Publishers, 622 pages, hardback, ISBN 0631235647.

URL: http://www.blackwellpublishing.com

An extraordinarily comprehensive volume attempting to deal with the complexity of issues that engage geographers, this book explicitly

Best of the web Geography. By Chris Leftley. Munich: K. G. Saur, 2004, 106 pages, paper, ISBN 3599115377.

URL: http://www.saur.de

My first reaction to this slim paperback is that this publication is an anachronism because it is a book to help you navigate the digital age. It is a book of 96 quality reviewed websites for Geography. The sites listed are selected for their relevance, accuracy and consistency and are organised into categories.


The first section provides websites that are general resources – libraries, bibliographies, subject gateways and so forth. The remaining sections use Geographical topic categories ranging from Area Studies to Urban Studies as the organising feature.

It is written by Chris Leftley, an experienced librarian who resides in England and the sites reflect a northern hemisphere orientation. Many of the sites originate in the United Kingdom closely followed by the United States of America. I certainly wouldn’t use Best of the web Geography when searching for Australian sites. On the other hand it brings sites to this Australian’s attention that I was not aware of and which are useful.

So why use this book when – as my students and my children always say – “just do a Google search”? A search engine will locate an extraordinary range of sites – many of which are irrelevant, not authoritative, and difficult to navigate – for a topic such as Geographic Information Systems whereas one entry is provided here. It is the GIS dictionary and is a useful starting point although this also illuminates the limitations of the book – it is too selective.

There are eight sites reviewed in the Area Studies section. This includes

significant geographical event. The coastal features and processes of the Indian Ocean countries devastated by the 26 December 2004 tsunami were being scrutinised.

Investigations in regions flanked by coral reefs and mangrove forests indicated that the destructive impacts of the tsunami waves were reduced. This occurred at the coral barriers around the Surin Island chain of Thailand’s west coast and in the dense mangrove regions of India’s state of Tamil Nadu. Similar natural buffers offered some protection to parts of Sri Lanka and Malaysia’s Penang Island.

However, the natural protection of mangroves and coral reefs has been removed in many coastal Indian Ocean and Asian regions. These natural barriers have made way for fish farms, roads, housing, industrial, port and tourist developments. It was very pleasing to discover that this book had good sections on tsunami or tidal waves (page 8−9); mangroves (pages 67−70 and 125), coral (pages 71−74 and 83−85); and coral atolls (pages 83−85).

This is a useful resource for teachers and senior school students, particularly those who have little understanding of the significant relationships between coastal forms and processes and the types and level of human interference in coastal regions. For example, “On the coast of Victoria, Australia, the large group of stacks known as the Twelve Apostles were formed as a result of wider cliff recession rather than the break up of just one small headland” (page 35).

In broad terms the book covers: rocky coastlines and processes of erosion; depositional and transportational coastlines; coastal ecosystems; impact of sea level changes upon coasts; human management of coastal areas and diversity of contrasting coastlines.

the CIA World Factbook www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/ which is widely used in the ubiquitous country assignment in middle years geography so it was interesting to compare this with infoNation www.un.org/Pubs/CyberSchoolBus/infonation/info.asp which allows you to select up to five countries from the member states of the United Nations. In this example, I have illustrated how you might find a site that you wouldn’t easily find using a search engine.

Overall it is a moderately useful resource that will quickly date. The author has also produced a digital edition of this volume. It is challenging to create a “best of anything” because it begs the question, best for what purpose?

Jeana KriewaldtThe University of Melbourne, Victoria.

Coasts and coastal management. By Michael Hill. London: Hodder & Stoughton, 2004, 130 pages, paper, ISBN 0340846380.

URL: http://www.hodderheadline.co.uk

This book arrived from the editor at a timely moment. It seemed appropriate to apply a test related to a recent and


The book includes many good features, including:

• key words in a box at the beginning of each chapter

• seven clearly organised chapters with many sections arranged under sub-headings

• a clear general font• appropriate use of a bold font in

headings and key words• precise and well-labelled diagrams• case studies as boxed resources,

sometimes with additional diagrams or maps

• a summary diagram at the conclusion of each chapter

• creative use of poetry and prose at the beginning of each chapter.

Black and white images are generally small but well chosen. For example, the page 34 photo of “Blowholes on Tonga” has both impact and enough detail to provide an understanding of the basic wave and structural processes that are involved.

The book does include some limiting features that Australian teachers will find frustrating. These features include a Contents page that does not include Question pages, six Questions limited to why, what, explain, draw, define, outline but which do not generally encourage broader enquiry and issues investigations, a very limited list of websites, and a strong orientation to the needs of AS and A level students studying Geography in the UK.

Overall the author is to be congratulated for the book’s readability. The author and publisher have combined to produce a very concise text in an appealing size and with an excellent structure. One of the best characteristics is the review guide at the conclusion of each chapter.

I recommend this book to senior school students because of the comprehensive coverage of the title’s foundation concepts. Unlike many Geography books on coasts this text expansively integrates

hands of the main reshapers, the multinational food companies. The book provides evidence from a range of contexts (India, the EU, sub-Saharan Africa, the North) about how new issues are coming onto the radar as questions are asked about how the food system is being re-organised.

Generally speaking the book is not too technical and the majority of the 12 chapters could be readily used by senior high school or first year university students. It contains some valuable tables and figures to background the new issues. Where it falls down a little is in the way it fails to discuss government. Instead, policy making is seen as the natural thing for governments to engage in and food policy is portrayed as easily achievable activity. What is barely mentioned is that much food policy in the past has had little effect, that there are limited grounds for expecting different outcomes with the new issues, and that efforts to extend the scope of food policy will be hotly contested by those who have gained the most in recent years or stand to lose the most from policy attention and policy re-direction. This said, the book would form an excellent resource in a study aimed at highlighting the individual and social choices that we face in the contemporary food system.

Professor Richard Le HeronThe University of Auckland, New Zealand.

geomorphology, biogeography, human patterns and processes. Any qualification of this recommendation would arise because the book is not written from the Australian perspective and therefore takes only a few examples from Australia and the wider Asia-Pacific region. Also, the curriculum to which it is oriented and the assessment approach used will not fit the needs of many Australian schools.

Roger SmithCurriculum consultant, Melbourne.

Food policy old and new. Edited by Simon Maxwell & Rachel Slater. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2004, 200 pages, paper, ISBN 1405126027.

URL: http://www.blackwellpublishing.com

This book argues that governments in developing countries in the twenty-first century need to extend their food policies from concerns with famine and food insecurity to include new issues such as diet changes, obesity, food safety and competition policy in the retail sector. It is loosely organised to illustrate who has got what powers to reshape the food system. The message is pretty clear; the world food system is undergoing rapid change at the moment at the

Geographical education: expanding horizons in a shrinking world. Edited by W. Ashley Kent, Eleanor Rawling & Alastair Robinson. Scottish Association of Geography Teachers in partnership with the Commission on Geographical Education of the International Geographical Union, 223 pages, paper, ISSN 01402862 ISBN 0953985032.

URL: http://www.sagt.org.uk


This is a reference book containing papers prepared for the IGU 2004 Congress in Glasgow. It is not a practical handbook for teachers and lecturers.

This book, intended primarily for researchers and practitioners in geographical education, but with some relevance for curriculum planners, policy makers, examination authorities and publishers of educational materials, is a progress report on current trends in geographical education worldwide. The main focus of the book is on geographical education at school level, although there is some reference to teacher education and geography in higher education.

The book is divided into three parts. Part One contains five scholarly overview chapters written by key researchers in geographical education on topics such as research and scholarship, initial teacher education, continuing teacher professional development, curriculum issues and teaching and learning. These chapters raise many issues that have been the focus of geographical educators for some time, as well as a few more recent concerns.

Part Two consists of 17 shorter chapters on such disparate themes as the use of ICT, maps and fieldwork, learning strategies, the role of professional organisations and support for teachers, and a number of perspectives on geographical education in Scotland. Many of these chapters lack analysis and synthesis and focus on description only. From a personal perspective, I particularly enjoyed reading about Portuguese children’s perceptions of nature and environment and also about maps and supermaps

Part Three consists of 14 national updates. The authors of these updates had a great challenge to provide an overview of recent

developments in geographical education in their countries in around four pages. Nevertheless I found the succinct reports very useful when trying to come to grips with the state of geographical education in various parts of the world.

After reading the contributions and when reflecting upon the future of geographical education, especially in schools, I remain convinced of the valuable contribution that geography can make to education, but I am not certain that many education authorities around the world have the same conviction.

Dr Kevin LawsThe University of Sydney, New South Wales.

descriptions (no hiding behind empirical formulae here) as this one, many secondary teachers of Geography will be well justified in taking them in to their professional libraries. The format is pocketbook size: read it on the train digesting it paragraph by paragraph. Yes, it is packed, but well worth the trouble, not only for the information, but also for the chance to delight in the economical nature of the expression and the very effective illustrations. Also appreciated will be the well-chosen study questions and key word definitions.

Glacial and periglacial environments would no doubt be appreciated by very keen students who are fascinated by the nature and distribution of glaciers (first two chapters), the landforms they leave behind (three chapters), and by the realisation that some landscapes owe their form to the action of seasonal or permanent ice in the ground. The book culminates (Chapter 7) with a brief and well-exemplified account about what use can be made of the knowledge about these things. However, I suspect the main readership in Australia will be among Geography teachers wishing to update their insight into a topic that will crop up as often in general classroom questions as it will in meeting a teacher’s need for background information useful in lesson preparation.

The author’s approach is clearly with an eye to the UK textbook market. Mercifully free of scare stories (for instance, about us all being drowned by West Antarctic Ice Sheet collapse) and other speculation, the scope of the book is Eurocentric and geomorphological. There is not an Australian equivalent unless one goes back to the 1960s when J. L. Davies published Landforms of cold climates (ANU Press) in which Australian examples were (in global terms) over

Glacial and periglacial environments. By David Anderson. London: Hodder & Stoughton, 2004, 132 pages, paper, ISBN 0340812478.

URL: http://www.hodderheadline.co.uk

If the other volumes in the Access to Geography series are as current and as well-written and as packed with well-structured and explanatory


represented, and, justifiably in the Australian context, the periglacial environment was treated before the glacial one.

Associate Professor Jim Peterson,Monash University, Clayton, Victoria.

There are hazard-specific chapters on earthquakes, volcanoes, windstorms, global flooding, wildfires, mass movement and drought. The text also includes regional studies, with an emphasis on the Asia-Pacific region, as well as contextual chapters involving disaster education.

International Perspectives on Natural Disasters is a very useful teacher reference to back up the more student-friendly resources used in the classroom. The information ranges from background theory behind events to practical information on responding to natural disasters. The book is written for a broad audience with the aim of arming professionals such as teachers, disaster response organisations and policy makers with reliable information to work with.

One of the most appealing aspects of the text for teachers is the case studies written by professionals in the field. For example the introductory volcanoes chapter is prepared by a scientist from the Philippine Institute of Vulcanology and Seismology. The text contains interesting case studies, tables and visual material to enhance concept and skill development related to studies of natural hazards. The book reproduces photographs, technical art and maps from each of the experts involved. This material is also included on the companion CD-ROM, to provide greater versatility in its use in class or as a resource.

The editors have done a good job in keeping the readability at a reasonable level for senior secondary students, however the greatest use for this text amongst schools will be as an authoritative reference and source of fresh case studies, maps and data.

Peter van NoordenJohn Wiley & Sons Australia.

International perspectives on natural disasters: Occurrence, mitigation and consequences. Edited by Joseph P Stoltman, John Lidstone & Lisa M DeChano. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2004, 478 pages, hardback with CD-ROM, ISBN 1402028504.

URL: http://www.springeronline.com

The tragedy of the tsunami that devastated south Asia in December 2004 is a timely reminder of the importance of the study of natural hazards and disasters in our classrooms. The chapters in International Perspectives were prepared by scientists who specialise in research on natural hazards and disasters. The twenty-seven chapters provide a broad range of studies.

In search of sustainability. Edited by Jenny Goldie, Bob Douglas & Bryan Furnass. Collingwood: CSIRO Publishing, 2005, 200 pages, paper, ISBN 0643090622.

URL: http://www.publish.csiro.au

In search of sustainability is a collection of papers written by a number of leading academics and researchers on a variety of environmental and social issues and proposes a number of management strategies to preserve our world for future generations.

The book is the result of nine months of Internet discussion and a face-to-face conference of leading Australian academics and researchers.

The first chapter, by Jenny Goldie, Bob Douglas and Bryan Furnass, overviews the development of awareness of global environmental issues, defines sustainability, identifies aspects of Australia’s environment that are at risk, and the positive and negative aspects of Australia’s social environment. The authors emphasise the urgent need for effective environmental sustainability both globally and nationally.

Subsequent chapters identify major issues such as the impact of population growth on the biosphere,


climate change, infectious diseases, global inequality, the costs of economic growth, impacts of natural resource degradation on ecosystem functioning, water management, sustainable energy, urban design, and the nature of work in Australia. The book concludes with a list of recommendations for sustainable development that were developed at the “In Search of Sustainability Conference” held in Canberra in November 2003.

In search of sustainability draws together significant research and academic opinion on a variety of significant issues that impact on all Australians. Each chapter succinctly identifies a particular issue and clearly puts forward the need for change in how both government and societies approach our future.

This is an ideal reference for NSW Geography teachers as it provides detailed information on the variety of physical issues that are identified in the “Issues in Australian Environments” topic in Year 10 Geography, the Year 11 Preliminary Course topic “Global Challenges”, and the HSC “Ecosystems at Risk” course. The book is very readable and would also serve to provide senior students with valuable extension information.

I would recommend this book to geography teachers as an invaluable source of information on environmental sustainability. Furthermore, this should be on the desk of every politician, CEO and primary industry group in Australia. The information in this book clearly identifies a need for urgent action to preserve our environment and social capital for future generations.

Sharon McLeanSt Ignatius’ College, Lane Cove, New South Wales.

highlights the environmental, health and security implications of the crippling debt for the whole world unless radical action is taken.

Hertz’s engaging quotes, enticing chapter headings (Backing the Bad Guys, Stop Not Making Sense…) and clever personalising of financial health make this complex topic understandable for even the most economically illiterate reader. Snappy sections within chapters could easily be used with upper secondary students of development geography. Many general statements are supported with specific country examples and would springboard a more detailed investigation of the overall situation.

Although only written last year, Russia’s ratification of the Kyoto Protocol and the G8’s debt forgiveness show that the pressure of public opinion are having an impact and giving hope to continue our involvement in working for a “better, safer, more just and more equitable world”.

Catherine McNicolCurriculum Corporation, Melbourne, Victoria.

I.O.U. the debt threat and why we must defuse it. By Noreena Hertz. London: Fourth Estate, 2004, 288 pages, paper, ISBN 000717960X.

URL: http://www.harpercollins.com.au

At the G8 Summit in Gleneagles, Scotland, the world’s leading industrialised powers have agreed on a $50 billion aid package for Africa. This signals a new deal on the cancellation of the poorest nations’ debts and will provide hope for countries that are spending more on debt servicing than on health care, education or safe water. It vindicates the efforts of a large number of people who have kept the profile of the debt issues in the consciousness of leaders through many years of campaigning.

For those who have not been involved, Noreena Hertz’s book I.O.U. the debt threat and why we must defuse it provides an accessible introduction to the issues. Her racy writing style makes this a very readable and quotable book. She gives some clear background about how the world had got itself trapped in a debt cycle with frightening insights into the way world superpowers have used developing countries as pawns during the Cold War, lent money to corrupt regimes, and callously traded debt. I.O.U.

Keys to Geography: essential skills and tools. Edited by Jeana Kriewaldt. South Yarra: Macmillan Education Australia, 2004, 116 pages, paper and CD-ROM, ISBN 0732990165.

URL: http://www.macmillan.com.au

This book and accompanying CD-ROM will have wide appeal to all teachers of Geography. There is a comprehensive approach to the skills required in Geography courses in secondary schools today. All types of maps, photographs, graphs and diagrams are dealt with in detail. It is possible to use the book alone with its clear and colourful diagrams and activities that are well suited to Years 7–10 classes. The final chapter


Putting it all together – with its links to two award winning Geography projects – gives valuable insights into how all these skills and techniques can be used to create original and informative fieldwork

Its real strength lies in the CD-ROM. Students with laptops and Internet availability can make use of a wide range of websites to bring Geography alive in the classroom. Even without Internet access, there are many useful diagrams to print off for classroom use. The CD-ROM has many additional activities that relate to the chapter titles. For example, in the chapter on statistics and graphs considerable use is made of spreadsheets to create the different graph types. While most are easy to follow, some of these have lengthy instructions, for example the steps to create a climate graph.

This package represents good value for money as students could retain it throughout their secondary school years. It will also be of considerable value to teachers as they will be able to prepare geographic media of a high standard themselves. This book

and CD-ROM can be commended with confidence to teachers and students alike.

Hilary McNabLowther Hall Anglican Grammar School,Moonee Ponds, Victoria.

Longman atlas 5th edition. By Malcolm Stacey & Brian Ralph. Melbourne: Pearson Education Australia 2005, 200 pages paper, ISBN 0123605180.

Longman atlas 5th edition. By Malcolm Stacey & Brian Ralph, Melbourne: Pearson Education Australia, 2005, CD-ROM version.

Atlas skills Workbook. By Malcolm Stacey. Melbourne: Pearson Education Australia, 2005, 64 pages paper, ISBN 0123606012.

URL: http://www.pearsoned.com.au

The three publications are a package; schools may purchase the Atlas only or may purchase the Atlas and CD-ROM for a slightly greater cost. The Atlas skills workbook like many that are on the market aims to complement the atlas but also to facilitate teaching skills that might be used in a Geography or SOSE classroom. It has a common format – an explanation of the skill and activities that students might complete to reinforce that skill.

The atlas itself looks like many other atlases but then again that is not totally surprising. There are only so

many things that can be done in producing a book of maps and related materials. There is a brief atlas skills section before an extensive section on Australia and our neighbours.

Maps relating to each of the other continents precede a section of world maps, many of a thematic nature. A section of world statistics follows these sections.

Within the Australian section there are the usual state maps interspersed with satellite imagery and air photographs together with a range of thematic maps, many of which are based on Australian Bureau of Statistics data. At the national scale there are many thematic maps, for example a number dealing with natural hazards such as the 2003 Canberra bushfires and the severe hailstorm experienced in Sydney in April 1999. The global thematic maps include the usual topics – environmental issues, population, urbanisation and social indicators. Of interest were the maps about global warming, and international aid.

The Interactive CD-ROM contains an electronic version of the Atlas, an “e-layer” section which allows students to build their own maps, hotlinks from the index to corresponding maps, hotlinks from maps to relevant topical content on the companion website, and an offline version of the Companion Website.

The offline Companion Website means that in situations where an Internet connection is not readily available most of the material is still available. In the atlas itself the letters “CW” indicate that there are materials about this map/topic on the Companion Website. When the letter “e” appears in the atlas, this indicates that the map on the particular page contains e-layers. E-layers allow teachers and students to construct and print unique combinations of map features to suit their requirements. Having “played”


with this feature on the CD-ROM, I found it very interesting and could see real potential in the classroom. There are twenty-four case studies included in the Resources section. These include “Antarctica: threatened wilderness”, “The Okavango Delta: Botswana”, “Whose land is it?”, and “Cyclone Vance”. These case studies include references to the Atlas, web links and activities.

As an atlas resource, it is certainly one that I would be considering because of its technology enhanced aspects. The e-layer facility alone is something many teachers may find particularly useful. It is a very simple yet effective introduction to spatial technologies. I am not sure that it will be all things to all users but then I have never found an atlas that did have everything that I wanted. This atlas certainly has a lot of pluses and I would encourage schools that are in the market for an atlas, particularly one that has some useful technological aspects, to consider this atlas resource.

Russell SmerdonGTAQ, Brisbane.

Image courtesy of the Australian Mekong Centre

This CD-ROM introduces students in the lower secondary school (curriculum level 4) to village life in Laos and the vexed issues surrounding the building of dams on the middle stretches of the Mekong River affecting Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam.

The CD-ROM contains introductory, background and resource sections providing relevant material on demography, geography, economy, politics, culture and technology, with interactive maps, web materials, video clips of people and places, hotspots providing definitions of difficult words, and Lao pronunciations of place names.

There are two distinct topics of study. In the first, students prepare a whole class presentation (focusing on visual communication) for an international audience comparing Lao village life and their own. In the second, smaller groups prepare PowerPoint presentations from the perspectives of various participants in a conference aiming at consensus on a proposed dam. These participants include local fishers and farmers, government agencies from Laos, Thailand and Vietnam, and various international interest groups such as environmentalists, bankers, a hydro construction company and AusAid. Students are provided with aims, guidelines to structure, text and video clip resources, web sites and generic assessment criteria. The teacher is directed to a guide to WebQuests and provided with examples of how to assist students in this form of cooperative, interactive learning.

The real test of a resource such as this is how well it suits the interests and abilities of the students. I have some doubts in this area. The video clips do not seem to be directly enough related to examples of village life for junior secondary students to make connections easily. The material on the Mekong River project seems

more directly relevant, but much of it is abstract, complex and above the comprehension (and interest?) levels of most junior secondary students. The web sites do, however, provide relevant and accessible resources, which the experienced teacher will have little difficulty in working with, provided they have the time to preview them.

So, depending on your experience with and attitude to WebQuest materials you will either value the stimulus and structure provided by this CD-ROM and use it enthusiastically, or be disappointed at the lost opportunity for directly capitalising on the wonderfully stimulating visual materials by more carefully focused tasks and detailed instructions.

The production values are generally higher than a lot of contemporary curriculum CD-ROMs, and the occasionally poor quality of the images, sound and editing is not an impediment to learning. The layout is clever, the navigation tools are simple and effective, and the still and video clips provide a wonderful introduction to the physical, human and economic geography of parts of South East Asia. With an enthusiastic teacher willing to put time into more intensively aligning the procedures for the web quest activities, this CD-ROM could be a really effective and stimulating resource. Highly recommended. I look forward to volume 2.

Dr Keith SimkinLa Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria.

Mekong Quest Volume 1. Australian Mekong Centre, The University of Sydney, 2004, CD-ROM, ISBN 1864872284.

URL: http://www.mekong.es.usyd.edu.au/

Sustainability and change in rural Australia. Edited by Chris Cocklin & Jacqui Dibden. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2004, 298 pages, paper, ISBN 0868406317.

URL: http://www.unswpress.com.au/

This excellent text provides very comprehensive and insightful


coverage of how the concept of sustainability relates to the rural Australian context. Furthermore, its publication is particularly timely as it coincides with the beginning of UNESCO’s Decade of Education for Sustainable Development. The book is an edited volume comprising fourteen chapters, organised into the following three major sections.

Sustainability in context provides a clarification of much of the terminology associated with rural communities and sustainability. This is followed by an historical perspective of rural Australia, linking current issues and problems with previous practice and policy. There is also a focus on the changing demographics within Australia and how this and other factors have impacted upon the social fabric of the rural environment.

Issues in contemporary rural Australia examines how globalisation and economic liberalisation have impacted upon the social, economic and natural capital of rural Australia. There are also chapters on social exclusion and gender issues in rural settings.

Responding to the challenges explores the challenges facing the government in formulating policy to assist rural Australia at a time when

funding to alleviate environmental damage can be viewed as subsidy by organisations such as the World Trade Organization. There is also an analysis of the relatively fragmented nature of government policy in rural Australia and a call for a more holistic approach that recognises how the social, economic and ecological components of the rural environment are interrelated.

Each chapter is extremely interesting and highly topical and the authors have managed to present complex issues with a clarity and style that makes them accessible to a wide audience. This would be an excellent reference book for teachers of senior secondary level geography and should also be a helpful text for tertiary level students of geography or rural studies. Furthermore, this resource should provide important contextual information for a wide range of professionals working in rural Australia.

This text offers excellent value for money.

Dr Neil TaylorThe University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales.

Fresh out of water, Uses and abuses, Water health, Reshaping the natural world, Water conflicts, and The way forward. Each chapter comprises between three and eight discrete specific topics. The topics all have a colourful world map showing the overall distribution pattern, concise supporting text laden with facts and figures, and other graphic-rich material that brings the issue alive. The tables, diagrams and graphs are well chosen and presented in an interesting way to clearly show the intended message of the topic. There is also a chapter with an extensive glossary, a supporting table of water facts for all countries, and a very thorough list of resources. These references are particularly good for developing courses on water issues. The data are mainly from the year 2000.

The book shows the importance of water globally and through specific regional examples. It highlights some of the challenges facing the hydrological cycle including the draining of wetlands, contamination of water systems, groundwater mining, river damming and the expansion of cities.

Issues of water ownership and conflict – such as privatisation, the role of powerful corporations, and the development of citizen movements to reclaim their water “rights” – are thoughtfully presented. Most importantly, the later chapters suggest the way forward with topics The water business, Conserving supplies, Setting priorities, and Visions of the future.

The book is suitable for middle and senior secondary classes as a library reference book. Teachers would also find the book to be a very useful reference source. I would recommend schools purchase three or four copies.

Stephen LathamTaylors College, Melbourne.

The atlas of water: mapping the world’s most critical resource. By Robin Clarke & Jannet King. London: Earthscan, 2004, 128 pages, paper, ISBN 1844071332.

URL: http://www.earthscan.co.uk/

This soft cover book is one of a series of five from Earthscan. Other titles are The atlas of food, The state of the world atlas, The atlas of war and peace and The atlas of endangered species. It is a good book to add to your shelf for quick reference or inspiration when developing a course or lesson plan. The setout is logical and it is quite easy to navigate to find relevant information.

The chapter headings in this atlas are


conglomerate, we have coral reefs. It doesn’t compete with existing reference books, it occupies its own niche, one that has been virtually empty since it was created as Geography and environmental awareness evolved from the 1960s.

The Preface states that the book aims to be “comprehensive, accurate and also thought-provoking”. Thought-provoking it is. Just in case you know anyone who still thinks that the “Environment” is all about a handful of isolated, controversial and contested battles between “greenies” and “suits”, this would make an excellent Christmas gift. You can’t escape the sense emanating from these pages, unlike a dictionary, that all of these things are somehow connected. This is the sense of Ecology. And this is what, I believe, Geography must increasingly be about.

Unfortunately though, the book is not altogether as comprehensive and as accurate as it aspires to be. Obviously length/space limitations are a factor but this should not be an excuse for some omissions and discrepancies.

I was struck by the absence of an entry for consumption patterns and the need for Governments and communities to reduce ecologically unsustainable per capita material and energy resource consumption around the globe.

The Darling. Edited by Roland Breckwoldt, Robert Boden & Jenny Andrew.Canberra: Murray-Darling Basin Commission, 2004, 496 pages, paper, ISBN 187683093X.


You can judge a book by many measures. It might be a good read, it might be a weighty tome though you probably wouldn’t care how much Darling River water it would displace. The measures this one will be judged by include how creased its soft-cover becomes, how dog-eared are its pages and how often it is not on your shelf over the course of your study of the Darling River. I’ve got a prediction on these measures, but I’ll leave it to you to guess.

The Darling is encyclopaedic. It ranges across the gamut of issues and processes in Natural Resource Management (NRM). Do you want to know about geomorphology? Perhaps you are interested in soils or the vegetation assemblages that they support? Or if flora isn’t your thing, what about the fauna – reptiles and amphibians, fish, birds or mammals? Each is the subject of its own chapter, contributed from experts at a university biology school, a CRC or the CSIRO. Other authors work in government NRM departments, the Murray-Darling Basin Commission or are drawn from those with daily doings on the river, pastoralists who live and farm there.

Joe Powell from Monash University rather lyrically opens proceedings with Chapter 1 titled “A Requited Darling”. Early chapters discuss Aboriginal life and pre-European society on the rich river floodplains, the first contact with settlers and how the historical basis for pastoralism still affects management processes today. After chapters discussing the flora and fauna of the Darling, issues of water quality, water use − including environmental flows − and conservation issues are raised. This is not a book that simply presents facts and figures, though it does that most comprehensively. The lists, tables and graphs of catchment areas, runoff and storage, of nutrient inputs and of remaining vegetation fragments, to name just some, will give students of the Darling more than enough data to be going on with.

This book you can even judge by its cover, for it is what it says it is − The Darling. I reckon that if you a serious student of this magnificent inland river, this book will be your darling (sorry, but I did resist until now).

Greg HuntWaterkeepers Australia, Carlton, Victoria.

The essentials of the environment. By Simon Ross & Joseph Kerski.London: Hodder Arnold, 2005, 318 pages paper, ISBN 10034081632.

URL: http://hoddereducation.com

This timely and welcome book is less of a dictionary and more of a compendium of summarised explanations of an exhaustive range of contemporary global and regional environmental/ecological processes and issues. The alphabetical Contents lists over five pages the various problems that these processes are currently encountering.

We start with acid rain and finish with woodland ecosystems. Instead of


There are technical problems, for example, under:• clear felling (of forests) – the book

states “clear-felling does not prevent the resource being renewed and replanting often leads to regeneration of the forest cover with little permanent damage to the ecosystem” (page 45). This is naïve in the least as clear felling in the Australian experience “permanently” kills many animals as well as “permanently” destroying their habitats. Replanted forests are monocultural, without the biodiversity of original native forest tree species and fauna, and take thousands of years to develop anywhere near the biodiversity of a native forest.

• desertification – “salinisation can be avoided by providing enough water to leach the salts down through the soil” (page 78) yet in Australia salinisation is the result of rising water tables carrying salts to the surface as a result of native vegetation clearance and irrigation.

• eutrophication – only mentions agricultural fertilisers as the cause and makes no mention of detergents, other cleaning products and domestic pet faeces that contribute to algal blooms in fresh waterways.

• mangrove forests – no mention of the role of mangroves as the marine nurseries of the oceans for many species of marine organisms, and that they are being extensively cleared throughout the tropics for urban and tourism development.

• plate tectonics – no mention of two types of plates – continental and oceanic – and of the corresponding difference between convergent and subduction boundaries. In this regard, there is also no mention of the Pacific Rim as being the greatest concentration of

subduction zones in the world, hence the frequency of such violent events around this region.

Despite these minor problems, this is an excellent reference for secondary and tertiary teachers and students across many disciplines and for genuinely interested, aware and/or concerned members of the global community.

Two other features contribute towards this being a useful reference book. The case studies which accompany most entries are interesting at least and inspiring at best. More useful though is the comprehensive list of websites to use for further investigation, at the end of each entry.

I would like to think that in the not too distant future, this book will be commonly found looking all dog-eared, on coffee-tables in living rooms all around the world. This would be a hopeful sign of growing awareness, and awareness is the precursor of action!

Mark BoswellDistance Education Centre Victoria, Thornbury, Victoria.

decades to write the story of Australian geology for the general reader. The core of the book is a whistlestop tour through Australia’s geological history, beginning in the Archaean and ending in the Quaternary.

Can any one author possess the understanding necessary to write a book of this breadth? Probably not, but I suspect that few of us could have done a better job. Not surprisingly, I was confronted by numerous minor misunderstandings in areas of my own speciality and no doubt scholars from other parts of the discipline could make exactly the same point. But this is a panoramic book, which offers enough to excite the tiro whilst keeping the attention of the expert.

Grafted onto the main trunk of the book are chapters on tectonic and climatic cyclicity, the Eastern Highlands volcanic province, the Australian coast, the Great Barrier Reef and the Solar System. Each of these contains fascinating material and some of the most engaging writing in the volume. Nevertheless, these sections sit uneasily with the rest of the book and it’s difficult to see why they have been set apart in this way. Integrating the Great Barrier Reef material into the broader picture of glacial and interglacial climatic fluctuations over the past million years and discussing the coast as one element of the modern landscape of Australia (the end product of all that has gone before) would seem to make more sense. The other vigorous suckers on the main root stock of the volume might similarly have been better pruned back and their contents integrated with the text’s main theme.

The remaining element of the book – and that forming the introductory section – attempts to give the non-specialist a fighting chance of understanding all that succeeds it. As someone who each year has to

The geology of Australia. By David P. Johnson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004, 289 pages, hardback, ISBN 0521842126.

URL: http://www.cambridge.org

This voluptuously produced volume represents the first attempt in four


introduce geological concepts to hundreds of students with no background in the subject, I sympathise with David Johnson’s task. By and large, he succeeds reasonably well, though I’d still argue that this primer is more complex than the novice might require. For example, do we really need to know what “pelagic” and “amygdule” mean?

This is a beautiful book. The flaws of the text are minor compared with its blessings. I’d like to hope that its impact on a new generation of readers would be comparable with that of Charles Laseron’s classics from the 1950s and 1960s, Ancient Australia and The Face of Australia.

Dr S. J. GaleThe University of Sydney, New South Wales.

Escault not the Scheldt, Baki not Baku, Adis Abeba not Addis Ababa, Phnum Penh, not Phnom Penh. However, all forms are cross-referenced in the comprehensive 140-page index.

If you already have the eighth edition, it may not be worth updating your atlas yet, but if your best atlas pre-dates East Timor’s independence in 1999, then this ninth edition is a library necessity, and a better atlas for school use than the larger, more expensive Comprehensive edition.

Dr Brendan WhyteThe University of Melbourne, Victoria.

The Times concise atlas of the world 9th edition. London: Times, 2004, 416 pages, hardback and slipcase, ISBN 0007157290.

URL: http://www.harpercollins.com.au

The question is not whether your school needs a Times atlas but which one, and how often to update it. The Times atlas of the world: comprehensive edition is the authoritative world atlas, but at $295, it is an expensive purchase. It is also perhaps too large (32cm x 46cm) and too heavy for younger students to

easily use, and is liable to damage from being dropped or photocopied. The Times concise atlas, at 27cm x 37cm is smaller, easier to handle and less than 60% of the price of the larger version, while retaining comprehensiveness in content if not in name.

The main changes since the eighth edition of 2000 are the inclusion of the Alice Springs−Darwin railway, the Chinese railway to Lhasa (Tibet), three new Indian states, and updated data and graphs in the introductory section.

The atlas format remains unchanged. It begins with 14 pages of satellite images of the continents, two pages on the Solar System, and 44 pages of global thematic data, maps and graphs covering topics such as national flags and vital statistics, longest rivers, largest islands, earthquakes and volcanoes, climate, population, minerals, energy, communications, and the history of maps from clay tablets to GPS and GIS. The text in the thematic sections is a little small, at least for adults.

The body of the atlas is 200 pages of maps, including insets of major cities. Unfortunately the Melbourne city map shows a non-existent “Princes Bridge Station” east of Flinders St Station; and the Auckland map has not been updated to show the new Britomart rail/bus terminus which opened in 2003.

Apart from these errors, the main criticism concerns the name form policy (pages 66−7). The editors have chosen to use official transcription systems to render placenames into the Roman alphabet, and to use local names whenever possible, rather than use the familiar English forms. For major features, the English form is often included in brackets: Soul (Seoul), Al Qahirah (Cairo), Moskva (Moscow), Dimashq (Damascus), Rhein (Rhine). But for others, the familiar name is replaced entirely: the

Troubled water: saints, sinners, truths and lies about the global water crisis. Edited by Anita Roddick. Chichester: Anita Roddick Books, 2004, paper, 138 pages, ISBN 095439593X.

URL: http://www.anitaroddick.com

Sometimes you come across a book you want to hold on to, that engages you with its presentation, that you love to flip through, that you delight in having found. Troubled water is just such a book.

Although it contains essays from well-known identities, it is littered with quotes, facts and figures that grab your attention with striking photographs and graphics. The


format, if you pardon the pun, whets one’s appetite for more, for dipping into periodically, or for a good soaking dose of information. The essays are short and punchy. They don’t waste words and they are not for the faint-hearted or those looking for soft answers. Although published in the UK this is not a Eurocentric book, referring to countries on every continent.

Issues of privatisation of water, and debunking a few myths around this, precede a section on contaminated and polluted water. The fashion of bottled water is highlighted with the accompanying problems of what to do with all the used bottles in a chapter delightfully titled “Evian is backward is naïve”.

One would think if we haven’t got enough water, then perhaps we just need to build more storage dams. “Damming it all to hell” is a sharp look at the impacts of big dams on people, food production and other options. Access to water for the billion people who don’t have access to water within a 15-minute walk of their homes is also examined, as is the impact of war and conflict around the world. A look at too much water, with the impacts of global warming and some innovative solutions, conclude this gem of a book with a range of international resources listed at the end.

It is appropriate for secondary students of all levels because of its great presentation and range of information, but is also a good teacher resource.

Lindy StirlingOne World Centre, Bayswater, Western Australia.

Understanding the environment: bridging the disciplinary divides. Edited by R. Quentin Grafton, Libby Robin & Robert J. Wasson. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2005, 229 pages, paper, ISBN 086840912X.

URL: http://www.unswpress.com.au

What do fourteen contributors from the disciplines of geography, history, public policy, economics, ecology, mathematical sciences, human health, anthropology, earth science and hydrology have to do with each other? To answer how interdisciplinary solutions to environmental challenges can be tackled.

This book is written by a team of academics and researchers from the oldest and largest interdisciplinary environmental research centre in the Southern Hemisphere − the Centre for Resource and Environmental Studies of the Australian National University. All are interested in understanding the environment beyond their own area of specialisation to exchange mutually beneficial ideas.

The editors invite people to read what each discipline adds to a broader understanding of the environment and then to challenge readers to look beyond their areas of familiarity and

consider disciplines that, at first glance, may not appear to have anything to do with the same environmental problem.

Each contributor is asked to consider the same core questions regarding the definitions, origins, concepts, philosophy, methods and examples of use for each domain of knowledge covered. The classroom teacher may be inspired to work with other subjects to present a more unified and complementary approach to environmental issues taught across the curriculum in the school.

The chapter on geography written by Richard Baker is a great exposition of the discipline we love to teach and shows how integral geography is to understanding the environment.

Chapter twelve considers the all-important how to? and is recommended reading. Endnotes, references, an index and contributor biographies are also included.

This is a book of interest to those teachers, scholars and tertiary students who wish to learn more about a holistic approach across disciplines to understanding and solving real-world challenges.

Astrid HecklerGlen Waverley, Victoria.

Vortex cities to sustainable cities: Australia’s urban challenge. By Phil McManus. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2005, 231 pages, paper, ISBN 0868407011.

URL: http://www.unswpress.com.au

One of the potential difficulties with teacher reference books written from the tertiary research perspective can be the accessibility of the publication to the classroom teacher, particularly in terms of language in the context of theoretical debate. However, this is not a trap that Phil McManus falls into and this book is an enjoyable read as


well as a highly challenging and thought provoking contribution to the resource catalogue relevant to the study of Australian urbanisation.

Structurally, the book has three main sections: the first that deals with the patterns and processes in the history of Australian urbanisation; a second that challenges and explores the meaning of sustainability in terms of cities; and a final section that looks at the future directions that Australian urbanisation might take. It is McManus’s willingness to explore unusual perspectives that made the book interesting to read and in that sense I found myself challenging the relevance of current urbanisation courses that I teach in a positive way. Contemporary issues such as the role of water in influencing the past and future development of Australian cities, transport and the need for urban areas to be a natural part of a sustainable environment are all addressed, as are the prospects for a future that includes cities that balance the “ecologically necessary and the politically possible”.

There are a few concerns about the production of the book itself. For a theme that is so clearly spatial in nature, it is disappointing to see a lack of maps and other key graphic material to enhance the text. The few that exist,

together with the tables of relevant statistics, do provide some of depth and usable classroom material, particularly for senior classes, but more use could have been made of what is a fundamental geographic technique. The other main criticism is the price: $44.95 for a teacher reference book is rather high, even allowing for current publication costs, and especially for a volume that is predominantly text-based. Nevertheless, if such considerations can be overcome, I would recommend this volume as a worthwhile faculty reference.

Niranjan CasinaderLoyola College, Watsonia, Victoria.

Where river meets sea: exploring Australia’s estuaries. By Lynne Turner, Dieter Tracey, Jan Tilden & W.M. Dennison. Indooroopilly: CRC for Coastal Zone Estuary and Waterway Management, 2004, 278 pages, paper, ISBN 0957867883.


Where River Meets Sea aims to increase understanding of the estuaries of Australia, explaining the range in types due to different strengths of wave, tide and river processes, and the variety of human pressures. Biological habitats is beautifully explained and illustrated, and there is comprehensive cover of

the different threats to estuaries and their management implications. Methods of assessment of estuarine health are introduced, before the majority of the book explores regional management issues through several case studies. There is not comprehensive cover of all of Australia’s 974 estuaries, rather a few examples from each State and Territory. The book concludes with some international examples of estuarine management issues.

I recommend this book for high school students who have interests in practical science and management. While it focuses on estuaries, it also encompasses catchment and offshore connectivity. The diagrams are very well done, and photographs excellent and engaging, though as a teaching tool many more labels would improve their usefulness. Given the printing quality with colour throughout, the book is good value for money.

One way I would use this text in the classroom is to encourage understanding of the differences between pristine and heavily modified estuaries from different parts of Australia, through comparing and contrasting geographical situations and management issues. Then reconfirm understanding by examination of the estuary most familiar to the class, asking students to critique the coverage in the text, adding or expanding on management issues from their personal knowledge. A fieldtrip or talk from your local coastal Natural Resource Management (NRM) facilitator would work well at this point – check http://www.nrm.gov.au/index.html for contacts. Complete the exercise by using the text to place the familiar estuary into national context in terms of physical processes dominant, condition, and level of management.

Dr Joanna EllisonUniversity of Tasmania, Launceston.


An invitation to shareGeographical Education is a refereed journal. Articles submitted to Geographical Education for consideration in the Refereed Articles section are reviewed anonymously by a minimum of two referees. Articles are selected by the Editor based on the outcome of the anonymous reviews and ratified by the Journal Advisory Committee. Authors of accepted articles are sent guidelines for their final submission. Contributions to other sections such as Book Reviews and Reports are not refereed. The ISSN for Geographical Education is ISSN 0085 0969.

We invite your participation in producing this journal. Geographical Education encourages school, university teachers and all others interested in geography to share their ideas and experiences in order to promote sound practice, innovative strategies, modern developments and reflection in geographical education.

Contributions of varying length are invited, with a maximum of 5000 words for major articles and research reports. Shorter articles of 2000 words, featuring classroom strategies, reflections on particular issues and practices in geography teaching, in-service education workshops and comments on previous articles are especially welcome.

Lesson plans, teaching units and how-to-do-it advice on classroom and field skills are also invited as long as they have relevance for a broad range of teachers across Australia.

Presenting your articleemail: You may care to submit an article for review to the editor (address below). Please send as a Rich Text file or Microsoft Word document.

Word processing: Manuscripts should be word processed and double-spaced on one side of white A4 paper, with margins of 2.5cm on all sides, using 12 point size of Times New Roman (or CG Times) font.

Title page: The title of the article, the name, work position and address of the author and

Invitation for papers and notes for contributorsan abstract of no more than 150 words included on a title page.

Headings: Major and minor sub-headings should be used to guide the reader and to break up the text.

Paragraphs: Paragraphs should start without indentation and should be separated by blank lines. All text should be left justified.

Quotations: These should be kept to a minimum and where over 40 words should be indented. These must be appropriately referenced.

End/footnotes: These should be avoided if possible.

References: Authors are requested to use the APA (American Psychological Association) style and it would be appreciated if you would note that an exemplar of this is available at www.cqu.edu.au/referencing. All references, including internet sources, should be provided in alphabetical order, on a separate sheet. The titles of journals should not be abbreviated.

Tables and figures: All tables and figures should be submitted on a separate page but with their position indicated on the text by leaving a 3 cm space above and inserting words such as ‘take in Figure X’ or ‘Take in Table Y’. All tables and figures, including maps and diagrams, should be submitted in camera-ready form with captions clearly numbered, typed and left-justified below the diagram.

Reproduction: Illustrations will be generally reproduced in black and white. Photographs and illustrations should be black and white glossy prints or slides suitable for clear reproduction. Electronic media such as .jpeg and .tiff files should be emailed to the editor.

Copyright: Contributors are responsible for the factual accuracy of their articles and for obtaining permission to reproduce text or illustrations from other publications.

Manuscripts are accepted for publication on the understanding that they have been submitted only to Geographical Education. Hence copyright of the articles appearing in the journal remains vested with the contributor(s).


Submitting your articleGeographical Education is published annually, usually in August. As at least six months are needed for reviewing, editing, design, typesetting and printing, articles should reach the Editor by 30 April. Two copies of a manuscript should be submitted. The author should retain a third for checking.

Manuscripts for possible publication and all correspondence relating to articles should be sent to:

Associate Professor Ken PurnellEditor of Geographical EducationCentral Queensland UniversityRockhampton QLD 4702Australiaemail: <[email protected]>

Reviews

Reviews of books, kits, electronic and other media requested by the Reviews Editor should be sent to:Mr. Geoffrey PatersonReviews Editor, Geographical EducationDistance Education Centre Victoria315 Clarendon StreetThornbury Vic 3071Phone: (03) 8480 0155email: <[email protected]>

Advice to advertisers

Geographical Education welcomes advertisements for quality publications and services relevant to geography teaching.

The page sizes and rates are as follows:

Full page 180mm horizontal x 260mm vertical A$540 plus GSTHalf page 90mm horizontal x 260mm vertical or 180mm horizontal x 130mm

vertical A$285 plus GSTQuarter page 90mm horizontal x 130mm vertical or 180mm horizontal x 65mm

vertical A$195 plus GSTInsert Any size upto A4 A$340 plus GST

Please note: Advertising and insert prices are ex-GST and are subject to change without notice.Camera-ready artwork should be delivered by 30 April of the year of publication to the editor.AGTA website: <www.agta.asn.au>

Documents

Whole School Approaches to Sustainability - Geographical Education