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 Philosophical Ethics The nature of ethical analysis Discussion based on Johnson, Computer Ethics, Chapter 2.

Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

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Page 1: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Philosophical EthicsThe nature of ethical analysis

Discussion based on Johnson, Computer Ethics, Chapter 2.

Page 2: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

How to resolve ethical issues?• censorship• abortion• affirmative actionHow do we defend our moral opinions?

Page 3: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Foundations of Ethics• Terminology

– Ethics (from , character)

– Moral

– Choice: assumes free will• Rocks, Plants, Animals

• Persons

– Making choices: deciding (do, not do action)

Page 4: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Foundations of Ethics (cont'd)

• Role of intellect

• Role of will

• Distinction

– Principles

– Application of principles

Page 5: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Foundations of Ethics (cont'd)

• Principles of right and wrong

– Right: oriented towards good

– Wrong: oriented against good

– Good: what is it?

Page 6: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Foundations of Ethics (cont'd)

• Levels of goodness

– Pleasure, health: both good.  May conflict.

• Humans always choose actions for the sake of what is good in them

• What is highest good?

Page 7: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Foundations of Ethics (cont'd)

• The Good

– Candidates?

• Happiness

• Fulfillment

– What is human nature?

Page 8: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Foundations of Ethics (cont'd)– What is human nature?

• Body

• Intellect

• Free will

• Social nature

Page 9: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Foundations of Ethics (cont'd)– Purpose of life? Make use of freedom in ways 

that help us to remain free.

– Life's goals

– Other goals?

• Health

• Knowledge and understanding

• Social relations

Page 10: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Foundations of Ethics (cont'd)– Particular kinds of choices

• Material goods

• Intellectual goods

• Free will

• Social aspects

Page 11: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Philosophical analysis• Examine reasons for our beliefs• Articulate, and then critically analyze• Consistency

– Views on captial punishment and abortion

• Dialectic process:– Claim, argument, critical examination

Page 12: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Example: “Euthanasia is wrong”• Ethical principle?  “Human life has highest 

value.”• Boundary cases:

– Patient conscious, in extreme pain.– Patient unconscious, severely brain­damaged.– Patient terminally ill.– Patient young or elderly.

Page 13: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Example (cont'd)• Is taking a human life ever justified?

– War– Captial punishment

• Revised principle– Can't take a human life except in self­defense 

or to save another human life.

Page 14: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Descriptive vs. normative claims• Descriptive: Empirical statement of fact, 

subject to verification.• Normative:  What people ought to do 

(prescriptive).• Social sciences are descriptive.• Philosophical ethics is normative.• Example: Software copying.

Page 15: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Ethical Relativism• “What's right for you may not be right for 

me.”• Arguments in favor of ethical relativism:

– Different cultures have different cultural norms.– A society's norms may change over time.– People acquire their moral ideas from their 

culture.

Page 16: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Ethical Relativism (cont'd):• Arguments opposing ethical relativism:

– “Is” does not imply “ought.”– Cultural differences not as great as they seem.– Some underlying principles widely accepted:

• Seek what fulfills you as a human being• Treat others with respect

– Norms change as people work out logical outcomes of ethical systems.

Page 17: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Ethical Relativism (cont'd):• More fundamental problems:

– The relativist view is absolute!• Everyone should respect ethical systems of others.

– How to decide which group one belongs to?– No guidance when new issues arise.

• Relativism: lack of an ethical theory.

Page 18: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Ethical Relativism: Case Study• IBM Germany sold tabulating machinery to 

the Nazis in WW2.• You (an employee) are assigned to this 

task.  • You are aware of the Nazi racial policies.• Ethical relativism: Should you participate in 

this task?

Page 19: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Case Study (cont'd)• Ethical relativism:

– What are the standards of your society? – Suppose your society agrees with Nazi policy.  

Are you allowed to rebel against these standards if you think they're wrong?

• If you choose to participate, how would your American friend react to your justification?

Page 20: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Categories of ethical theories• Two categories for judging actions:

– Consequentialist: judge in terms of its consequences.  An act may be justified if circumstances warrant.

– Deontological: judge by rightness/wrongness of act itself.  Some acts are never justified.

Page 21: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Utilitarianism• “Choose actions resulting in the greatest 

good overall.”– “Good” can include intangibles (e.g., 

happiness).– Problem: can be used to justify harming the few 

to benefit the many.

Page 22: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Utilitiarianism (cont'd)• Two kinds of goods:

– Instrumental: useful for achieving other goods– Intrinsic: useful or desirable in themselves

• With respect to ethical theories:– Only intrinsic goods are or primary importance.– Instrumental goods important only insofar as 

they contribute to obtaining intrinsic goods.

Page 23: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Utilitarianism (cont'd)• Useful for analyzing situations in which 

intrinsic goods depend on quantifiable instrumental goods.– Apportioning funding for computers in schools 

where resources are limited.– Deciding who gets organ transplants when 

supply is limited.

Page 24: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Utilitariansim (cont'd)• Too many possible individual acts• Use rules of behavior

– Rule­utilitarians: adopt rules that maximize happiness

• Tell the truth• Keep your promises• Don't reward behavior that causes pain to others

Page 25: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Utilitariansim (cont'd)– Act­utlitarians: There may be exceptions to a 

rule.• Rules are merely “rules of thumb”.• Individual actions matter more than rules.

– Lying may be better than telling the truth.

– Utilitarian grounds for society's laws?– Utilitariansim and relativism

Page 26: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Utilitariansim (cont'd)• Less satisfactory in situations where 

competing goods are hard to quantify:– Cost of cleaning air vs. number of deaths due 

to lung disease.– Personal privacy vs. public safety.

Page 27: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Utilitarian Case Study• Monitoring employee email.

Policy Costs Benefits

No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trustMisuse difficult to prevent Morale highestAllows personal use of emailw/o company knowledge

Monitoring Violates privacy Protects against lawsuitsWith Notice Diminishes trust Prevents or reduces misuse

Lowers morale

Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

Page 28: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Utilitarian Case Study (cont'd)

• Conclusions:– All three are probably legal.– All three may be ethical according to utilitarian 

principles.

• Which is best?

Page 29: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Deontological Theories• Utilitarianism: consequences of rule 

determine right or wrong• Deontological ( + ) theories: 

principle inherent in the action determines right or wrong

Page 30: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Kantian Ethics• Categorical imperative:  Treat other 

persons as ends in themselves, not merely as means to an end.– a/k/a “golden rule”

• A person is a moral agent.• A person can make rational decisions.• Happiness is not the greatest good!

Page 31: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Kantian Ethics (cont'd)• Example: Killing a person

– Utilitarian objection– Kantian objection

• Exceptions?• Killing vs. murdering?

Page 32: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Kantian Case Study• Monitoring employee email.

Policy Costs Benefits

No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trustMisuse difficult to prevent Morale highestAllows personal use of emailw/o company knowledge

Monitoring Violates privacy Protects against lawsuitsWith Notice Diminishes trust Prevents or reduces misuse

Lowers morale

Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

Page 33: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Kantian Case Study (cont'd)

• Conclusions:– All three are probably legal.– Monitoring w/o notice is not ethical on 

deontological theories.– Deontological theory allows the other two 

policies.– Utilitarian theory can help to choose one.

• Which is best?

Page 34: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Rights• Generally associated with deontological 

theories.• Can be justified on utilitarian grounds.• Legal vs. moral rights.

Page 35: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Rights (cont'd)• Classification:

– Negative (e.g., my right to not get killed)– Positive (e.g., my right to life)

• More controversial: can lead to counter­intuitive implications

• Rights via a social contract theory

Page 36: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Rights (cont'd)• Rawlsian justice (J. Rawls, A Theory of 

Justice, 1971)– Distributive justice– Problem: We all want rules that favor us.– Veil of ignorance: must make rules for generic 

human beings

Page 37: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Rights (cont'd)– Basic rules of Rawlsian justice:

• Each person should have an equal right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with a similar liberty for others.

• Social and economic inequalities should be arranged so that they are both

– reasonably expected to to everyone's advantage,  and– attached to positions and offices open to all.

Page 38: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Virtue Ethics• What is a good person?• What are the virtues associated with being 

a good person?– Courage

• What is courage?

• Addresses moral character• Professional ethics (good computer 

professional)

Page 39: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Individual and Social Policy Ethics

• Macro problems: for groups of people– Should the U.S. grant software creators a legal 

right to own software?

• Micro problems: for individuals– Should I make a copy of this software?

• Should be clear as to which level we're addressing

Page 40: Why Computer Ethics? - Fordhamagw/cyberethics/slides/johnson/ch02.pdf · No Monitoring Lack of control Environment of trust ... Monitoring Violates privacy Best chance to catch misuse

   

Conclusion• We now shift to ethical issues surrounding 

ICT, but stil concerned about general questions of ethical theories

• Both science and ethics are refining processes

• Computer ethics: traditional moral concepts, along with new features